Diploma in pharmacy 1st year NOTES Human Anatomy and Physiology

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 Diploma in Pharmacy 1st Year
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 1
15 : Reproductive System
Topics Page No
Reproductive System 3
Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System 3
Anatomy and Physiology of Female Reproductive System 5
Breasts (Mammary Glands) 8
Physiology of Menstruation 9
Gametogenesis 10
Spermatogenesis 10
REPRODUCTION 11

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 human anatomy anD physiology
Chapter 15
Reproductive System
 Humans are sexually reproducing, unisexual, and viviparous (development of the embryo
inside the body of the parent). Both males and females have distinct reproductive organs
(gonads), reproductive ducts, and accessory structures.

Anatomy
my and Physiology of Male Reproductive System

Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System

 The male reproductive system involves primarily in producing male gametes (ie., sperm) and
delivering them to the female reproductive tract.
 The secondary function of male reproductive system is secretion of hormones (e.g.,
androgens).
 The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region and consists of
1) Scrotum and a pair of testes,
2) Accessory ducts,
3) Glands, and
4) External
Scrotum and Testes
 The testes (singular testis) are located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
scrotum
 which is a deeply pigmented skin, made up of fibrous and connective tissues, and smooth
muscles.
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  Scrotum has two compartments, each con containing
taining a testis, an epididymis, and the testicular end
of the spermatic cord.
 Scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of testes (2 (2-2.5°C
C lower than the normal
internal body temperature) required for spermatogenesis.
 Testes, the male reproductivee glands are the equivalent of female ovaries.
 They are oval-shaped
shaped and are 4.5cm in length, 2.5cm in width, and 3cm in thickness.
 The inner area of each testis is divided into 200200-300
300 testicular lobules and within each lobule 1-1
4 convoluted loops are present.
 These loops are made up of seminiferous tubules (germinal epithelial (cells) which are lined
from within by two types of cellcells, namely:
1) Male Germ Cells (Spermatogonia): These cells undergo meiotic divisions to form sperm.
2) Sertoli Cells: These cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.
 The spaces around the seminiferous tubules are known as interstitial spaces, occupied by small
blood vessels and interstitial or Leydig cells.
Functions
1) Testes produce sperm.
2) The Leydig cells of testes secrete testosterone.
Accessory Ducts
The accessory ducts included in the male reproductive system are:
1) Rete Testis
2) Vasa Efferentia
ia or Efferent Ductules
3) Epididymis
4) Spermatic
5) Vas Deferens or Ductus Deferens or Deferent Duct
6) Seminal Vesicles
7) Ejaculatory
Glands
The male accessory glands include
1) Prostate Gland
2) Bulbourethral
ourethral (or Cowper's) Glands
External Ge
Genitalia (Penis)
Penis is the male external genitalia. which suspends anterior and lateral to the pubic arch and
contains the greater part of urethra. When flaccid it is cylindrical
cylindrical-shaped,
shaped, but when erect it appears as
a triangle having round angles, one si side
de of which forms a dorsum, Penis consists of special tissue that
helps in its erection, thus facilitate insemination. The enlarged end of the penis is called the glans
penis, which is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
Functions
1) Penis provides
vides a passage for urine.
2) It also releases sperm in the female reproductive tract to fertilise ovum.

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 Anatomy and Physiology of Female Reproductive System

The different parts of female reproductive system are enlisted below :

1) External genitalia (vulva),
2) Internal genitalia
i) Vagina,
ii) Uterus,
iii) Uterine tubes, and
iv) Ovaries.

External Genitalia (Vulva)

The external genitals of females are collectively known as vulva and include the following parts:
 The mons pubis is a pad of fatty tissue present towards the anterior, over the pubic bone. It
gets covered with pubic hair after puberty,
 The labia majora are folds of hair
hair-covered
covered skin which extend posteriorly from the monus pubis
and surround the vaginal opening

