CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

To maintain life, supply energy, and promote growth, humans must consume food as a necessary

component of their diet. By restoring and growing the body's tissues, it supports, fortifies, and

offers a remedy for illnesses as well as resistance to them (Mohammed et al. 2016). Millions of

people consume street food every day, which provides a range of essential nutrients and energy

needs, in Nigeria and throughout the world. In a 1996 World Health Organization (WHO)

survey, 74% of countries claimed that street foods, which are defined as "ready-to-eat foods,"

processed or fresh, sold at fixed locations or hawked in streets and open places 8 than stores and

licensed establishments, significantly contribute to the urban food supply. According to Ekhator,

Udowella, Igbiri, Asomugba, Igweze, and Orisakwe (2017), the majority of these items are

economical and easily accessible.

Having a large atomic weight, heavy metals are elements that are found naturally. Heavy metals

have a denser composition than water, by a factor of at least five. They have several industrial,

technological, domestic, medical, and agricultural applications, which contribute to their

widespread distribution in the environment. The fact that heavy metals are naturally occurring

elements of the ecosystem in lakes, rivers, lakes, streams, and the atmosphere is pertinent to

mention. The quantity and distribution of metals in our natural system have been changed by

human activity. The body could be harmed and poisoned by the high quantity of heavy metals.

Mercury, lead, arsenic, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic have been listed as high-status metals

that are crucial for public health (Mohammed, Iniaghe, Okoro, Saliu & Adeoti, 2016).

1
According to Iniobong and Uduakobong (2017), there should be a thorough examination of the

level of heavy metals present in crops grown from trash dumpsites due to the potential health

risks involved, Since their presence poses substantial health risks to plants, animals, and people,

the problem of heavy metals contaminating soil and then uptaking and accumulating in food

crops is quickly emerging as a major public health issue. As a result of their bioaccumulation in

the environment over time, heavy metals like arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt

(Co), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) pose a threat to human health. Long-term use of

foods contaminated with heavy metals has been linked to cancer, nervous system abnormalities,

cardiovascular diseases, renal issues, and the degeneration of the liver, lungs, and kidneys.

Despite being rare, dangerous quantities of heavy metals do occur naturally in the ecosystem.

Given their stability and inability to be quickly broken down or removed, heavy metals are

persistent environmental pollutants. Plants take them up through the soil's deposition of

industrial and urban waste, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water (Otitoju et al. 2019). These

days, heavy metal contamination of food is a constant concern, such that harmful substances

including cadmium, lead, and mercury are present in food because of soil, water, and air

pollution. First and foremost, human urban activities, agricultural breakthroughs in chemical

agriculture, and rapid industrial growth are the causes of heavy metal-enriched ecosystem

components. Through the intake of contaminated items, these agents have caused metals to

disperse in the environment and, as a result, have negatively impacted the population's health

(Orish, John, Cecilia, Daniel, &Onyinyechi 2012).

Hence, this study aims at assessing the levels and health risks of some selected heavy metals; As,

Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn in street foods (raw and roasted plantain and yam) sold in road side

of …

2
1.2 Statement of the Problem

In Nigeria, the majority of street foods are distributed or kept in unhygienic circumstances, metal

food pollutants are present at practically all stages of food production, including food growth,

processing, packing, and transportation, storage, marketing, and even eating. These foods may

become contaminated with heavy metals as a result of inappropriate handling, processing, and

storage. The amount of metal concentrations in food items at the time of intake is required for the

assessment of human exposure to metals.

1.3 Justification for the Study

The presence of contaminants like heavy metals creates a substantial health danger, even though

street food is a significant source of nutrition for the general population and a reliable source of

cash for sellers. The study of the risks associated with consuming food polluted with heavy

metals has been driven by the rising demand for food safety. Since consuming hazardous

compounds through food is the main way that people are exposed to them, heavy metals-induced

toxicity is a problem for the general public's health. Therefore the levels of these metals in

commonly consumed street foods sold in Mushin Lagos would be evaluated.

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.4.1 Aim of the Study

Using an inductive coupled plasma-optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES), this study

aims to measure the concentration of heavy metals (As, Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn) and to

evaluate the health risks of the heavy metals in street foods (roasted plantains, raw plantains,

roasted yam, and raw yam) sold in Mushin, Lagos.

3
1.4.2 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study is to:

i. Use an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) to measure

the levels of a few specific heavy metals (silver, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,

vanadium, lead, and zinc) in selected street foods (raw Plantains, Roasted plantains, Raw

Yam and Roasted Yam) sold in Mushin.

ii. Calculate the average dosage ingestion (ADDing), the Hazard Quotient (HQ), the Hazard

Index (HI), and the Cancer Risk (CR) for heavy metals in humans.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Related Works

The two main sources of heavy metal deposition in food are industry and traffic pollution;

automotive emission typically settles on the environment along the roadside and can extend up to

200 m from the roadside, with the majority of deposition occurring within 20 m of the roadside

Soylak and Aydin, (2011).

