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7 Notes
After the decline of the Kushanas, north India witnessed the rise of the Gupta dy-
nasty. The rulers of this dynasty were able to establish a vast empire that included
almost the entire north India. The Guptas had certain material advantages that helped
them to carve an empire. They operated from eastern U.P. and Bihar which was very
fertile. They could also exploit the iron ores of central India and Bihar to their advan-
tage. Their period was marked by great progress in art, architecture and literature.
They ruled up to circa A.D.550. After their collapse there emerged various regional
kingdoms in north India. South India too witnessed the rise of two important kingdoms
under the Chalukyas and the Pallavas respectively during AD 550–750.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
explain the rise of the Gupta empire and the political achievements of its rulers;
describe the emergence of regional kingdoms after the decline of the Guptas;
analyse the nature of the Gupta and post-Gupta political structure;
notify social and economic changes from c. A.D. 300–750;
identify cultural developments with special reference to art and literature;
learn about the consolidation of Brahmanical tradition and the emergence of
Pauranic religion;
list the developments in science and technology;
7.1 POLITICAL HISTORY
The Gupta dynasty was established by Shrigupta, who probably belonged to the vaishya
caste. He hailed from either Magadha (Bihar) or Prayaga (eastern U.P.). His son
Ghatotkacha, who carried the title of maharaja, appears to be some small king about
whom nothing much is known.
(a) Chandragupta I
The real founder of the Gupta empire was Chandragupta I (AD 319–334). The year
of his accession in A.D. 319 marks the beginning of the Gupta era. It was henceforth
used in all their records, and also those of their feudatories. He took the title of
maharajadhiraja (king of kings). He married a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
This event is recorded in a series of gold coins issued by Chandragupta. It appears
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that this matrimonial alliance gave legitimacy, prestige and strength to the Gupta king.
Chandragupta, was ruling over Magadha (Bihar) Saket (modern Ayodhya) and Prayaga
(modern Allahabad) with his capital at Pataliputra (Modern Patna).
Notes
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1
1. Who was the real founder of the Gupta dynasty?
2. Give two material advantages that helped the Guptas to establish an empire?
3. How did the marriage alliance with the Lichchhavi’s help Chandragupta?
(b) Samudragupta
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Samudragupta (A.D. 335–375).
Samudragupta followed a policy of conquest and enormously enlarged his kingdom.
His achievements are recorded in a long inscription (prashasti), written in pure San-
skrit by his court poet Harisena. The inscription is engraved on a Pillar at Allahabad.
It enumerates the people and the regions conquered by Samudragupta. He adopted a
different policy for different area conquered by him.
In the Ganga-Yamuna doab, he followed a policy of annexation. He defeated nine
naga rulers and incorporated their kingdoms in the Gupta empire. He then proceeded
to conquer the forest kingdoms of central India, mentioned as atavirajyas. The rulers
of these tribal areas were defeated and forced into servitude. This area had a strate-
gic value as it contained a route to south India. It enabled Samudragupta to proceed to
South along the eastern coast conquering twelve kings on the way and reached as far
as Kanchi near Chennai. Samudragupta, instead of annexing their kingdoms, liberated
and reinstated these kings on their thrones. This policy of political conciliation for
south India was adopted because he knew that it was difficult to keep them under
control and subservience once he returned to his capital in north. So it was enough for
him that these states recognized his suzerainty and paid him tributes and presents.
According to the Allahabad inscription, neighbouring five frontier kingdoms and nine
republican states of Punjab and western India were overawed by the conquests of
Samudragupta. They agreed to pay tribute and taxes to Samudragupta and obey his
orders without any fight. The inscription adds that Samudragupta also received trib-
utes from many kings of south - east Asia.
It is generally believed that though he had spread his influence over a vast area,
Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over Indo-Gangetic ba-
sin. He celebrated his conquests by performing a horse sacrifice (ashvamedha) and
by issuing ashvamedha type of coins (the coins portraying the scene of sacrifice) on
the occasion. Samudragupta was not only a conqueror but also a poet, a musician and
a patron of learning. His love for music is attested by his coins that represent him as
playing on a vina (lute).
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(c) Chandragupta II
Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II (AD 375–414) also known
as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, he not only extended his father’s empire but also con-
solidated his position through matrimonial alliances with other royal dynasties of the
Notes period. He married Kuvernaga, the Naga princess and had a daughter Prabhavati from
her. Prabhavati was given in marriage to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty ruling
in Deccan. After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to
her minor son with the help of her father. The control of Vakataka territory proved very
beneficial to Chandragupta II, as he was now able to target his other enemies better.
His greatest military achievement was his victory over the Shaka kings who were
ruling in western India for the last three hundred years. This conquest made Gupta
empire reach up to the western coast.