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  The labia minora are more pigmented, paired folds of tissue under the labia majora. They
protect the female urethra and the entrance of female reproductive tract,
 The clitoris (or glans clitoris) is a small finger like structure, present at the upper junction of
the
 two labia minora above the urethral opening. This organ is made up of the same cells as the
glans penis.
 Hymen is a thin membrane which partially covers the vaginal opening (located between the
urethral opening and anus.
 The borders of vaginal opening have outlets to the Bartholin's glands (or greater vestibular
glands).
Internal Genitalia
Following are the internal genitals of the female lying in the pelvic cavity:
1) A vagina,
2) A uterus,
3) Two uterine tubes, and
4) Two ovaries.
Vagina
Vagina is an elastic, muscular tube which joins the uteri cervix with the vulva opening outside the
body.
It is located in the pelvic region posterior to the (urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum.
It is around 31 inches long and less than an inch in diameter.
Vagina is capable of becoming several inches longer and many inches wider during sexual intercourse
and childbirth.
The inner lining of vagina is made of non
non-keratinised
keratinised stratified squamous epithelial
epithe tissue, providing
protection against friction to the underlying vaginal layers.
Functions
1) Vagina receives the penis during intercourse.
2) It provides for a passage blood during menstruation.
3) It also provides a passage for the baby to pass during partuntion.
Uterus
 Uterus is present within the pelvic region between the bladder and rectum,
 It is a hollow muscular organ having thick walls.
 Fallopian tubes drain into the upper portion of the uterus on both the sides while vagina is
connected with its hollow part.
 The released ovum reaches the uterine cavity via fallopian fertilised ovum implants itself the
uterus for completion of prenatal growth.
 The length and breadth of upper part and ththee thickness of uterus is 7.5cm. 5cm, and 2.5cm,
respectively. The weight of uterus is 30
30-40gm
Uterus is made up of the following three Parts
 Fundus: It is the uppermost rounded between the two uterine tubes.
 Body: It is the part extending from the fundus tto the cervix
 Cervix: It is the lower narrow part continuous with the body through internal os (mouth) and
with through external
The thick uterus wall is made up of three layers
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 1) Perimetrium or Peritoneum
2) Myometrium
3) Endometrium

Functions
1) Uterusus receives the fertilised ovum, retains the foetus during pregnancy, and providing
nourishment
2) expels the foetus at the end of pregnancy by contracting its muscular walls.
3) It is also involved in menstruation.
Uterine/ Fallopian Tubes (Oviduct)
 Each fallopian tube is around 10
10-12cm
12cm long and Icm in diameter that extends from the
periphery of each ovary to the uterus. The paired fallopian tubes are present on the upper
margin of broad ligament on either side. They range from the superior angle of the
t uterus to
the side of pelvis.
 Fallopian tubes are divided into three parts
1) Isthmus
2) Ampulla
3 ) Infundibulum
Functions
1) Fallopian tubes collect the released ovum and carry it to the uterus with the help of cilia
present on the inner surface.
2)) They also convey the fertilised egg to the uterus for implantation.
3) They provide the site of fertilisation.
4) They secrete a fluid which nurtures the ovum while it travels into the uterus cavity.
Ovaries
Ovaries are oval-shaped
shaped paired organs present on either side of the uterus in the pelvis.
These are the primary female sex organs and produce the female gamete (ovum).
Several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones) are also secreted by ovaries.
Each ovary is about 2-4cm
4cm long and is positioned on each side of the lower abdomen.
The inner side of the ovariess is covered by a thin epitheliu
epithelium
Functions
1) Ovaries release the female gametes or ovum.
2) They secrete cestrogens and progestine.
3) They also secrete inhibin which participates in feedback control of pituitary FSH
production

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 Breasts (Mammary Glands)
 A mammary gland is a characteristic of all mammals but is functional only in females (in males
they are undeveloped) The mammary glan glands
ds are paired structures of glandular, fibrous, and
fatty tissues
 Around 20 lobes of glandular tissue are present in each breast, and each lobe consists of a few
lobules surrounding the nipple. The lobules have a cluster of alveoll containing cells which
secrete
ecrete milk stored in alveolar cavities (lumens). Alveoli open into small ducts known as
mammary tabules. Several mammary tubules fuse to form a mammary duct; these ducts meet
at the centre of the breast to form milk reservoirs ( or lactiferous sinus). From
Fro cach Lactiferous
sinus. narrow duct (or lactiferous ducts) opens on the nipple surface, through which milk is
sucked out. The glandular tissue and ducts are supported by the fibrous tissue. The entire
surface of breasts is covered with fatty tissue found between the lobes.
 Nipple is a small conical projection present at the centre of the breast. A dark pigmented area
termed areola surrounds the nipple. The areolar surface has a number of schaceous glands
(known as Montgomery's tubercles). which are respon
responsible
sible for lubricating the nipple during
lactation.