Metals including As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn are present in these particle deposits.

These metals build up in urban environment, where they have a long-lasting impact on the soil

along roads and can cause other unintended consequences. They result from metal contamination

in the environment near the roadside, which is caused by fuel, motor oil, tire wear, brake wear,

and exhaust catalysts. Asthma, high blood pressure, lung cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease,

dementia, and even early mortality have all been linked in studies to high traffic pollution

(Olumayowa and Nabiel 2017).

Oyelola, Afolabi, Ajiboshin, and Banjoko (2013) asserted that there is a requirement to conduct

out quality parameters on the food based on the probable harmful effects of heavy metals as a

result of excessive intake of roadside roasted food. Therefore, information on the levels of Pb,

Cd, Zn, Fe, and Mn as well as the microbial load in various roadside-roasted plantains and corn

was presented in this study. The review of the literature reveals that, despite extensive talks on

heavy metals and the food chain, little progress has been made in terms of applying more

scientific procedures to lessen the effects of heavy metals on the food chain in Nigeria (Ugonna,

Precious, & Nneka, 2020).

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Researchers in Sokoto, Nigeria's northwestern city made by Garba, Ibrahim, Erhabor, and

Asokan(2017), measured the lead (Pb) content of three popular suya types of meat sold on the

major streets: beef, chevon, and mutton. The sample, which contained both fresh and roasted

meats, was examined for Pb using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) at the same

suya points. The results showed that Pb was present in all of the tested meats. From the main

streets of Sokoto, GawonNama, and AbdullahiFodio, three (3) samples of meat were randomly

selected. The meats were purchased in two batches: the control batch was purchased fresh upon

arrival at the suya point at around 11:00 a.m. on each road or street, and the ready-to-eat batch

was purchased following processing at around 7:00 p.m. at the same suya points. The mean

concentration and standard deviation of lead in beef are 0.070.005, 2.100.10, 0.900.0002,

2.050.044, 0.060.006, and 2.060.020 mg/kg, respectively, while those in lamb are 0.500.010,

2.000.010, 0.800.008, 2.100.020, 0.0400.002, and 1.750.080 mg/kg. People in urban and peri-

urban areas of Sokoto may face health risks even though the concentrations measured were

below safe levels due to the biomagnification and gradual buildup of this non-biodegradable

element.

Iniobong and Uduakobong (2017) claim that the issue of heavy metals contaminating soil and

then uptaking and accumulating in food crops is quickly growing into a significant health

concern since their presence poses considerable health risks to plants, animals, and people.

Heavy metals like arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), lead

(Pb), and nickel (Ni) represent a threat because they bioaccumulate over time in the environment.

Long-term use of food contaminated with heavy metals has been linked to cancer, nervous

system abnormalities, cardiovascular diseases, renal issues, and the degeneration of the liver,

lungs, and kidneys. It is necessary to do a thorough examination of the amount of heavy metals

6
present in crops picked from garbage dumps due to the risk involved. Due to this, a study was

conducted to determine the levels of heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu, Co, Cd, and As) in the

dumpsite soils and plantain fruits, as well as any potential effects on the proximity of these fruits'

chemical makeup. However, every industrial operation also produces waste, which is often

released as wastewater, gases, or solid garbage. It is well known that industrial wastewater

effluents contribute to land and water pollution. Heavy metal contamination is a severe

environmental issue because it appears to be hazardous to both plants and animals. They pose

grave hazards of poisoning to people and have a variety of hazardous effects. Lead (Pb) has been

linked to kidney disease, cancer, anemia, and child mental retardation. The heavy metals chrome

(Cr) and cadmium (Cd), which have been linked to lung, kidney, and liver cancer, are known to

be hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, renal-toxic, and carcinogenic. In contrast to copper (Cu), which was

known to hinder the formation of thyroid and adrenal hormones, zinc (Zn) is classified as a

respiratory illness.

Heavy metals were found in environmental samples taken from different parts of Ibadan city,

according to earlier research, and the city's industries are a major cause of the environment's

deterioration. Around the city's vehicle battery facility, heavy metals have been found in soil

samples. The Pb concentration is the highest of all, reaching 59.13 59.13 48.9 (range 5.00-182.00

mg/kg), or four times the average normal level in the soil. In addition to these heavy metals, Zn,

Cr, Cd, Fe, and Cu were also found, with concentration ranges of 2.681.1 (0.4-5.2 mg/kg),

1.622.4 (ND-8.7 mg/kg), 0.080.09 (ND-0.24 mg/kg), 49.4416.5 (12.5-70 mg/kg), and 4.942.6

mg/kg (0.5-10.5 mg/kg), respectively. The soils are no longer suitable for agricultural use due to

the elevated Pb levels.

