THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Reproduction which is an essential feature of living things requires functional male and female reproductive
systems to ensure the production of offspring and the continuity of life. The testes in males and the ovaries in
females constitute the primary sex organs or gonads. They produce the sex cells, or gametes, and secrete
various steroid hormones commonly called sex hormones. Outside the testes and ovaries, the remaining
reproductive structures - ducts, glands, and external genitalia make up the accessory reproductive organs.
Although the male and female reproductive organs differ in many ways, their common aim is to produce
offspring.

The functions of the reproductive system are summarized below;

1. Production of gametes - specialized organs of the reproductive system produce gametes: sperm cells
in males and oocytes (eggs) in females.
2. Fertilization - the reproductive system enables fertilization of the oocyte by the sperm. The duct
system in males nourishes sperm cells until they are mature and are deposited in the female reproductive tract
by the penis. The female reproductive system receives the sperm cells from the male and transports them to
the fertilization site.
3. Development and nourishment of a new individual - the female reproductive system nurtures the
developing fetus in the uterus until birth and provides nourishment (milk) after birth.

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4. Production of reproductive hormones - hormones produced by the reproductive system control its
development and the development of the gender-specific body form. These hormones are also essential for
the normal function of the reproductive system and for reproductive behavior.

ORGANS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system has components in the abdomen, pelvis and perineum. It consists of a network
of organs, ducts and tubules that function; (i) in the production, maturation and storage of spermatozoa (ii) in
the delivery of spermatozoa in semen into the female reproductive tract where fertilization can occur. The
primary sex organs of the male reproductive system are the sperm-producing testes or male gonads. Other
structures include; scrotum, penis, a system of ducts including (in order) the epididymis, ductus (vas)
deferens, ejaculatory duct, and finally the urethra, which opens to the outside at the tip of the penis. It also
has 3 accessory sex glands, which empty their secretions into the ducts during ejaculation. They are the
seminal glands, prostate, and bulbo-urethral glands.

THE SCROTUM
This is a fibromuscular pouch (sac) of pigmented skin (covered with sparse hairs) that contains the oval testes
and associated structures. It is located postero-inferior to the penis, inferior to the pubic symphysis and in
front of the upper parts of the thighs. Externally, the scrotum has a longitudinal midline ridge known as
scrotal raphe which extends from the anus, over the scrotal sac and onto the inferior (ventral) surface of the
body of the penis. The scrotal raphe indicates the line of fusion between the labioscrotal swellings in the
fetus.

Layers – the scrotum consists of 2 layers; (i) heavily pigmented skin with sparse hairs (ii) Dartos fascia – this
layer is closely related to the pigmented skin. It is a fat-free fascial layer including the dartos muscle (smooth
muscle fibres). The dartos muscle is responsible for the rugose (wrinkled) appearance of the scrotum. Its
contraction causes the scrotum to wrinkle in cold weather, causing the scrotal skin to become thickened
thereby reducing the scrotal surface area. This action reduces testicular heat loss. Because viable sperm
cannot be produced in abundance at core body temperature (37°C), the superficial location of the scrotum,
which provides a temperature about 3°C lower, is an essential adaptation.

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The scrotum is divided into two compartments by an incomplete septum which is an extension of the dartos
fascia.

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Blood supply
1. Anterior scrotal arteries - terminal branches of the external pudendal artery from the femoral artery.
2. Posterior scrotal arteries - terminal branches (of superficial perineal branches) of the internal pudendal
artery.
3. Cremasteric arteries - branches of the inferior epigastric arteries.
Venous drainage
1. Anterior scrotal veins
2. Posterior scrotal veins
Lymphatic drainage
Lymphatic vessels from the scrotum drain into the superficial inguinal lymph nodes
Innervations
1. Anterior scrotal nerves
2. Posterior scrotal nerves

THE TESTES
The testes which represent the male gonads are a paired of oval or egg-shaped reproductive glands that
produce the sperm cells (exocrine function) and male sex hormones (endocrine function) especially the
testosterone. The testes are the equivalent of the ovaries in the female. They measure about 4-5cm long, 2-
3cm wide and 3cm thick and weighs about 10-20grams. The testicles are suspended in the scrotum by the
spermatic cord, with the left testis usually hanging lower than the right.

