EC1406 CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 2022-2023

UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Transient response-steady state response-Measures of performance of the standard first
order and second order system- effect on an additional zero and an additional pole-
steady error constant and system- type number-PID control-Analytical design for PD,
PI,PID control systems

Time Response:
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.
 Transient response
 Steady state response

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

c(t)=ctr(t)+css(t)c(t)=ctr(t)+css(t)
Where,
 ctr(t) is the transient response
 css(t) is the steady state response
Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state.
So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response
of the control system during the transient state is known as transient response.
The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity
and practically, it is five times constant.
Mathematically, we can write it as
limt→∞ctr(t)=0limt→∞ctr(t)=0
Steady state Response
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value
for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response
will be zero even during the steady state.
Standard Test Signals:
• In most cases, the input signals to a control system are not known prior to design of
control system
• To analyse the performance of control system it is excited with standard test signals
• These inputs are chosen because they capture many of the possible variations that
can occur in an arbitrary input signal
– Step signal (Sudden change)
– Ramp signal (Constant velocity)
– Parabolic signal (Constant acceleration)
– Impulse signal (Sudden shock)
– Sinusoidal signal
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step signal
A step signal, u(t) is defined as
r(t) =A; t≥0
= 0; t<0
A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as
u(t) =1; t≥0
= 0; t<0
1
L{u (t )} 
s
Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is
one during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of
‘t’.

Ramp Signal:
A ramp signal, r(t) is defined as
r(t) =At; t≥0
= 0; t<0

A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

r(t) =t; t≥0 1
= 0; t<0 L{r (t )}  2
s

the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is
zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

Parabolic Signal
A parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,
r(t) =At2/2 ; t≥0
= 0 ; t<0
A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,
r(t) =t2/2; t≥0
1
= 0; t<0 L{r (t )}  3
s

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the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit parabolic
signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

Impulse Signal
A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as
r(t) =A; t=0
= 0; t≠0
A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as
δ(t) = 1; t=0
= 0; t≠0
L{ (t )}  1

the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for
all other values of ‘t’.

System Representation: A system can be represented in following way

1. Transfer Function in pole zero form
T(s)  K
C(s)
K
s  z1 s  z2 s  z3 ......
R(s) s  p1 s  p2 s  p3 
Where z1,z2,z3, are zeros and p1,p2,p3 are poles
T(s)  K
C(s)
K
1   z1s 1   z 2 s 1   z 3s ......
2. Transfer Function in time constant form
R(s) 1   p1s 1   p1s 1   p1s 
Where  z1 ,  z 2  z 3 ,  p1  p 2 ,  p 3 are time constants.

Order & Type of the system:

The order of the system is given by the maximum power of s in the denominator transfer
functions.
The type number is specified for loop transfer function G(s)H(s). The number of poles lying
at the origin decides the type number of the system.
1 1
Order 1 Type 0
s2 s2
s 1 1
Type 1
Order 2
s 2  5s  10 ss - 5
1 1
Type 2
s s  7 
Order 3 2
s 3  4s 2  s  4

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Step Response of First Order System

Consider the following 1st order system
C ( s) K
 K
R( s) 1  s R(s ) C(s )
Where K-gain 1  s
 - time constant (time require to reach 63.2% of final value
Substitute, R(s)=1/ s in the above equation
K K
C ( s)  R( s ) 
Do partial fractions of C(s). 1  s  s1  s 
A B
C ( s)  
s s  1
Cross multiply terms in right side of equation. On both the sides, the denominator term is the
same. So, they will get cancelled by each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.
k=A(s  +1)+Bs
By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = k
Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.
0=AT+B⇒B=−k 
Substitute, A = k and B = −T in partial fraction expansion of C(s)
K K 1  
C ( s)   C ( s)  K   
s s  1  s s  1 
Taking Inverse Laplace of above equation

c(t )  K 1  e t /  

Impulse Response of First Order System

Consider the following 1st order system
C ( s) K K
 R(s ) C(s )
R( s) 1  s
Where K-gain
1  s
 - time constant (time require to reach 63.2% of final value
Substitute, R(s)   (s)  1 in the above equation

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K K
C ( s)  R( s )  C ( s) 
K
1  s  1  s  1  s
K /
C ( s) 
s 1/
Taking Laplace Transform
K
c(t )  e t / 


Relation Between Step and impulse response

The step response of the first order system is
 
c(t )  K 1  et /  K  Ke t /
Differentiating c(t) with respect to t yields

dc(t ) d
dt

dt

K  Ke t /  dc(t ) K t /
dt
 e

Second Order System
The general equation for the transfer function of a second order control system is given as
C ( s) n2

R( s) s 2  2 n s  n2
The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the
second order and the system is said to be the second order system.
n2
Here, an open loop transfer function, is connected with a unity negative
s( s  2 n s)
feedback.