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According to Okoyomon, Kadir, Zango, Saidu, and Nura (2002), in the Research done on the

heavy metals present in a few of the city's roadside fast foods, the meal items that were examined

were roasted fish, yam and plantains, "suya" meat, potato, maize, bean doughnuts, and cake. The

reported concentration ranges for Pb, Cu, Zn, and Fe were 0.0320.01-0.0770.05 mg/kg,

0.1070.01-0.2310.14 mg/kg, 0.0230.01-0.0390.04 mg/kg, and 0.5570.20-1.8081.52 mg/kg,

respectively. The sensitivity of the AAS is insufficient for Hg and Cd detection, the

contamination was related to environmental pollution from industry and emissions from car

engines. Human activities are directly contaminating the soil we use to grow food plants, the

water we drink, and the air we breathe. The main human activities that heavily contaminate the

soil with hazardous metals include metal-rich mine tailing, metal smelting, electroplating, gas

exhausts, energy and fuel production, downwash from power lines, intensive agriculture, and

sludge dumping. Due to inappropriate waste disposal procedures and chemical spills involving

wood preservatives and petroleum products, soil may also become contaminated with heavy

metals such as arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, and zinc (Urunmatsoma, Ikhuoria, &Okieimen

2010).

Human activities are directly contaminating the soil we use to grow food plants, the water we

drink, and the air we breathe. The main human activities that heavily contaminate the soil with

hazardous metals include metal-rich mine tailing, metal smelting, electroplating, gas exhausts,

energy and fuel production, downwash from power lines, intensive agriculture, and sludge

dumping. Due to inappropriate waste disposal procedures and chemical spills involving wood

preservatives and petroleum products, the soil may also become contaminated with heavy metals

such as arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, and zinc (Urunmatsoma, Ikhuoria, &Okieimen 2010).

Food toxicity is the result of heavy metal contamination in food, which leads to bioaccumulation

8
and biomagnification of the metals throughout the food chain. Due to an increase in the use of

heavy metals, there has been a huge rise in human exposure to them over the past 50 years (Oyet

and Samuel 2020).

Iron, copper, lead, and zinc were among the heavy metals found in the street food sold in Marina,

Yaba, and Apapa in Lagos, with values ranging from 0.14 mg/kg to 2.80 mg/kg, 0.08 mg/kg to

0.27 mg/kg, 0.01 mg/kg to 0.18 mg/kg, and 0.01 mg/kg to 0.04 mg/kg, respectively. The samples

of street food with heavy metal contamination trended downward in the following sequence: Fe

comes before Copper, Lead, and Zinc. Micronutrients including iron, zinc, and copper are crucial

for metabolic processes in the body. However, concentrations over the recommended limits

increase the risk of non-carcinogenic dangers such as liver disease and other neurologic

conditions. Leading to serious health concerns, lead was the main food sample contamination

(Tavonga, 2014).

Due to the likelihood that Cadmium is a human carcinogen, it was encouraging to see that

Mercury and Cadmium were below the detection level in street meals from Marina, Yaba, and

Apapa. Anemia, bone deterioration, heart disease, a suppressed immunological response, liver,

and kidney disease are just a few of the illnesses that have been linked to exposure to cadmium.

Both the roasted fish from Apapa and the suya meat from Apapa had significantly (P0.05) higher

iron presences of 2.80 mg/kg and 1.99 mg/kg, respectively. As most of the State's water has a

high iron concentration, the high iron level of the food material may have come from the source

of the water used to clean and prepare it. With the WHO study, this is done in cooperation

(Esisy, Hemmat, Mohammed & Ali, 2017).

According to Oyet and Samuel (2020), car emissions contribute to the discharge of pollutants

into the environment, which has an impact on the quality of street food, Health problems like

9
anemia, weight loss, and depression are linked to high Pb exposure. Lead can have negative

effects on the cardiovascular system, immunological system, neurological system, reproductive

system, and immune system. Except for the roasted plantains from Yaba, the roasted yams from

Yaba, and the meat pie that was also supplied from Yaba, all of the samples of vended food had

lead (Pb) concentration that was higher than the CODEX allowed limit of 0.01mg/kg. These

values were higher than the Pb values (0.001 mg/kg) reported by Oyet and Samuel (2020), in

street-vended food samples from three locations in Port Harcourt.

In contrast, grilled chicken (isaw) has lead and cadmium concentrations in the small intestine

that range from 0.54 to 2.1 and 0.14 to 0.24 g/g, respectively, there was no obvious distinction

between the grilled isaw samples in terms of appearance, aroma, or general approval. Consumers

would therefore be unable to tell the difference between chicken that had been cooked recently

and poultry that had been exposed to the environment for some time. In addition, eating chicken

small intestine that has been grilled but not eaten right away after grilling exposes consumers to a

greater risk because it contains more lead and cadmium (Abdul-majid, Baustista, Baustista,

Chavez, Dimaano& Barcelona, 2014).