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Coverings (testicular layers)
Each testis is covered by 3 layers of tissues; (1) Tunica vaginalis (2) Tunica albuginea (3) Tunica
vasculosa

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1. Tunica vaginalis – this is the outermost tunic or covering of the testes. It is a double layered
membrane consisting of parietal and visceral layers. The tunica vaginalis is a downward extension of the
abdominal and pelvic peritoneum. During fetal life, the testes develop in the lumbar region of the abdomen
below the kidneys. However, before birth, they descend into the scrotum taking with them the peritoneal
coverings which eventually surround them in the scrotum as the double layered tunica vaginalis.
2. Tunica albuginea – this is a tough whitish fibrous covering (capsule) beneath the tunica vaginalis. It
thickens to form the mediastinum testis on the internal posterior aspect of the testis. From the mediastinum
testis, fibrous septa extend into the substance of the testis, dividing the testicular glandular structure into
about 300-400 cone shaped lobules. The lobules contain the seminiferous tubules in which sperms are
produced. The mediastinum of the testis also supports the rete testis.
3. Tunica vasculosa – this is the vascular layer of the testis. It consists of a plexus (network) of blood
vessels supported by a delicate connective tissue. It covers the internal surface of the tunica albuginea and
clothes the different septa in the internal structure of the testis.

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Internal Structure of the testis

The fibrous septa of the tunica albuginea divides the internal structure of the testis into about 300-400 lobules,
and within each lobule is contained about 2-4 minute, long and highly convoluted (coiled) seminiferous
tubules lined with germinal epithelial cells. The seminiferous tubules function as the sites of spermatogenesis,
and are joined by straight tubules (tubuli recti) to the rete testis (rete = net) – a network of canals in the
mediastinum of the testis. From the rete testis, sperm leave the testis through the efferent ductules and enter
the epididymis, which firmly attached to the external testis surface posteriorly. The immature sperm pass
through the head, the body, and then move into the tail of the epididymis, where they are stored until
ejaculation.
Surrounding the seminiferous tubules are clusters of endocrine cells known as interstitial cells or Leydig
cells – they secret the hormone testosterone which they release into the surrounding interstitial fluid. Hence,
completely different cell types carry out sperm-producing and hormone-producing actions of the testis.

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Descent of the testis

Around 8 weeks after fertilization, the testes have developed as retroperitoneal abdominal organs, just below
the kidneys. However, between 7 and 9 months of development (about 2 months before birth), they move
through the inguinal canal into the scrotum dragging their blood vessels and nerves along behind them. This
migration is stimulated by the testosterone produced by the fetus’s testes. The migration is mechanically
guided by a strong fibrous cord called the gubernaculum, which extends from the testis and anchors it to the
floor of the labioscrotal swelling (which would later become the scrotum). Other factors responsible for the
descent of the testes are; (1) enlargement of the fetal pelvis (2) elongation of the fetal trunk (3) increase in
intra-abdominal pressure as a result of the growth of abdominal viscera (organs).

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As the testis moves into the scrotum, it is proceeded by a finger-like outpocketing of the peritoneum called
processus vaginalis (vaginal process). The superior part of each processus vaginalis usually degenerates
(between birth and adulthood), while the inferior part remains to form the tunica vaginalis. The
accompanying blood vessels, nerves, and fascial layers form part of the spermatic cord, which helps suspend
the testis within the scrotum.
Descent of the testes through the inguinal canal into the scrotum usually takes about 2 or 3 days. More than
97% of full-term born males have both testes descended into the scrotum. However, most undescended ones
usually descend during the first 3 months after birth.
 Cryptorchidism (undescended testes) – this is the failure of one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) of the
testes to descend into the scrotum, the cause of most cases of cryptorchidism is unknown (idiopathic). It
occurs in up to 30% of premature males and in 3-4% of full term males. If both testes remain undescended,
they fail to mature and sterility results. However, if left uncorrected, these men have a significantly higher
risk of developing germ cell tumors (testicular cancer). Common sites for cryptorchid testes are; in the
abdominal cavity or in the inguinal canal.

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Surgical therapy (to manually move the testes into the scrotum) and gonadotropin therapy (to evoke the
maturation of the external genitals) are usually performed during early childhood to rectify the problem.
Blood supply
By the testicular arteries which arise from the abdominal aorta just inferior to the renal arteries.
Venous drainage
By the pampiniform venous plexus – a network of veins surrounding the testicular artery in the spermatic
cord. The veins of the pampiniform plexus converge superiorly to form the testicular veins.
Lymphatic drainage
The testicular lymph drains into the aortic and pre-aortic lymph nodes.
Innervation
This is provided by the testicular plexus of nerves from the 10th and 11th thoracic nerves.

