Control Systems_ Part 2

References:
Modern Control Engineering by Katsushiko Ogata

Dr. Mousumi Roy

 Response Analysis - First Order Systems

The First Step in analyzing a control system is to derive a mathematical

model of the system.
A few commonly used test input signal:
• step functions
• ramp functions
• impulse functions
When do you use each of those input functions?
a) For sudden disturbances, a step function may be used as a test signal.
b) For a gradually changing functions of time then a ramp function of time
may be a good test signal.
c) For shock input, an impulse function may be used as a test signal
 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
A first order system is represent by the Block Diagram shown where R (s) is
Laplace Transform of input signal r (t) and C (s) is the Laplace Transform of
the output signal c(t).
! C(s) 𝐶(𝑠) 1
R (s) E (s) =
"# 𝑅 𝑠 𝑇𝑠 + 1

!
C (s) = "# $!
R (s)

Input Step Function

 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
!
For Unit Step Function, we can write, C (s) = R(s)
"# $!

Simplified Block Diagram

Laplace Transform of Response, R(s) = 1/s
! ! !
Substituting R(s) = # leads to C (s) = !$"# #

Taking inverse Laplace Transform, c(t) = 1 – e –t/𝑇 (t>= 0 ) -------à Eq. 1

• Eq. 1 states as t approaches infinity, e–t/𝑇 approaches zero, c(t) it becomes 1.
• 𝑇 is called Time Constant.
 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
Response of a unit step function: c(t) = 1 – e –t/𝑇
• At t = T: c(t) = 0.632
i.e., response c(t) has reached
63.2% of its total change.
• At t= 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T, the
response reaches 86.5%, 95%,
98.2%, and 99.3%, respectively,
of the final value of 1.
• Thus, for t >= 4T, the response
remains within 2% of the final
value.
T = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
• The steady state is reached
mathematically only after an
infinite time.
• However, in practice, a reasonable
estimate of the response time is
the length of time the response
curve needs to reach and stay
within the 2% line of the final
value, or 4T. • Tr = Rise time = The time for the
function to reach from 0.1 to 0.9 of
• The slope of the response curve its final value.
c(t) decreases monotonically from • Ts = Settling time = The time for
response to reach and stay within
1/T at t=0 to zero at t=∞ . 2% of its final value.
 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
How could you amplify the response from a unit step function?

Example: Suppose for a unit step function r(t), the transfer function
%
G (s) =
#$&
what is the value of time constant T ?
Solution:

% &.% !
G (s) = = = 2.5 [ ]
#$& (.%# $! (.%#$!

Then time constant 𝑇 = 0.5

and the steady state response to a unit input = 2.5
 First-Order Systems: Unit Step Response
Example: Suppose for a step input function u(t), the transfer function
%
G (s) =
&'()
What is the value of time constant T ? What will be the steady state response?
*
[Hint: try to transform it as format]
*(+'
a. 1.0
b. 0.4
c. 0.3
d. None of the above
Solution:
% *
G (s) = = 1.6 à T = 0.4 and steady state output = 1.6
&'() *(,..'
 First-Order Systems: Unit Ramp Response
!
The Laplace Transform R(s) (Input signal) of the unit-ramp function is
#!
Hence, C (s) = G(s) R(s)
! ! ! " "!
=[ !$ "# ] [ #! ] = #! - # + !$ "#

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform:

c (t) = t – T + T e - t/T for t >= 0

Error signal e (t) = r(t) – c(t)

= T (1 - e - t/T. )
As t approaches infinity, e–t/T approaches zero, and thus error signal e(t)
approaches T.
Hence, the smaller the time constant T, the smaller the steady-state error e(t).
 First-Order Systems: Unit Impulse Response

For the unit-impulse input, R(s)=1

!
C (s) = !$ "#

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

!
c (t) = e - t/T. for t >= 0
"
 Summary:
• For the unit-step input, the output c(t) is
c(t) = 1 - e-t/T, for t ≥ 0