Roasted plantains, roasted fish, and marinated doughnuts all had zinc contents that were 0.04

mg/kg greater than average. With regard to food type specifically, there were significant

differences in the zinc concentration of roasted fish, suya meat, and egg rolls from Marina, Yaba,

and Apapa (P 0.05). This suggests that location has a substantial impact on the distribution of

metal in street food vending. The atmosphere contains a lot of zinc, a common metal. A deficit in

zinc has a number of negative health implications, and it is a trace element whose requirements

alter throughout life.Urination and gastrointestinal discomforts as nausea, cramping, and diarrhea

are linked to acute zinc levels in humans. When linked to food ingredients, such as meat and

10
seafood, however, these medical issues become less noticeable. According to Oyet and Samuel

(2020), dietary Zn contamination reduced copper usage as well.

2.2 Effect of Heavy Metals in Human

Heavy metal-induced toxicity and carcinogenicity involves many mechanistic aspects, some of

which are not clearly elucidated or understood. However, each metal is known to have unique

features that confer to its specific toxicological mechanisms of action. This review provides an

analysis of their potential for human exposure, and molecular mechanisms of toxicity,

genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of cadmium, chromium, lead and arsenic (Tchounwou et al.,

2012).

2.2.1. Lead

2.2.1.1 Exposure Potential for Humans

The primary routes of lead exposure for individuals are by inhalation of lead-contaminated dust

or aerosols, as well as through consumption of lead-contaminated food, water, and paints.

Children may absorb more than 50% of the lead that is ingested by adults, which ranges from 35

to 50%. Two factors that affect lead absorption are age and physiological state. While the

majority of the body's lead is found in the bones, the kidney absorbs the most lead in comparison

to the liver, other soft tissues including the heart and brain, and other organs. The nervous system

is the lead poisoning sufferer most at risk. Early indications of the consequences of lead exposure

on the central nervous system include headaches, short attention spans, irritability, forgetfulness,

and dullness (Tchounwou et al., 2012).Since the late 1970s, lead exposure has drastically

decreased as a result of several measures, including the elimination of lead in gasoline and the

11
reduction of lead levels in household paints, food and drink cans, and plumbing systems (Pirkle

et al., 1998). Numerous federal initiatives have supported lead abatement in homes and screening

programs for lead poisoning in children, in addition to supporting prohibitions on lead in solder

cans, gasoline, paint, and other household products. Despite the improvements made in these

activities, human lead exposure continues to pose a serious health risk. Pirkle et al. (1998) claim

that lead is the most dangerous substance that has an impact on all of the body's systems,

including the kidneys, liver, central neurological system, hematological system, endocrine

system, and reproductive system. Molecular Mechanisms of Lead's Carcinogenicity and Toxicity

Numerous published research have demonstrated the negative effects of lead on both children

and adults. These studies have demonstrated a relationship between blood level poisoning in

children and reduced intelligence, a lower IQ, delayed or impaired neurobehavioral development,

hearing loss, speech and language impairments, growth retardation, short attention spans, anti-

social and diligent behaviors, and poor hearing acuity. High lead exposure has been associated

with adverse effects on adult populations' ability to reproduce, including reduced sperm counts in

men and spontaneous miscarriages in women. According to Apostololi, Kiss, Stefano, Bonde,

and Vanhoorne (1998), chronic lead exposure may have harmful consequences on the kidneys,

blood, central nervous system, blood pressure, and vitamin D metabolism. Acute lead exposure

results in gastrointestinal problems, kidney problems, and brain damage.

2.2.2. Cadmium

2.2.2.1 Exposure Potential for Humans

People are most exposed to cadmium by ingestion of food or inhalation of cigarette smoke. Skin

absorption almost seldom happens. Human cadmium exposure can result from a variety of

activities, including working in primary metal industries, eating contaminated food, smoking

12
cigarettes, and being in its vicinity at work. The biggest risk factor by far is smoking. Other

sources of cadmium include emissions from industrial activities like mining, smelting, and the

production of pigments, stabilizers, alloys, batteries, and pigments. Saturag, Baker, Urbenjapol,

Haswell-Elkins, Reily, and Williams (2003) claim that cadmium is also present in a variety of

foods, such as leafy vegetables, potatoes, cereals, and seeds, as well as in the liver, kidney, and

crustaceans and mollusks, in trace concentrations. Furthermore, eating meals high in cadmium

can considerably increase the amount of cadmium in the body. Seaweed, liver, mushrooms,

shrimp, mussels, dried seaweed, and cocoa powder are a few examples. Considering that blood

vessels are regarded to be the main organs impacted by cadmium poisoning, the circulatory

system constitutes a significant route of exposure. Chronic inhalation exposure to cadmium

particles is frequently associated with chest radiographs that show emphysema and changes in

pulmonary function. Workplace exposure to airborne cadmium particles has been associated with

diminished olfactory function. Numerous epidemiologic studies have found a connection

between long-term low-level cadmium exposure and osteoporosis (Schutte, Nawrot, Richart,

Thijs, Vanderschueren, Kunznetsova et al., 2008).