Functions
 Breasts are considered sexual but are not a part of the female reproductive system. The
mammary glands produce milk to feed the baby

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 Physiology of Menstruation
 Menstrual cycle or menstruation involves physiological changes occurring periodically in
females.
 Menarche is the first menstruation which begins at puberty, Le.. between 8-16 8 years of age.
 Menopause is the phase when menstruation stops permanently at th thee end of a woman's
reproductive life. In females, the cycle is repeated at an (average interval of about 28/29 days.
During the middle of each menstrual cycle, ovulation occurs, thus one ovum is released.
The major events of the menstrual cycle are
i. Menstrual Phase: This phase is characterised by vaginal bleeding, known as menstruation (or
menstrual bleeding, menses, or periods) occurring in non non-pregnant
pregnant women only. It starts on
every 28th day and lasts for 33-55 days. If the mature egg does not gets fertilized, the level
le of
progesterone and estrogen decreases in the body, thus releasing the oxytocin hotmone. This
hormone stimulates contractions and leads to drainage of blood out of the The innermost layer
of uterus, ite.. endometrium, also sheds off and comes out with the blood.

ii. Follicular Phase: This phase starts from the 6th day and ends on the 14th day. During this
phase, the uterus lining becomes thick due to the increasing amounts of oestrogen. The
development of ovarian follicles is stimulated by a complex inter
interaction
action between the hormones.
iii. After some days, one or sometimes two follicles become dominant and the non-dominant
non ones
die. The dominant follicle undergoes ovulation. The matured follicles secrete estradiol (an
oestrogen) in increasing amounts. A new endom
endometrium
etrium layer the proliferative (histologically
identified endometrium) develops in the uterus under the influence of estradiol.

iv. Ovulation Phase: In this phase, a matured egg secretes estradiol in amounts sufficient
enough to trigger Luteinizing Hormone ((LH) LH) release. Flow of this hormone begins around the
12 day of menstrual cycle and lasts for 48 hours. The release of LH weakens the walls of ovarian
follicles, thus they rupture and release the mature ovum. The released ovum is captured by the
fallopian tube
be which is the fertilisation site for divum und sperm The eps if remain unfenilised
disintegrates or dissolves in the uterus with time.

v. Luteal Phases In this prise, corpus luteum is formed. After ovulation, the pituitary hormones
convert the residual follicle
licle into corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and oestrogens
for next 2 works Progesterone converts the proliferative endometrium into a secretory lining
for implantation and supporting the early pregnancy. A fertilised egg in the form of an early
blastocyst passes through the fallopian tube and implants itself in the uterine cavity after 6-12
6
days of ovulation.

vi. Fertile period (tline with the highest possibility of pregnancy) ranges from 5 days before
ovulation till 12 days after ovulation. In an average 28 days cycle.with a 14 day luteal phase, this
begins from the 2nd or the 3rd week of the cycle

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 Gametogenesis
 The process of meiotic division involved in the formation of gametes is known as
gametogenesis.
 The primary sex organs (testes in ma males
les and ovaries in females) produce gametes, ie, sperms
and ovum, respectively.
 Gametogenesis in females is known as oogenesis (formation of ovum) and in males it is known
as spermatogenesis (formation of sperms).
Gonads are the sites of gametogenesis occ
occurring in the following steps:
1) Multiple mitotic divisions of cell and growth of precursor germ cells,
2) Two meiotic divisions (meiosis I and II) for producing haploid daughter cells, and
3) Differentiation of haploid daughter cells for producing func
functional
tional gametes
Spermatogenesis
 Production of male gametes or sperm is termed spermatogenesis, which consists of two
processes:
 Meiosis : Diploid stem cells present at the outer edge. of seminiferous tubules are termed
spermatogonia, which undergo repeated mitosis before puberty to produce large number of
other spermatogonia; while spermatogonia undergoing repeated mitosis at puberty A and B
results in the formation of types A and spermatogonium. To prevent the spermatogonia from
getting depleted, type A spermatogonium
rmatogonium remains at the tubule periphery; while the type B
undergoes meiotic division in which its DNA replicates resulting in a primary spermatocyte.
This spermatocyte further undergoes meiosis 1 to produce two haploid secondary
spermatocytes. These spermatocytes
ermatocytes then undergo meiosis II to produce. four haploid
spermatids (round cells with no tail).

 Spermiogenesis : The converting process of spermatids mature sperm is termed process only
involves into spermiogenesis.

Sperm
 Spermiogenesis results in the formation of a sperm cell divided into three regions, i.e., the
head, mid-piece, and tail.
 Head contains DNA and acrosome which contains enzymes helping the sperm to permeate the
female egg.
 Mid-piece/body
piece/body is a block contain
containing
ing mitochondria which provides energy to the sperm to
swim.
 Tail is a type of flagellum which helps the sperm to move in the female reproductive tract by its
whip-like movements.
 A healthy adult male produces around 400 million sperm per day via spermatogenesis
spermato
occurring in the seminiferous tubules.