C ( s) n2
 2
R( s) s  2 n s  n2

un-damped natural frequency of the second order system, which is the angular
frequency at which system oscillate in the absence of damping.
 damping ratio, a dimensionless quantity describing the decay of oscillations during
transient response.
Damping is an effect created in an oscillatory system that reduces, restricts or prevents the
oscillations in the system.
System can be classified as follows depending on damping effect

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Overdamped system: ζ > 1. Transients in the system exponentially decays to steady state
without any oscillations
Critically damped system( ζ = 1). Transients in the system exponentially decays to steady
state without any oscillations in shortest possible time
Underdamped system 0 < ζ < 1.: System transient oscillate with the amplitude of oscillation
gradually decreasing to zero
Undamped system: (ζ= 0)System keeps on oscillating at its natural frequency without any
decay in amplitude
The characteristic equation is s2+2 ζ ωns+ωn2=0
The roots of characteristic equation are
S1,s2=   n   n  2  1
the two roots are imaginary when ζ= 0.
The two roots are real and equal when ζ = 1.
The two roots are real but not equal when ζ > 1.
The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 < ζ < 1.
Step Response of second order system
Case1 : undamped system ζ= 0.
Second order system C ( s)  n2
R( s) s 2  2 n s  n2
Substitute, ζ= 0. in the transfer function.
C ( s) 2
 2 n 2
R( s) s   n  
For Unit step input 1
R( s ) 
s
 n2  n2
C ( s)  2 
   
R ( s ) C ( s )
s   n2 s s 2   n2
Take partial fraction and Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides
c(t )  1  cos nt

Case2 : under damped system 0 < ζ < 1.

C ( s) n2

R( s) s 2  22 n s  n2
n
C ( s)  R( s )
s  2 n s  n2
2

1
For Unit step input R( s ) 
s
n2
C ( s) 
ss 2  2 n s  n2 
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The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as

A Bs  C
C ( s)   2
s s  2 n s  n2
Cross multiply and compare the coefficients on both sides to fing A,B,C
1 s  2 n
C ( s)   2
s s  2 n s  n2
Add and subtract  2n2 to denominator
1 s  2 n
C ( s)   2
s s  2 n s   2n2  n2   2n2
1 s  2 n
C ( s)  

s s   n 2  n2 1   2 
Above equation can be written as
1 s  2 n
C ( s)  
s s   n 2  d2

Where d  n 1   2 , is the frequency of transient oscillations and is called damped

natural frequency.
The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained easily if C(s) is written in
the following form:
1 s   n  n
C ( s)   
s s   n   d s   n 2  d2
2 2


n 1   2
1 s   n 1  2
C ( s)   
s s   n   d
2 2
s   n 2  d2
1 s   n  d
C ( s)   
s s   n   d
2 2
1   s   n   d
2 2 2


c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  e  nt sin d t
1  2


c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  e  nt sin d t
1  2

  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1  2 

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Case 3: Critically damped system   1

C ( s) n2

R( s) s 2  2 n s  n2
n2
C (s)  R( s )
s  n 2
For Unit step input 1
R( s ) 
n2 s
C ( s) 
ss  n 
2

The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as

A B C
C ( s)   
s s  n  s  n 2
Find constants A, B,C
1 1 n
C ( s)   
s s  n  s  n 2
Take inverse Laplace transform
c(t )  1  ent  nte nt

Case 4: Over damped system   1

C ( s) n2
 2
R( s) s  2 n s  n2
n2
C ( s)  R( s )
s 2  2 n s  n2
Roots S1,s2=   n   n  2  1
For Unit step input 1
R( s ) 
n2 s
C ( s) 
s( s  s1 )(s  s2 )
The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as
n2 A B C
C ( s)    
s( s  s1 )(s  s2 ) s s  s1 s  s2
Find A,B,C values and substitute in the equation

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1  n 1 1 
C ( s)    
 
s  2  2  1  n  n  2  1 s   n  n  2  1  

  1 1 
 
  
n
 2  2  1     2  1 s      2  1 
 n n n n 
Take inverse lapalce transform
1  n 1   n  n  2 1  t 
c(t )    
 e


s  2  2  1  n  n  2  1 

  1   n  n  2 1  t 
 
 e

n 
 2  2  1     2  1 
 n n 

(Time domain ) Transient Response Specifications:

The step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in the
following figure

Important timing characteristics: delay time, rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and
settling time.