2.2.2.2 Cadmium's Toxic and Carcinogenic Molecular Mechanisms

Cadmium is a dangerous irritant to the lungs and digestive system that can be fatal if swallowed

or inhaled. After an initial ingestion, symptoms such abdominal pain, a burning sensation,

nausea, vomiting, salivation, muscle cramps, vertigo, shock, loss of consciousness, and

convulsions usually start to show up 15 to 30 minutes later (Baselt and Cravey, 1995). Acute

cadmium ingestion may also cause unconsciousness, gastrointestinal tract erosion, lung, hepatic,

or renal damage, depending on the route of poisoning. Acute cadmium ingestion can also cause

gastrointestinal tract erosion, pulmonary, hepatic, or renal injury, as well as coma, depending on

13
the route of poisoning. Chronic cadmium exposure lowers norepinephrine, serotonin, and

acetylcholine levels. Studies on animals have shown that cadmium inhalation causes lung

adenocarcinomas over time. It can also cause prostatic proliferative lesions, such as

adenocarcinomas, after systemic or direct exposure (Tchounwou et al., 2012).

2.2.3. Arsenic

2.2.3.1 Exposure Potential to Humans.

Arsenic air concentrations range from 1 to 3 mg/m3 in rural locations (away from human

release), but they are between 20 and 100 mg/m3 in metropolitan areas. They normally contain

less than 10 g/L of water, while greater concentrations can occasionally be discovered adjacent

to natural mineral deposits or mining sites. There are 20 to 140 mg/kg in various foods.

According to Tchounwou, Centeno, and Patlolla (2004), pesticide use and waste disposal can

cause arsenic levels in soil to rise significantly from the natural range of 1 to 40 mg/kg.

The majority of people get most of their exposure from diet, which they consume on average at

about 50 ug per day. Workers may be exposed to much higher levels of arsenic in fields like

vineyards, ceramics, glass-making, smelting, metal-ore refining, pesticide production and

application, wood preservation, and semiconductor manufacturing. Tchounwou, Centeno, and

Patlolla (2003) claim that exposure to arsenic affects almost all organ systems, including the

respiratory, hepatobiliary, cardiovascular, dermatological, neurological, gastrointestinal, and

renal systems. The extent of a harmful health effect varies depending on the chemical form and

is time- and dose-dependent.

2.2.3.2 Toxicity and carcinogenicity mechanisms

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One of the ways arsenic produces toxicity is by blocking a variety of mitochondrial enzymes and

decoupling oxidative phosphorylation, which both have an impact on cellular respiration.

Arsenic's ability to interact with sulfhydryl groups in proteins and enzymes and to substitute for

phosphorus in a range of metabolic pathways is what accounts for the majority of its toxicity.

2000 (Wang and Rossmann).

2.2.4. Chromium (Cr)

2.2.4.1 Exposure Potential to Humans

For non-occupational exposure to the metal, chromium is found in food and water, whereas

inhalation is employed for occupational exposure. Chromium concentrations in soil range from 1

to 3000 mg/kg, in seawater from 5 to 800 g/L, and in rivers and lakes from 26 g/L to 5.2 mg/L,

respectively. Processing and cooking have an impact on the amount of chromium in food, which

varies greatly. Most fresh foods typically contain between 10 and 1,300 g of chromium per

kilogram. Workers in modern companies that use chromium may be exposed to levels of

chromium that are two orders of magnitude higher than those in the general population.

It is widely known that occupational and environmental exposure to materials containing Cr(VI)

can impair a number of organ systems, including the kidneys in people, and result in allergies,

asthma, and lung cancer. There are certain people who are extremely sensitive to chromium (VI)

and chromium (III), and allergic reactions marked by notable skin swelling and redness have

been observed. Ingestion of extremely high doses of chromium (VI) compounds, whether

accidental or deliberate, has caused severe respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,

hematological, hepatic, renal, and neurological effects in humans. These effects have either been

15
a part of the sequelae that have resulted in death or have been present in patients who have

survived thanks to medical intervention (Shellnut, Goad, and Belsito, 2007).

Chromium compounds' solubility and degree of oxidation are important factors in determining

how poisonous they are.

According to Dayan and Paine (2001), Cr(VI) compounds, which are strong oxidizing agents and

usually irritant and caustic, appear to be significantly more dangerous systemically than Cr(III)

compounds at equivalent concentrations and solubilities. Even though the exact mechanisms of

biological interaction are still not fully understood, it is possible that the ease with which Cr (VI)

can pass through cell membranes and its subsequent intracellular reduction to reactive

intermediates are related to the variation in toxicity. Due to Cr (III)'s limited absorption through

all routes, the Cr (VI) form is primarily responsible for chromium's toxicity. It can get into

unbroken skin and, to some extent, the lungs and digestive system, where it can get absorbed. It

is believed that Cr (VI) reduction functions as a detoxifying process when it occurs far from the

target location for toxic or genotoxic effects; but, if it happens inside or near the cell nucleus of

the target organs, it may help to activate chromium toxicity. Even while Cr(VI) can be changed

to Cr(III) extracellularly, cells do not readily absorb this form of the metal, hence toxicity is not

observed. The balance between external Cr(VI) and internal Cr(III) controls how much and how

quickly Cr(VI) can enter cells and cause damage (Dayan and Paine, 2001).