An iron pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even
north-western India and Bengal. He took the title of Vikramaditya i.e. the one who
is as powerful as the sun. Chandragupta II is remembered for his patronage of art
and literature. He is credited with maintaining nine luminaries (navaratna) in his court.
The great Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa was the most notable of them all.
The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien (AD 404–411) visited India during his reign.
He has left an account of the life of people in India in the fifth century AD.
3. Name the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the reign of Chandragupta II?
4. Name the great Sanskrit poet and playwright who adorned the court of
Chandragupta II?
(d) Decline
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta (AD 415–455). He was
able to maintain the empire built up by his father but during the later part of his reign
there was a threat from the Hunas of Central Asia. After occupying Bactria the
Hunas crossed the Hindukush Mountains and entered India. Their first attack during
his reign was repulsed by prince Skandagupta. The Guptas however could not pro-
tect their empire for long and the successive waves of Huna invasion made the
Gupta’s very weak. This was one of the main factors which accelerated the disinte-
gration of the Gupta empire.
The inscriptions issued by the Hunas show that by AD 485 they had occupied eastern
Malwa and a large part of central India. Punjab and Rajasthan also passed into their
hands. The first important ruler of the Hunas in India was Toramana who conquered
an area stretching up to Eran near Bhopal in central India. His son Mihirkula suc-
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2. Name the Gupta prince who was able to repulse the first raids of the Hunas?
3. Name two dynasties that emerged in north India after the decline of the Guptas?
7.2 MAITRAKAS
The Maitrakas were tributary chiefs of the Guptas, who established an independent
kingdom in western India. Dhruvasena II was the most important ruler of the Maitrakas.
He was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and was married to his daughter. Hsuan
Tsang tells us that Dhruvasena II attended Harsha’s assembly at Prayaga (Allahabad).
Ruling over Saurashtra in Gujarat, the Maitrakas developed Valabhi as their capital.
This city became an important center of learning. Being on the Arabian Sea, it was
also a port town having flourishing trade and commerce. Maitrakas continued to rule
until the middle of the eighth century when Arab attacks weakened their power.
7.3 MAUKHARIES
The Maukharies ruled over Kanauj, a city in western Uttar Pradesh, which gradually
replaced Pataliputra as a political center of north India. Maukharies were also the
subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of samanta. Harshavardhana’s
sister Rajyashri was married to Grihavarman. Shashanka, the ruler of Bengal (Gaur),
and Devgupta, the Later Gupta ruler jointly attacked Grihavarman and killed him. The
kingdom of Kanauj was then merged with that of the Pushyabhutis and Harsha shifted
his capital from Thanesar (Kurukshetra) to Kanauj.
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PENINSULAR INDIA
7.5 VAKATAKAS
In peninsular India the Vakatakas, were a local power that ruled over northern
Maharashtra and Vidarbha. Their history can be reconstructed on the basis of a large
number of land grant charters issued to the brahmanas. Rudrasena II of the royal
Vakataka family was married to Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II of
the imperial Gupta family. Culturally the Vakataka kingdom is important because it
became a channel to spread brohamanical culture to south India.
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DECCAN AND
SOUTH INDIA
200 0 200 400
Kilometers
(BC. 300 - AD 750)
ada
Nar m
Tap M aha nadi
ti
Ellora Ajanta Nagpur
(Mumbai)
Bombay I N D I A
ARABIAN
SEA
Go
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Hyderabad
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Vengi
hna Nagarjunakunda
Kris BAY OF
Dmara Ni Kota
BENGAL
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Banavasi
(Chennai)
Madras
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Caveri
Kaveripattanam
Uraiyur
Modern Town
Lakshadweep Madurai Ancient Sites
(INDIA)
I N D I A N O C E A N
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7.7 PALLAVAS
The Pallavas established their authority over south Andhra Pradesh and north Tamil
Nadu with capital at Kanchi. Kanchi under them became an important temple town
and a center of trade and commerce.
The Pallavas rose to power during the reign of Mahendravarman (AD 600–630) and
Narasimhavarman I (AD 630–668). Throughout their reign they were in constant con-
flict with Chalukyas of Vatapi in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas
in the south. Their rule in south India was replaced by the imperial Cholas. Culturally
their reign is important for the growth of Tamil bhakti literature and the Dravidian style
of art and architecture in south India. It was under them that Mahabalipuram, south of
Chennai, emerged as an important centre of temple architecture.
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cadre. Administrative posts were not only hereditary but often several offices were com-
bined in the hands of the same persons as in the case of Harisena, the composer of the
Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta. He has been described as a
mahadandanayaka (chief judicial officer) as well as a mahasandhivigrahika (minister
for war and peace). The ruler himself often appointed high-ranking officers but the heredi- Notes
tary nature of the post must have weakened the royal control over the administration.