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Delay Time: (td) The delay (td) time is the time required for the response to reach 50% or
half the final value the very first time.
1 0.7
td 
n
Rise Time (tr) The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%,
5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second order systems, the 0%
to 100% rise time is normally used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used.For critically damped systems, the 5% to 95% is used.
 1  2 
  tan  1 
  
tr   
n 1   2
Peak Time (tp): The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of
the overshoot.

tp 
n 1   2
Maximum Overshoot/ peak overshoot: The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak
value of the response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state value of the
response differs from unity, then it is common to use the maximum percent overshoot. It is
defined by
C (t p )  C ( )
Maximum Overshoot/ peak overshoot %M p  x100
C ( )
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the relative stability of the
system.


1 2
%M p  e 100
Settling Time (ts): The settling time is the time required for the response curve to reach and
stay within a range about the final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final
value (usually 2% or 5%).
4
ts  for 2% criterion
 n
3
ts  for 5% criterion
 n

Effect of addition of poles

1
consider system G( s) 
s  1
10
G( s) 
Add a pole , system become
s  0.5s  1
i) Root locus shift towards right half of the s-plane
ii) Gain margin increases, system stability relatively decreases
iii) system becomes more oscillatory in nature

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iv) range of operating values of k, for stability of the system decreases

v) settling time increases

Effect of addition of zeros

25
consider system G( s) 
s  4s  25
2

Adding a Zero, system become G( s)  25s  1

s  4s  25
2

i) Root locus shift towards left half of the s-plane

ii) system stability relatively increases
iii) system becomes less oscillatory in nature
iv) Range of operating values of K for stability of the system increases

Steady State Error:

If the output of a control system at steady state does not exactly match with the input, the
system is said to have steady state error.Any physical control system inherently suffers
steady-state error in response to certain types of inputs.
A system may have no steady-state error to a step input, but the same system may exhibit
nonzero steady-state error to a ramp input.The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to
these individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the system.
Steady state error depends upon both input and type of the system. As the type number is
increased, accuracy is improved. However, increasing the type number aggravates the
stability problem. A compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative stability is
always necessary.

E(s) = Error Signal

E(s) = R(s) - C(s) .H(s)
Output signal C(s) = E(s).G(s)
Substituting C(s) in E(s)
E(s) = R(s) - E(s).G(s) H(s)
R( s )
E ( s) 
1  G( s) H ( s)

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Let e(t) error signal in time domain

 
e(t )  L1 E ( s)  L1 
R( s )

1  G( s) H ( s) 
Let ess= steady state error
ess  Lt e(t )
t 

The final value theorem states that

Lt f (t )  Lt sF (s)
t  s 0

Steady state error

sR( s)
ess  Lt e(t )  Lt sE( s)  Lt
t  s 0 s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

Static Error Constant : The response that remain after the transient response has died out is
called steady state response. The steady sate response is important to find the accuracy of the
output. The difference between steady state response and desired response gives the steady
state error.The control system has following steady state errors for change in positions,
velocity and acceleration.
• Type-0 system will have constant steady state error when input is step signal
Positional Error Constant K p  Lt G( s) H ( s)
s 0

• Type-1 system will have constant steady state error when input is ramp signal
Velocity Error Constant K v  Lt sG( s) H ( s)
s 0

• Type-2 system will have constant steady state error when input is parabolic signal
Acceleration Error Constant K a  Lt s 2G(s) H ( s)
s 0

Where G(s) H(s)  K

C(s) s  z s  z2 s  z3 ......
K N 1
R(s) s s  p1 s  p2 s  p3 
These constants are called static error coefficient. They have the ability to minimize the
steady error.

Steady state error for unit Step Input:

sR( s) 1
Steady state error ess  Lt unit Step Input R( s ) 
s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s
1
s( )
sR( s) s
ess  Lt  Lt
s 0 1  G ( s) H ( s) s 0 1  G( s) H ( s)

1
ess  Lt
s 0 1  G( s) H ( s)
1
ess 
1  Lt G ( s) H ( s)
s 0

1
ess  where Positional Error Constant K p  Lt G( s) H ( s)
1K p s 0

Type-0 system:
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K p  Lt G(s) H (s) G( s) H ( s)  K
s 0 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......