EPIDIDYMIS
This is an elongated comma–shaped structure on the posterior surface of the testis. It is formed by the
efferent ductules and measures about 5-6m in length. The efferent ductules empty into the duct of the
epididymis which forms tightly compacted minute convolutions with a solid appearance.
Each epididymis consists of; a head, a body and a long tail. The head is the superior expanded portion that is
composed of coiled ends of about 15-20 efferent ductules. The body is the major part consisting of tightly
coiled duct of the epididymis. It contains pseudostratified columnar epithelium with elongated non-motile
microvilli called Stereocilia. The huge surface area of these stereocilia allows them to absorb excess
testicular fluid and to pass nutrients to the many sperm stored temporarily in the lumen. The duct of the
epididymis ends at the tail of the epididymis. The tail is the tapering continuation with the ductus deferens.

The sperm cells that leave the testis into the epididymis are immature and nearly non-motile. They are moved
slowly through the duct of the epididymis through fluid that contains several kinds of antimicrobial proteins,
including defensins. Final maturation of the sperms occurs within the epididymis. Structural and functional
changes take place in the sperm cells as they travel through the epididymis (a trip that takes about 20 days), –
they develop/acquire; (1) ability to move (motility) (2) ability to bind to the zona pellucida of the oocyte and
fertilize it (3) a further reduction in cytoplasm and maturation of the acrosome.
Sperm can be stored in the epididymis for several months. If they are held longer, epithelial cells of the
epididymis eventually phagocytose them. This is not a problem for the man, as sperm are generated
continuously. Sperm cells are ejaculated from the epididymis and not from the testis. Sexual stimulation in
male causes the smooth muscles in the duct of the epididymis to contract expelling the sperm cells.
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SPERMATIC CORD

The spermatic cord contains structures running to and from the restis and suspends the restis in the scrotum.
It begins at the deep inguinal ring, passes through the inguinal canal and exits at the superficial inguinal ring.
It then ends at the posterior border of the testis in the scrotum.
Coverings of the spermatic cord
The coverings of the spermatic cord include (1) The external spermatic fascia – derived from the external
oblique aponeurosis and its covering (investing) fascia (2) The cremaster muscle - an extension of the
muscle fibers of the internal abdominal oblique muscle of the abdomen (3)The internal spermatic fascia –
derived from the transversalis fascia
Contents of the spermatic cord
The spermatic cord contains (1) The ductus deferens (2) The testicular artery (3) Pampiniform (venous)
plexus (4) Lymphatic vessels (5) Nerves (6) Fibrous remnants of the process vaginalis (7) Cremasteric
artery

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THE PENIS

The penis is the male copulatory organ through which sperm cells in semen are conveyed from the male to
the female. It also provides an outlet for urine and together with the scrotum, make up the external
reproductive structures, or external genitalia of the male. The penis consists of an attached root, a free
pendulous (swinging) body or shaft and glans (glans penis), which is the enlarged end of the shaft or body.
The skin of the penis is loose which allows it to slide. Beneath the skin, the penis is composed of 3 long
cylindrical columns of erectile tissues or bodies (corpora). They are (1) the paired corpora cavernosa
dorsally (2) the single corpus spongiosum ventrally.
These erectile tissues are a spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle riddled with vascular
spaces. During sexual excitement, the vascular spaces fill with blood, causing the penis to enlarge and
become rigid. This condition, called erection, enables the penis to serve as a penetrating organ.

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The corpus spongiosum expands to form a cap, known as the glans penis over the distal end of the penis.
The spongy urethra passes through the corpus spongiosum, penetrates the glans penis and opens as the
external urethral opening (orifice). Proximally, at the base of the penis, the corpus spongiosum expands to
form the part of the root called the bulb of the penis. The sheet-like bulbospongiosus muscle covers the
bulb externally and secures it to the urogenital diaphragm.
The corpora cavernosa are the erectile columns that form the dorsum and sides of the penis. They are fused
with each in the midian plane, except posteriorly where they separate to form the crura (singular = crus) of
the penis.
The root (base) of the penis is the attached part. Here, the corpus spongiosum expands forming the bulb.
Each corpus cavernosum expands to form the crus of the penis, which connects the penis to the pelvic bones.
Together, the bulb of the penis and the crura of the penis constitute the root of the penis.
A thinner layer of skin tightly covers the glans with well supplied sensory receptors. A loose fold of skin
called the prepuce or foreskin covers the glans penis.
The prepuce or foreskin is surgically removed in many cultures after birth, a procedure known as
circumcision. Although there are no compelling medical reasons for circumcision, report shows that
uncircumcised males have a higher occurrence of penile cancer. However, the underlying causes are related
to chronic infections and poor hygiene.
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DUCTUS DEFERENS
The ductus deferens (vas deferens) is the continuation of the duct of epididymis. It is the primary component
of the spermatic cord and it begins in the tail of the epididymis, at the inferior pole of the testis. It ascends
along the posterior side of the testis, medial to the epididymis. It penetrates the anterior abdominal wall
through the inguinal canal and ends by joining the duct of the seminal gland to form the ejaculatory duct.
Near the prostate gland, the end of the ductus deferens enlarges to form an ampulla. The lumen of the ductus
deferens is lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which is surrounded by smooth muscle.
Peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle help propel sperm cells through the ductus deferens.
EJACULATORY DUCT
This is a slender tube about 2.5cm long that arises by the union of the ducts of the seminal glands with the
ductus deferens. The ejaculatory ducts arise near the neck of the bladder, and run close together and converge
to open in the prostatic urethra.
Although the ejaculatory ducts traverse the prostate, prostatic secretions do not join the seminal fluid until the
ejaculatory ducts have terminated in the prostatic urethra.