2.3 Health Risk Assessment Parameters

Health risk assessment is the process of estimating the probability of an occurrence (exposure to

heavy metals) and the likely magnitude of any adverse effects over a specific time frame.

Solayman, Islam, Paul, Ali, Khali, Alam, and Khan (2016) claim that the evaluation of the risk to

human health in this study was divided into three phases: hazard identification, which involved

16
selecting heavy metals of concern; exposure and dose intake assessment, which identified the

potential average daily dosage for the three exposure routes through which humans could

become contaminated; and finally, classification of the human health risk as either carcinogenic

or non-carcinogenic.

2.3.1 Average Daily Dose

Based on the exposure to heavy metal assessment model, the average daily dose (ADD), which is

the amount of heavy metal concentration consumed, breathed, or absorbed via the skin, was

calculated (Solayman et al. 2016). The following are the exposure assessment equations:

Ingestion

mg
C( ) XIngRXEFFXED
ADDing= kg (2.1)
BWXAT

Dermal Contact

mg
C( ) XSAXAFXABSXEFXED
ADDderm = kg (2.2)
BWXAT

Inhalation

mg
C( ) XInhRXEFXED
ADDinh = kg (2.3)
PEFXBWXAT

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Parameter values in average daily intake calculation model of heavy metals

PARAMETER PHYSICAL MEANING UNIT CHILD ADULT

C The concentration of heavy metals mg·kg-1 - -

IngR Daily intake rate mg·kg-1 100 200

InhR Inhalation rate m3·d-1 5.6 16.5

EF Exposure frequency day·year 180 180

ED Exposure time year 6 24

PEF Dust emission factor m3·kg-1 1.36×109m3·kg-1

CF Conversion factor - 1×10-6

BW Average weight kg 14.9 58.6

ABS Skin absorption factor / 0.001

SA Exposed skin surface area cm2 4350 1600

AF Average exposure time / 0.2 0.2

AT Average exposure time Day 365×6 365×24

AT Average exposure time day 365×70 365×70

Xin-jie et al, 2018

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2.3.2 Hazard Quotient

Equations 2.4 and 2.5 describe the characterization of the human health risk, with the hazard

quotient being defined as a ratio between exposure, or the ADD for the heavy metal's per-

exposure pathway, and the reference dosage of the heavy metal. The non-carcinogenic health

risk was identified as the sum of the hazard quotients for each of the three exposure paths. The

following formula was used to determine HQ values:

ADD
HQ = (2.4)
RFD

Reference doses (RfD) (mg/kg/day) and Slope Factor (mg/kg/day)

Elements RfDing RfDinh SFing SFderm

Cu 4 X 10-2 4 X 10-2 1.7 42.5

Pb 3.5 X 10-3 3.5 X 10-3 - -

Zn 3 X 10-1 3 X 10-1 - -

Cd 1 X 10-3 1 X 10-3 0.501 20

Ni 2 X 10-2 2 X 10-2 - -

Cr 3 X 10-3 2.86 X 10-5 0.5 20

As 3 X 10-4 3 X 10-4 1.5 3.6

V 5.04 X 10-3 5.04 X 10-3 - -

2.3.3 Hazard Index (HI)

The following equation was used to construct the hazard index, which is the sum of numerous

hazard quotients for various toxicants or exposure pathways:

HI = HQ(Cd) + HQ (Cr) + HQ (Pb) + HQ (As) …….. (2.5)

19
where the variables in equations 2.1–2.6 are defined as follows: Children and adults both have a

dermal absorption factor of 0.001, IngR intake rates for children are 200 mg daily and 100 mg

daily, and InhR inhalation rates are 7.6 mg/cm 2 for children and 16.5 mg/cm 2 for adults and

ExFr: There are 350 days of exposure per year for both children and adults. Children are exposed

for six years, whereas adults are exposed for twenty-four years. Children's body weight is

14.9kg, whereas an adult's is 58.6 kg. While for adults it is 365, for children it is 365.

Children's skin surface area in contact with dirt is 4350 cm 2/event, but adults' skin surface area is

1600 cm2/event. The conversion factor is 10-6, and the particle emission factor is 1.36X10 9

m3/kg.