During the Gupta period land taxes increased considerably. The land tax called bali
varied from 1/4th to 1/6th of the total produce. Two new agricultural taxes that appear
in Gupta inscriptions are uparikara and udranga. However, their exact nature is not
clear. In addition, the peasants had to meet the demands of the feudatories. They also
had to feed the royal army when it passed from the villages. The villagers were also
subjected to forced labour (vishti).
The judicial system was far more developed under the Gupta rulers than in earlier
times. For the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Disputes
connected with various type of property were considered in civil law. Elaborate laws
were laid down about inheritance. Theft and adultery fell under criminal law. The king
upheld the law and tried cases with the help of the brahmanas. The guilds of mer-
chants and artisans were governed by their own laws.
Harsha governed his empire on the same lines, as did the Guptas. But during his period the
administration became more decentralized and the number of feudatories grew further. In
Harsha’s time the officers and the religious persons were paid mainly in land. It encour-
aged the system of feudalism which grew much more in the post- Harsha period.
In the empire of Harsha law and order does not appear to be so well maintained.
Hsuan Tsang was twice robbed of all his belongings during his travels in India. On the
other hand Fa Hien had to face no such difficulty during Gupta period.
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7.9 SOCIETY
The structure of the society was undergoing a change in the Gupta period. The
supremacy of the brahmanas was increasing. They were getting large-scale land
grants not only from the rulers but from other people also. The land was given along
Notes
with administrative rights and tax exemptions. Thus, a new class of brahmana land-
lords was created. Supported by the king, they tended to exploit the peasants.
We also notice a proliferation of castes in this period. With the extension of brahmanical
culture in distant and different areas, a large number of tribals were assimilated in the
brahmanical social structure of varna system fold, as were some foreigners such as
the Hunas. While the foreigners and tribals heads were included as kshtriyas, the
ordinary tribals were given the status of shudras.
The position of shudras however improved somewhat during this period. They were
allowed to listen to the epics and the puranas. They could also perform some domestic
rituals that were earlier prohibited for them. In the seventh century Hsuan Tsang calls
shudras as agriculturists and the vaishyas as traders. A distinction was also made be-
tween shudras and untouchables, the latter being treated lower in status than the shudras.
The untouchables are referred to as chandalas. They lived outside the village and dealt
in unclean jobs such as scavenging or butchery. The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien tells us
that whenever they entered the towns or market places they would strike a piece of
wood to announce their arrival, so that the others might not touch them and get polluted.
References to slaves are found in the contemporary Dharmashastras (Law Books).
Narada mentions fifteen types of slaves. They were mainly domestic servants em-
ployed in cleaning and sweeping. The prisoners of war, debt bondsmen, born of a
slave woman were all considered slaves.
The status of women continued to decline in Gupta period. The main reason for the
subordination of women was their complete dependence on men for their livelihood.
The women were not entitled to inherit property. However, she had full right on her
stridhana i.e. the presents received by the bride at the time of her marriage. The free
representation of females in art suggest that there was no purdah system in the
society. However, there is evidence of the presence of sati system. The first evi-
dence of sati (immolation of widow) is found in an inscription (AD 510) at Eran in
Madhya Pradesh. In the Harshacarita of Bana, the queen performs sati on the
death of her husband king Prabhakaravardhana. Even Rajyashri, sister of Harsha
was about to perform sati when Harsha rescued her.
2. What is stridhana?
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7.10 ECONOMY
The period from circa fourth century to eighth century was a period of great agricul-
tural expansion. The vast areas of land were brought under cultivation and improve-
ments were made in the existing methods of production to attain higher yield. One of
Notes
the reasons for it was the practice of granting lands to brahmanas and secular offic-
ers in different areas. It helped in bringing virgin land under the plough. The spread of
knowledge regarding the use of iron plough share, manure, irrigation and preservation
of cattle wealth in backward areas also contributed to rural prosperity. It however
brought no relief to peasants who continued to suffer tremendous tax burden.
The Gupta and post- Gupta period witnessed a comparative decline in country’s trade
and commerce. Till AD 550 India continued to have some trade with the eastern
Roman empire to which it exported silk, and spices. Around the sixth century the
Romans learnt the art of rearing silk worms. This adversely affected India’s foreign
trade in this precious commodity. The disruption of north-western route by the Hunas
was another factor for this decline. India tried to make up the loss by carrying on
trade with south-east Asian countries but it did not help revive the economy substan-
tially. The loss in trade lessened the inflow of gold and silver into the country. It is
confirmed by a general scarcity of gold coins after the Guptas.
The Guptas did issue a large number of gold coins called dinaras. But we notice that
the gold coins of each successive Gupta ruler, after Chandragupta II, contain less of
gold and more of alloy. After the Guptas very few coins of Kings of different dynas-
ties have been found. Thus in the absence of coinage we can presume that a self-
sufficient economic system with limited trade prevailed after the downfall of the Guptas.