• For the unit-ramp input, the output c(t)

is
c(t) = t - T + Te-t/T, for t ≥ 0

• For the unit-impulse input, the output

c(t) is
! -t/T
c(t) = e , for t ≥ 0
"
Second Order System
 Second Order System
• The response of a typical second-order control system to any input can be
found using Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions
• Frequently, the performance characteristics of a control system are
specified in terms of the transient response to a unit-step input, since it is
easy to generate, and if the response to a step input is known, it is
mathematically possible to compute the response to any input.
• The transient response of a system to a unit-step input depends on the
initial conditions. For convenience in comparing transient responses of
various systems, it is a common practice to use the standard initial
condition that the system is at rest initially with the output and all time
derivatives thereof are zero. Then the response characteristics of many
systems can be easily compared.
 Spring-mass-dashpot system
x (t) x (t)
Output
b b𝑥̇
m F (t) m F (t)
Input
kx
k Free Body Diagram
𝑑𝑥 𝑑!𝑥
Newton’s Law =>, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑏 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 =>A second order system
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 !
) !* )*
Rearranging, we have 𝑚 +𝑏 +𝑘𝑥 = 0 When F(t) = 0
)+ ! )+
" $
Introducing 𝜔𝑛 = natural frequency = #
, and 𝜁 = damping ratio =
! "#
The term ζ is read as "zeta."
Then the equation becomes: ! ) !* &- )*
,! )+ !
+, )+
+𝑥 = 0
" "
 Second order Spring-mass-dashpot system

! ) !* &- )* ) !* )*
+ +𝑥 = 0 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛& 𝑥 = 0
, ! " )+ ! ," )+ )+ ! )+

This is the Characteristic Equation for natural response of a second order

system.
Where, 𝜔𝑛 = natural frequency, and 𝜁 = damping ratio

Using Laplace Transform we have : 𝑠 & + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛& = 0

A quadratic equation with two roots of s as : s1 & s2 = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1

 Various types of System Responses
R (s) C (s)
𝐺 𝑠
What are the following responses?
1. Natural Response
Describes the way system dissipates or acquires energy with out any forcing function.
[f(t) = 0]; Also called homogeneous solution; It is the response due to the initial
condition. For example, if suddenly the power is switched off. It is dependent on the
system.
2. Forced Response
Particular Solution to f(t) – based on the input into the system
Ø Transient response ?
Response from the initial state to the steady state
Ø Steady-state response?
Describes the manner in which the system output behaves as t approaches to ∞.
 System Response: Transient and Steady State
Example of Forced Response:
When you open the shower, the
water is suddenly released, and
the temperature is in a transient
state. The temperature will
first be cold, then too hot, then
finally it will reach the right
temperature (around
37ºC), thus…the steady state. /
https://feaforall.com/steady-vs-transient-state-fea-analysis

The system response c(t) may be written as:

c(t) = ctr(t) + css(t)
 Poles, Zeros and System Response

R (s) 𝐺 𝑠 C (s)
C (s) = G (s) R (s)

Zeros ?
Values of the Laplace Transform variable(s) that causes the transfer
function 𝐺 𝑠 to become zero.
Poles?
Values of the Laplace Transform variable (s) that causes that transfer
function 𝐺 𝑠 to become infinite
In other words, you can control the output function between zero and infinity
by controlling the transfer function between zero and poles.
 Example 1:
Suppose a linear system is described by the differential equation
) !. ). )/
+7 + 12y = 4 +u
)+ ! )+ )+

Where y(t) is output/response function and u(t) is the input function.

Iclicker question: Find Transfer Function

Solution:
Taking Laplace Transform: [ S2 + 7s +12] Y(s) = [4s +1] U(s)

4(#) 0#$! ! (#$ (.&%)

Transfer Function: 𝐺 𝑠 = 5(#) = =0
# ! $6#$!& #$3 (#$0)
 Example 1:
Find the system poles and zeros.
) !. ). )/
+7 + 12y = 4 +u
)+ ! )+ )+

Solution: 4(#) 0#$! ! (#$ (.&%)

Transfer Function: 𝐺 𝑠 = = =0 #$3 (#$0)
5(#) # ! $6#$!&

How would you find pole and zero?