3.5.4 Cancer Risk (CR)

Cancer risk (CR) indicates an incremental probability of an individual of developing cancer over

a lifetime due to exposure to a potential carcinogen. It was calculated based on the USEPA,

(2001) guidelines

CR = ADD × SF

20
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 Area of Study

Mushin is a local government area in Lagos State, Nigeria. It is one of the most densely

populated areas in Lagos and has a mix of residential and commercial buildings. The area is

known for its bustling markets, street vendors, and vibrant nightlife.Mushin has a latitude of

6°32'6.84"N and a longitude of 3°20'56.28".In recent years, Mushin has undergone significant

development with the construction of new roads, bridges, and public facilities. This has helped to

improve the overall living conditions in the area and attract more businesses.Despite its

reputation as a busy and sometimes chaotic area, Mushin has a strong sense of community

among its residents. Many people have lived in the area for generations and take pride in their

local culture and traditions. Overall, Mushin is a unique part of Lagos that offers visitors a

glimpse into the city's rich history and vibrant present-day culture.

3.2 Sample Collection

Sample was collected from the seller on the road side in Mushin Lagos, the raw and roasted

plantains and yams which were collected from the customers were subsequently transferred into

polythene bags.

3.3 Sample Treatment

This samples was oven dry in temperature of about 105°C for three (3) hours to ensure that the

samples total dry before it was transfer to powder form. A mortar and pestle were used to smash

dried samplesraw and roasted plantain and yam respectively.

21
3.4 Sample Analysis

3.4.1 Materials use

The study's reagents were analytical quality, among the reagent were Nitric acid (Scharlau

Spain), Whatmann Filter paper (125 mm), ultra-pure reagent water (Merck US), hydrogen

peroxide (Merck US), and hydrochloric acid (Merck US) were the reagents utilized.

3.4.2 Sample Digestion

Each sample was weighed after being homogenized at 1 g in beakers of 20 ml and aqua regia

was added along with the samples. In a fume hood, the digestion took place for about an hour

while being heated on a block at a temperature below 90°C.

Each beaker received 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide, which was added and heated for 10 minutes

after the beakers had been allowed to cool for some minute and then sample's digestate volume

was measured following the completion of digestion.

For ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrophotometer) analysis, the

digestate was filtered and 0.5ml of disgestated sample was diluted with 10 ml of ultra-pure

deionized water.

To convert to mg/kg, multiply by

Concentration (mg/kg) =

Instrument readout concentration is measured in Mg/Kg.

Final Volume = as each sample was recorded.

20 is the dilution factor.

Sample mass = 0.001 kilogram

22
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

Table 4.1. Heavy metal concentration in plantain and yam samples.

Heavy metal concentration (mgkg-1)

Elements
Raw plantain Roasted plantain Raw yam Roasted yam AVMRS AVMROS

Cr 33.08 6.90 71.33 23.53 52.21 15.22

Cu 28.59 11.48 89.26 36.55 58.93 48.03

Zn 24.40 30.04 53.45 13.61 38.93 21.83

As ND 7.88 17.86 ND 8.93 3.94

Cd ND 0.90 ND 0.32 0.16 0.45

Pb 19.82 0.69 7.52 14.79 13.67 7.74

Ag 0.57 ND 11.21 10.81 5.89 5.41

ND – Not Detected, AVMRS-Average Mean of Raw Sample, AVMROS- Average Mean of

Roasted

23
 Table 4.2 Average dose ingestion (ADDing) of heavy metals in plantain and yam
Adult Children
Element Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Roasted
Raw yam
plantain plantain yam yam plantain plantain yam
Cr 55.67 11.61 120.05 39.60 109.47 22.83 236.08 77.86
Cu 48.11 19.32 150.24 61.52 94.61 37.99 295.43 120.98
Zn 41.07 50.55 89.96 22.91 80.77 99.41 176.91 45.06
As ND 13.26 30.07 ND ND 26.07 59.12 ND
Cd ND 1.52 ND 0.54 ND 2.99 ND 1.07
Pb 33.36 1.16 12.65 24.90 65.59 2.28 24.88 48.95
Ag 0.95 ND 18.86 18.19 1.87 ND 37.09 35.78

Table 4.3 Average dose dermal (ADDderm) of heavy metals in plantain and yam
Adult Children
Element Raw Roasted Roasted Raw Roasted Raw
Raw yam Roasted yam
plantain plantain yam plantain plantain yam
Cr 8.91 x 10-2 1.86 x 10-2 1.92 x 10-1 6.33 x 10-2 9.52 x 10-1 1.98 x 10-1 2.05 6.77 x 10-1
Cu 7.70 x 10-2 3.10 x 10-2 2.40 x 10-1 9.84 x 10-2 8.23 x 10-1 3.30 x 10-1 2.57 1.05
Zn 6.57 x 10-2 8.09 x 10-2 1.44 x 10-1 3.67 x 10-2 7.03 x 10-1 8.65 x 10-1 1.54 3.92 x 10-1
As ND 2.12 x 10-2 4.81 x 10-2 ND ND 2.27 x 10-2 5.14 x 10-1 ND
Cd ND 2.43 x 10-3 ND 8.72 x 10-4 ND 2.60 x 10-2 ND 9.32 x 10-3
Pb 5.34 x 10-2 1.85 x 10-3 2.02 x 10-2 3.98 x 10-2 5.71 x 10-1 1.98 x 10-2 2.16 x 10-1 4.26 x 10-1
Ag 1.52 x 10-3 ND 3.02 x 10-2 2.91 x 10-2 1.63 x 10-2 ND 3.23 x 10-1 3.11 x 10-1
Source: Extracted by the researcher, 2023