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( s  z1 )(s  z2 )....... zz z
K p  Lt  1 2 3  const
s 01( s  p )( s  p )...... p1 p2 p3
ess   1const 2
1K p
Type-1 system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K p  Lt G( s) H ( s) G( s) H ( s)  K
s 0 s( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K p  Lt 
s 0 s ( s  p )( s  p )......
1 2

1
ess  0
1K p

Steady state error for Ramp Input

Steady state error sR( s) unit Ramp Input 1
ess  Lt R( s) 
s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s2
1
s 1
ess  Lt  Lt
s 0 1  G ( s) H ( s ) s  0 s  sG( s ) H ( s )

1
ess  Velocity Error Constant K v  Lt sG( s) H ( s)
Lt sG( s) H ( s) s 0
s 0

1
ess 
Kv

Type-0 system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K v  Lt sG( s) H ( s) G( s) H ( s)  K
s 0 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......

( s  z1 )( s  z2 )....... 1 1
K v  Lt sK 0 ess   
s 0 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )...... Kv 0
Type-1 system
K v  Lt sG( s) H ( s) ( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
s 0 G( s) H ( s)  K
s( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
( s  z1 )(s  z2 )....... z1.z2 .......
K v  Lt sK   const
s 0 s( s  p1 )(s  p2 )...... p1. p2 ......

1
ess   const
Kv
Type-2 system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K v  Lt sG( s) H ( s) G( s) H ( s)  K
s 0 s 2 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K p  Lt sK 
s 0 s 2 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
1
ess  0
Kv
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Steady state error for Parabolic Input

1
Steady state error
sR( s)
Parabolic Input R( s) 
ess  Lt s3
s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

1
ess  Lt 2 2
s 0 s  s G ( s ) H ( s )

1
ess  2
Lt s G ( s) H ( s)
s 0
1 Where Acceleration Error Constant K a  Lt s 2G(s) H ( s)
ess  s 0
Ka
Type-0 system
K a  Lt s 2G(s) H ( s) ( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
s 0 K a  Lt s 2 K 0
1 1
s 0 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
ess   
Ka 0
Type-1 system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 ).......
K a  Lt s 2 K 0
s 0 s( s  p1 )(s  p2 )......
1 1 1
ess  ess   
Ka Ka 0
Type-2 system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 )....... 1
K a  Lt s 2 K  const ess   const
s 0 s 2 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )...... Ka
Type-3system
( s  z1 )(s  z2 )....... 1
K a  Lt s 2 K  ess  0
s 0 s 3 ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )...... Ka

Type Steady State Error

Unit Step Unit Ramp Unit Parabolic

0 1 ∞ ∞
1K p

1 0 1 ∞
Kv

2 0 0 1
Ka

3 0 0 0

The higher the constants, the smaller the steady-state error. As the steady state error is
inversely proportional to static error constant. Increasing the gain increases the static error
constant. Thus in general increases the system gain decreases the steady state error.
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Automatic control system

Automatic control is the application of control theory for regulation of processes without
direct human intervention. In the simplest type of an automatic control loop, a controller
compares a measured value of a process with a desired set value, and processes the resulting
error signal to change some input to the process, in such a way that the process stays at its set
point despite disturbances. This closed-loop control is an application of negative feedback to
a system.

A controller is device introduced in the system to modify the error signal and to produce a
control signal. The manner in which the controller produces the control signal is called
control action. The combined unit of error detector and controller is called automatic
controller. Based on the control action controller can be classified as
 Proportional Controller
 Proprtional Integral Controller
 Proportional Derivative Controller
 Proportional Integral Derivative Controller

Proportional Controller:
• It produces an output signal u(t) which is proportional to error signal e(t)
• It amplifies the error signal and increase the loop gain of the system
• Steady state tracking accuracy
• Disturbance signal rejection
• Relative stability
• Its transfer function is represented by Kp
In P controller U(t) α e(t)
ut   K pet  where K p - Proportional gain
Take laplace transform U(s)  K p Es 
Us 
The transfer function of P controller  Kp
Es 

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Block diagram

actuating feed back

error error signal e(t) signal b(t)
detector
reference
input r(t)  Controller
− output u(t)

Electronic p controller:

R2
Proportional gain K p =
R1

Drawback
• Produces constant steady state error (offset)
• Decreases the sensitivity of the system