Zero: Values of the Laplace Transform variable(s) that causes the 𝐺 𝑠 to become zero
Pole: Values of the Laplace Transform variable (s) that causes the 𝐺 𝑠 to become infinite

From (s + 0.25) = 0 we can say that the system has a single real zero at s = - 0.25
From (s + 3) = 0 & (s + 4) = 0 we can say that a pair of real pole exists at s = -3, - 4
System response varies between 0 and infinity based on the value of s
Example 2:
U (s) 𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 5) X (s)
𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 4)

The block diagram shows the Transfer Function G (s), output X (s) due to a unit
step input U(s). Find the following:
a. The zeros and poles for the system.
b. Find the response x(t) for the unit step input u(t).

Solution:
!
We know U(s) = is the Laplace transform for a unit step function u(t)
#
(#$%) !
Hence, X (s) = G(s) U (s) =
#$& #$0 #
a. The system has single real zero at s = -5 and two poles at s = -2, and at -4
Example 2:
U (s) 𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 5) X (s)
𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 4)

b. To calculate x (t):
7! 7& 73
X (s) = #
+ #$&+ #$0
(#$%) %
Where, K1 = #$& (#$0)
; Substitute s = 0 , K1 = 8

(#$%) 3
K2 = ; Substitute s + 2 = 0 à s = -2, K2 = -
# (#$0) 0

(#$%) !
K3 = ; Substitute s + 4 = 0 à s = - 4, K3 =
# (#$&) 8
Taking inverse Laplace transform we get:
Forced
Response Natural Response
% 3 !
x (t) = 8 - 0 exp -2t + 8 exp -4t
 Spring-mass-dashpot system
x (t) x (t)
Output
b b𝑥̇
m F (t) m F (t)
Input
kx
k Free Body Diagram
𝑑𝑥 𝑑!𝑥
Newton’s Law =>, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑏 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 =>A second order system
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 !
) !* )*
For a unit step function u(t) , we have 𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = u (t)
)+ ! )+
" $
Using 𝜔𝑛 = natural frequency = #
, and 𝜁 = damping ratio = ! "#
9 ) !* &9- )*
, ! " )+ !
+ ," )+
+𝑘 𝑥 = u (t)
 Unit Step Response of a Second Order System

U (s) X(s)
𝐺 (𝑠)

The unit response of a second order system equation is:

9 ) !* &9- )*
+ +𝑘 𝑥 = u (t)
, ! " )+ ! ," )+

Taking Laplace Transform: 𝑘 [𝑠 & + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛& ] X (s) =𝜔𝑛& U (s)

: # ,!"
Transfer Function, G(s) = =K Where K = 1/k = constant
5(#) # ! $&-,"#$, ! "
 Unit Step Response of a Second Order System
: # ,!"
Transfer Function = G(s) = =K
5(#) # ! $&-,"#$, ! "

The roots of the denominator of the transfer function are determined

from the following quadratic equation: s2+2ζωns+ωn2 = 0
and the two roots are:
s = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1

Let’s review the following four cases of varying damping ratio (ζ) :
1) Undamped (ζ=0)
2) Underdamped (0< ζ < 1)
3) Critically damped (ζ=1)
4) Overdamped (ζ > 1)
 1) Undamped System (𝜁 = damping ratio = 0)

Two roots are : s = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1

For 𝜁 = 0; the roots are imaginary as follows:

s1 = + j 𝜔𝑛 and s2 = - j 𝜔𝑛 ; Where j 2 = -1

And solving Laplace equation,

unit step response : x (t) = K ( 1 - cos 𝜔𝑛 t )

As expected from the name, the undamped system (ζ=0) has no damping,
and the response oscillates forever.
2) Underdamped System (0 < 𝜁 = damping ratio < 1)
The roots are complex conjugate;
s1 & s2 = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝑗 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 &

The unit step response

x(t) =

Where, 𝛽 = 1 − 𝜁 & ; 𝜃 = tan -1 (𝛽/ 𝜁)

Underdamped step responses include decaying oscillation, overshoot

and constant steady state
 3) Critically damped System (𝜁 = damping ratio = 1)

In reality, all systems have a damping ratio >1 and 𝜁=1 rarely happens.