7.11 LITERATURE
The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age of art and literature.
A huge body of religious and secular literature was compiled in this period. The two
great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were finally completed in the fourth
century. The stories of both the epics symbolize the victory of good over evil. Both
Rama and Krishna came to be considered incarnation of Vishnu.
The Gupta period marks the beginning of the writing of the literature known as Puranas.
These texts refer to the stories about the Hindu gods and mention the ways to please
them through fasts and pilgrimages. The major Puranas written in this period are the
Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana and the Matsya Purana. For the worship of
Shiva, Shiv Purana was written whereas the various incarnations of Vishnu are
glorified in Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, and Narasimha Purana. They were
meant for the worship by common man. Some Smritis or the law books were also
compiled in the Gupta period. One of these, the Narada Smriti throws light on the
general social and economic rules and regulations of the period.
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The literature in Gupta period was written in Sanskrit. The greatest of all the poets was
Kalidasa who lived in the court of Chandragupta II in the fifth century AD. His works are
very famous and have been translated in many European languages. Some of the works
that he authored are Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha,
Notes Kumarasambhava and Ritusamhara. The notable feature of his works is that the charac-
ters of higher caste speak in Sanskrit while those of lower caste and women speak in
Prakrit. The other famous dramatists to have flourished in this period are Shudraka, writer
of Mrichchhkatikam and Vishakhadatta who authored Mudrarakshasa.
In the seventh century Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha, wrote Harshacarita
praising his patron. Written in an ornate style, it became a model for later writers. The
early history of Harsha is reconstructed on the basis of this text. Another text written
by him is Kadambari. Harsha too was considered to be a literary monarch. He is said
to have authored three plays: Priyadarshika, Nagananda and Ratnavali.
In south India, the period from AD 550–750 witnessed the growth of Bhakti literature
in Tamil. Songs were composed by the Vaishnava saints (Alvars) and Saiva saints
(Nayannaras) in praise of their respective gods. One of the most famous of the Alvar
saints was a woman called Andal. The Vaisnava devotional songs are later arranged
in a text called Nalayira Prabandham while those of the Saivites are preserved in
the text known as Devarama.
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The lyrist type of gold coins issued by Samudragupta show him playing a lute. His
interest in music can be detected from this representation. He also issued ashvamedha
Notes
type of coins as mentioned above, In peninsular India also the worship of Vishnu and
Shiva was becoming popular.
The Pallava rulers constructed stone temples in seventh and eighth centuries to house
the images of these gods. The most famous are the seven rathas or temples each made
out of a solid, piece of stone constructed by king Narasimhavarman at Mahabalipuram,
65 km from Chennai. The Pallavas also built many structural temples. One of the most
important among them is the Kailashnath temple, constructed in the eighth century.
The Chalukyas of Vatapi also erected numerous temples at Aihole, Badami and
Pattadakal. Pattadakal has as many as ten temples built in seventh and eighth centuries
and Virupaksha temple. The southern style of architecture came to be known as Dravida.
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Notes
7.13 RELIGION
The Gupta rulers gave patronage to Bhagvatism. But they were tolerant to other
religions too. The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, who came to India
during the reign of Chandragupta II and Harsha respectively, clearly give the impres-
sion that Buddhism was also flourishing. Harsha, though a Shaiva in his early life,
became a follower of Buddhism and a great patron of the religion. He convened an
assembly at Kanauj to publicize Mahayanaism. Nalanda developed as a great center
of education for Mahayana Buddhism during his time. Students from outside coun-
tries also came to study in this university. According to Hsuan Tsang the revenues of
one hundred villages supported it.
Bhagvatism centered on the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations. It put emphasis
on bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non killing of animals) rather than Vedic
rituals and sacrifices. The new religion was quite liberal, and assimilated the lower
classes in its fold. According to Bhagavadgita, the chief text of Bhagvatism, when-
ever there was a social crisis Vishnu would appear in a human form and save the
people. Thus ten incarnations of Vishnu were perceived. Puranas were written to
popularize the virtues of each one of these incarnations. The idols of gods were
housed in the temples constructed in Gupta period.
In south India, from the seventh century onwards the Tamil saints called Alvars and
Nayannaras popularized the concept of bhakti. Alvar saints popularized the wor-
ship of Vishnu and the Nayannar saints, the worship of Shiva.
We also notice the spread of Tantrism in India in this period. From the fifth century
the brahmanas had started receiving land in the tribal areas of Nepal, Assam, Bengal,
Orissa, central India and Deccan. As a consequence, the tribal elements came to be
assimilated in the brahmanical society. The brahmanas adopted their rituals, gods and
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