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THE URETHRA
The male urethra provides a common passage way for both semen and urine. It measures about 19-20cm in
length and extends from the urinary bladder to the terminal end of the penis. It is divided into 3 parts; (1) the
prostatic urethra (2) the membranous urethra (3) the spongy urethra.
The prostatic urethra begins at the urethral orifice (opening) of the bladder and passes through the prostate
gland. It is widest and most dilatable part and measures about 3-4cm in length. About 15-30 small ducts from
the prostate gland and 2 ejaculatory ducts empty into the prostatic urethra, hence, urinary and reproductive
tracts merge in this part.

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The membranous (intermediate) urethra is the shortest and narrowest part of the urethra and measures
about 1-1.5cm in length. It extends from the prostate gland to the bulb of the penis.

The spongy (penile) urethra measures about 15cm in length and passes within the corpus spongiosum of the
penis and terminates at the urethral orifice in the glans penis. It is the longest and most mobile part, and
contains the opening of the bulbo-urethral (in the bulbous part) and urethral glands (mucus secreting).

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THE ACCESSORY GLANDS
These are exocrine glands that secrete materials into the ducts of the male reproductive tract. They are; (1)
the seminal glands (vesicles) (2) the prostate gland (3) the bulbo-urethral glands

The Seminal Glands

These are two small elongated fibromuscular sac-shaped (pouches) glands located on the posterior aspect of
the bladder. They are obliquely placed superior to the prostate and measures about 5cm in length, about the
shape and length of a little finger. At its lower end, each seminal vesicle narrows into a short excretory duct
that joins the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.
The seminal glands do not store sperms, but secrete a thick yellowish alkaline mucus-like fluid during
ejaculation known as seminal fluid that contains (1) fructose sugar – which acts as energy source for sperm
cells (2) a coagulating agent (fibrinogen) that mixes with the sperms as they pass into the ejaculatory ducts
and urethra and cause a weak coagulation reaction of the semen immediately after ejaculation. Other
components of the seminal fluid may include; citric acid, prostaglandins (that causes uterine contraction to
aid sperm transport in the female reproductive tract), nutrients and other substances that nourishes and
increase sperm motility or fertilizing ability.
The seminal fluid forms about 60-70% of the volume of semen. Its alkaline nature protects the sperm cells in
the acidic environment o the vagina.

The Prostate Gland

It is the largest accessory gland of the male reproductive system and measures about 3cm in length and 4cm
in wideness. The prostate gland resembles the walnut in both shape and size and consists of both glandular
and muscular tissues. It is located behind the pubic symphysis and in front of the rectum. It lies at the base of
the urinary bladder where it surrounds the prostatic urethra and the two ejaculatory ducts. The gland weighs
about 8g in the youth, but progressively enlarges (hypertrophies) with age and is likely to weigh about 40g by
the age of 50.
The prostatic gland secretes a thin, milky fluid known as prostatic fluid which makes up about 20-30% of
the volume of the semen, and gives it its milky appearance. It is a slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate (a
nutrient source), several enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) – which liquefies or breaks down
seminal fluid coagulum and dissolves cervical mucus. The prostatic fluid also contains a clotting enzyme,
which thickens the semen in the vagina, increasing the likelihood of semen being retained close to the cervix.

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The Bulbo-urethral Glands (Cowper’s glands)
They are two pea-sized small mucous glands located near the membranous (intermediate) urethra. The ducts
of the bulbo-urethral glands open through minute apertures into the proximal part of the spongy urethra in the
bulb of the penis. They secrete mucus-like secretions that enter the urethra during sexual arousal. This
alkaline mucous secretion lubricates the urethra, neutralizes the contents of the normally acidic spongy
urethra, provides a small amount of lubrication during intercourse, and helps reduce vaginal acidity.
In young males, each gland is about the size of a pea, but they decrease in size with age and are almost
impossible to detect in older men.

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