Nevertheless, roots can be found for 𝜁 = 1 as follows:

s = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1

In this case, two roots are real and repeated as follows:

s1 , s2 = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 = - ωn
And unit step response:
x (t) = K ( 1 - 𝑒 ;,"+ -𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑒 ;,"+ )
 4) Overdamped System (𝜁 = damping ratio > 1)

In this case the roots are real and distinct.

s = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1
That is,
s1 = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1 = 𝛼1
s2 = - 𝜁𝜔𝑛 - 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 & − 1 = 𝛼2

unit step response:

<!= "#!$ ; <#= "#"$
x(t) = K ( 1 - )
<! ; <#

Now let’s look at graphically how these four cases differ from each other
 Unit Step Response for various damping ratio (𝜁)
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Transient/TransInputs/TransStep.html
• In the limiting case of zero
damping (ζ = 0) the solution
oscillates continuously about
the steady state.(not shown in
the Figure.
x(t)
• As the damping is increased (0 <
ζ <1), the solutions are
oscillatory and overshoot the
steady-state response (red,
green, blue).
• For damping ratios, ζ > 1 , the response exhibits
• at critical damping, ζ = 1, the no overshoot, and as the damping ratio is further
response reaches steady-state increased the response approaches the steady-
with no overshoot state value more slowly (skyblue and yellow)
 Unit Step Response of a Control System
The transient response of a
Unit Step input often exhibits
damped oscillations before
reaching steady state.

1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time, tr
3. Peak time, tp
4. Maximum overshoot (%) Mp
5. Settling time, ts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=crm6FDEUBdA
td = Delay time = the time required for the
response to reach half the final value the
very first time.
tr = Rise time = the time required for the
response to rise from 0% to 100% of its
final value. (see next slide)
tp = Peak time = the time required for the
response to reach the first peak of the
overshoot.
ts = Settling time = the time required for the
response curve to reach and stay within
a range about the final value of size
specified by absolute percentage of the
final value (usually 2% or 5%).
Mp = Overshoot = the maximum peak value
of the response curve measured from
unity.
 Example 3: Unit Step Response for a Spring-Mass-
Dashpot system

Suppose the following equation represent

the dynamic system shown in the Figure 1:
m𝑦̈ + b𝑦̇ + ky = b𝑢̇ + ku
Where y(t) = output function
and u(t) = unit step input function
Find y(t). Given that :
m = 10kg; b = 20N-s/m; k = 100N/m

Figure 1
Solution:
Given: m = 10kg; b = 20N-s/m; k = 100N/m
and input u(t) is a unit- step input

The equation of the dynamic system

m𝑦̈ + b𝑦̇ + ky = b𝑢̇ + ku

Taking Laplace Transform;

(ms2 + bs + k ) Y (s) = (bs + k) U (s)

4 (#)
Transfer function G(s) =
5 #
(>#$9) (&(#$!(() (&#$!()
= (?# !$>#$9) = (!(@!$&(@$!(() = (# !$&#$!()
Solution:
4 (#) (&#$!()
G(s) = ==
5 # (# ! $&#$!()

To find y(t): Y(s) = G(s) U(s)

(&#$!() ! !
Y(s) = [using U(s) = ]
(# ! $&#$!() # #
! #$! ! 3
= #
- #$! ! $3!
+3 #$! ! $3!

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform:

!
y(t) = 1 - 𝑒 cos3t + 𝑒 ;+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3t
;+
3
You can plot the response using Unit-Step Response
MATLAB:
4 (#) (&#$!()
Transfer Function = =
5 # (# ! $&#$!()
>> t = 0:0.05:3;

Output y
>> num = [2 10];
>> den = [1 2 10];
>> sys = tf(num, den)
>> step(sys)
>> grid
>> title(‘Unit-Step Response’, ‘Fontsize’, ‘20’)
>> xlabel (‘t’, ‘Fontsize’, 20’)
>> ylabel (‘Output y’, ‘Fontsize’, ‘20’) t (sec)
You can measure following characteristics for this response from the plot :
Delay time (td ); Rise time (tr ) ; Peak time (tp ); Maximum overshoot (Mp );
and Settling time (ts )
End