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 Oogenesis
 Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage of the female child, and
Primordial Gamete Cell (PGC) undergoes mitotic division to form oogonia (i.e., diploid stem
cells of ovaries).
 During the embryonic development stage, millions of oogon oogonia ia are formed within each foetal
ovary; no more oogonia are formed after birth.
 The oogonia start dividing and enter into prophase
prophase-II of the meiotic division, forming primary
oocytes (chromosome number 2N).
 From birth to puberty, a large number of these fo follicles
llicles get degenerated and thus at the time of
puberty only 60,000-80,000
80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
 The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new then, and are
called secondary follicles.
 The secondary follicle
ollicle transforms into a tertiary follicle, characterised by a fluid-filled
fluid cavity
called antrum.
 The theca layer becomes double layered, namely an inner theca interna and an outer theca
externa.
 At this stage, the primary oocyte within the tertiary follfollicle
icle grows in size and completes its first
meiotic division.
 It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid secondary oocyte and a
small first polar body.
 The secondary oocyte possesses bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
 The first polar body undergoes either meiosis II to yield two smaller polar bodies or simple
disintegration, while the secondary oocyte waits to complete meiosis 11 until is fertilised by a
sperm.
 If sperm does not impregnate the secondary oocyte, it completes meiosis II and yields an ovum
and a second polar body. The process of oogenesis results in 4 haploid cells, out of which only
one (i.e. the ovum) is a functional gamete.
REPRODUCTION
The process of reproduction in humans relies on sexual intercourse between a male and a female,
although there are exceptions to this. Practices and behaviors surrounding human reproduction vary
widely across cultures, but in every case, it involves sperm, an ovum (egg), a uterus and a baby. The
steps involved
nvolved in reproduction process are:
1) Fertilisation
2) Cleavage of the zygote
3) Blastocyst formation
4) Implantation
5) Pregnancy
6) Parturition
Fertilisation.
 Fusion of sperm (male gamete released into the vaginal during intercourse) with the egg is
termed fertilisation Fertilisation occurs in the ampulla of the fallopian tube. Semen is released
into the vagina during copulation (or (coitus) Around 300 million sperms are present in the
semen, out of which only a few hundreds of them travel to the ampuampulla
lla by their tail movements
and uterus peristaltic action. Sperms take 5 minutes to reach the fallopian tube, survive for 1-3
1
days, and fertilise the released ovum within. 12
12-24 hours of ovulation.
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 Cleavage of the Zygote
 Once the fertilisation process is over, the zygote undergoes cleavage (rapid mitotic cell
divisions)The first division begins 24 hours
 after fertilisation and takes around 6 hours to complete. The further divisions occur in
comparatively less time. The second cleavage completes by the 2 da dayy after fertilisation
resulting in four cells and by the 3rd day after fertilisation, 16 cells are formed. The smaller
cells produced by cleavage are called blastomeres. Continuous cleavages of the zygote result in
a morula (a solid sphere of cells surrou
surrounded
nded by the zona pellucida and is almost the same size
as the original zygote)
Blastocyst Formation
 The number of cells in morula increases by the 4 day after fertilisation as it keeps moving
forward in the fallopian tube to reach the uterus. By the 5 day after fertilisation the morula
enters the uterus. Now the glands of the uterine endometrium release uterine milk. which
enters the morula by passing through the zona pellucida.
 At the 32-cell
cell stage, this fluid enters the morula, accumulates between the blastomeres,
bla and
arranges them around a blastocyst (a large fluid
fluid-filled cavity
Implantation
 The blastocyst remains free in the uterus for 2 days and then implants itself on the
endometrium which is in its secretory phase. By the 6h day after fertilisation. the
t blastocyst
undergoes Implantation either in the posterior portion of the fundus (uterus body) or towards
the endometrium with the immer cell mass
Pregnancy
 A phase or duration between conception and childbirth, in which one or more offspring in an
embryonal or foetal stage of development are carried inside the bodies of females, is termed
pregnancy. In about 38 weeks from fertilisation, Le, about 40 weeks from the 1 day of last
menstruation, childbirth normally occurs. So, pregnancy lasts for 9 mont
months.
hs. Embryo is the
under-developed
developed human in the initial weeks of pregnancy, and foetus is the developing human
in two months of pregnancy till childbirth.
Parturition/Childbirth
 The final stage of pregnancy is termed parturition or childbirth, which occurs within 15 days of
the due date calculated by the doctor (ie, 280 days from the last menstrual period) The term
labour is used to denote the series of events that expel the infant from the uterus.

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