Integral controller:
• It produces an output signal u(t) which is proportional to integral of the input error
signal e(t)
t
u t   et dt
0

t t
Kp
u t   et dt  K i  et dt
Ti 0 K 0
Where K i  p integral gain. Ti -integral time
Ti
Take laplace transform E(s)
U(s)  K i
s Us   K i 
The transfer function of I controller  
Es   s 

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Block diagram

Electronic I controller

1
Integral gain Ki 
R1C1
Advantages
Its eliminate the steady state error

Proprtional Integral Controller

Proprtional Integral Controller (PI) produces output signal consists of two terms one
propotional to error signal and other propotional to integral of error signal
t
Kp
u t   K pet   et dt
Ti 0
Take lapalce transform
K p E(s)
U(s)  K p Es  
Ti s
The transfer function of PI controller

Us   1   T s 1
 K p 1    K p  i 
Es   Tis   Ti s 
Kp
Where K i  integral gain. Ti -integral time. K p - Proprtional gain
Ti
Inverse of ( Ti )integral time is called reset rate
Block diagram

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Electronic PI controller

R2
Proportional gain K p =
R1
integral time. Ti  R2C2

Effect of pI controller: consider closed loop system with PI controller

Let open loop TF is given by n 2

G( s) 
 1  Ti s  n 2 ss  2 n 
K p  
C ( s)

G( s)
  Ti s  ss  2 n 
R( s) 1  G ( s)  1  Ti s  n 2
1  K p  
K pn (1  Ti s)  Ti s  ss  2 n 
2


s 2Ti s  2 n   2K pn (1  Ti s)
2

K pn (1  Ti s)

s 3Ti  s 2Ti 2 n  K pn Ti s  K pn
2 2

K pn (1  Ti s)
2


s 3Ti  s 2Ti 2 n  K pn Ti s  K pn
2 2

( K p / Ti )n (1  Ti s)
2
K pn (1  Ti s)
2
 
K
s 3  s 2 2 n  K pn s  p n s 2Ti s  2 n   K pn (1  Ti s)
2 2 2

Ti
K pn (1  Ti s)
2


s 3Ti  s 2Ti 2 n  K pn Ti s  K pn
2 2

Inference:
• There is a increase in order by one and introduces zero in the system
• The increase in order of the system results in less stable
• The type number of the open loop system increases by one ,this will reduces the
steady state error
• Increase in zero increases the peak overshoot

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Propotional Plus derivative (PD) Controller:

Propotional Plus derivative (PD) Controller produces output signal consists of two terms one
propotional to error signal and other propotional to derivative of error signal
det 
u t   K p et   K p Td
dt
Take lapalce transform

U(s)  K p E(s)  K pTd sE(s)

The transfer function of PD controller
Us 
 K p 1  Td s 
Es 
Where Td -Derivative time. K p - Proprtional gain
block diagram

Electronic PD controller

R2
Proportional gain K p =
R1
Derivative time. Td  R1C1
Effect of PD controller: consider closed loop system with PD controller

Let open loop TF is given by

n 2
G( s) 
ss  2 n 
n 2
K p 1  Td s 
C ( s) G(s) ss  2 n 
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) n 2
1  K p 1  Td s 
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K pn (1  Td s) K pn (1  Td s)
2 2

 
ss  2 n   K pn (1  Td s) s 2  2 n s  K pn  K pn Td s
2 2 2

K pn (1  Td s)
2


s 2  (2 n  K pn Td ) s  K pn
2 2

Inference:
• Increase in zero and damping ratio
• Increase in zero increases the peak overshoot
• But Increase in damping ratio reduces the peak overshoot

Proportional integral derivative (PID ) Controller:

Propotional Plus integral plus derivative (PID) Controller produces output signal consists of
three terms one propotional to error signal and aother one propotional to integral of error
signal and third one propotional to derivative of error signal
Kp t det 
u t   K p et    et dt  K p Td
Ti o dt
Take lapalce transform
K E(s)
U(s)  K p Es   p  K pTd sE(s)
Ti s
The transfer function of PD controller
Us   1 
 K p 1   Td s 
Es   Tis 

Where . K p - Proprtional gain Ti -integral time. Td -Derivative time

Block diagram

Electronic PID controller

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R2
Proportional gain K p =
R1
integral time. Ti  R2C2
Derivative time. Td  R1C1
Effect of PID controller
• Proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces a steady state error
• The integral controller eliminates the steady state error
• The derivative controller reduces the overshoot of the response

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