Table 4.4 Average dose inhalation (ADDinh) of heavy metals in plantain and yam

24
 Adult Children

Element Raw Roasted Roasted Raw Roasted Roasted

Raw yam Raw yam
plantain plantain yam plantain plantain yam

Cr 3.38 x 10-9 7.04 x 10-10 7.28 x 10-9 2.40 x 10-9 4.51 x 10-9 9.40 x 10-10 9.72 x 10-9 3.21 x 10-9

Cu 2.92 x 10-9 1.17 x 10-9 9.11 x 10-9 3.73 x 10-9 3.90 x 10-9 1.56 x 10-9 1.22 x 10-8 4.98 x 10-9

Zn 2.49 x 10-9 3.07 x 10-9 5.46 x 10-9 1.39 x 10-9 3.33 x 10-9 4.09 x 10-9 7.28 x 10-9 1.86 x 10-9

As ND 8.04 x 10-10 1.82 x 10-9 ND ND 1.07 x 10-9 2.43 x 10-9 ND

Cd ND 9.22 x 10-11 ND 3.30 x 10-11 ND 1.23 x 10-10 ND 4.41 x 10-11

Pb 2.02 x 10-9 7.02 x 10-11 7.68 x 10-10 1.51 x 10-9 2.70 x 10-9 9.38 x 10-11 1.02 x 10-9 2.02 x 10-9

Ag 5.76 x 10-11 ND 1.14 x 10-9 1.10 x 10-9 7.69 x 10-11 ND 1.53 x 10-9 1.47 x 10-9

Source: Extracted by the researcher, 2023

Table 4.5 Average HQing of heavy metals in plantain and yam

25
 Adult Children
Elemen
Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted
t
plantain plantain yam yam plantain plantain yam yam

Cr 1.86 x 10-4 3.87 x 10-3 4.00 x 10-4 1.32 x 10-4 3.65 x 10-4 7.61 x 10-3 7.87 x 10-4 2.60 x 10-4

Cu 1.20 x 10-3 4.83 x 10-3 3.76 x 10-3 1.54 x 10-3 2.37 x 10-3 9.50 x 10-2 7.39 x 10-3 3.02 x 10-3

Zn 1.37 x 10-2 1.69 x 10-3 3.00 x 10-2 7.64 x 10-1 2.69 x 10-2 3.31 x 10-2 5.90 x 10-2 1.50 x 10-2

As ND 4.42 x 10-4 1.00 x 10-5 ND ND 8.69 x 10-4 1.97 x 10-5 ND

Cd ND 1.52 x 10-3 ND 5.45 x 10-2 ND 2.99 x 10-3 ND 1.07 x 10-3

Pb 9.53 x 10-3 3.31 x 10-2 3.62 x 10-3 7.11 x 10-3 1.87 x 10-4 6.51 x 10-2 7.11 x 10-3 1.40 x 10-4

Table 4.6 Average HQinh of heavy metals in plantain and yam

Adult Children
Elemen
Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted
t
plantain plantain yam yam plantain plantain yam yam
Cr 1.18 x 10-4 2.46 x 10-5 2.55 x 10-4 8.40 x 10-5 1.50 x 10-6 3.13 x 10-7 3.24 x 10-6 1.07 x 10-6

Cu 7.30 x 10-8 2.93 x 10-8 2.28 x 10-7 9.33 x 10-8 9.74 x 10-8 3.91 x 10-8 3.04 x 10-7 1.25 x 10-7

Zn 8.31 x 10-9 1.02 x 10-8 1.82 x 10-8 4.63 x 10-9 1.11 x 10-8 1.36 x 10-8 2.43 x 10-8 6.18 x 10-9

As ND 2.68 x 10-8 6.08 x 10-6 ND ND 3.58 x 10-6 8.11 x 10-6 ND

Cd ND 9.22 x 10-8 ND 3.30 x 10-8 ND 1.23 x 10-7 ND 4.41 x 10-8

Pb 5.78 x 10-7 2.01 x 10-8 2.19 x 10-7 4.31 x 10-7 7.72 x 10-7 2.68 x 10-8 2.93 x 10-7 5.76 x 10-7

Source: Extracted by the researcher, 2023.

Table 4.7 Average HI of heavy metals in plantain and yam

Element Adult Children

26
 Raw Roasted Roasted Raw Roasted Raw Roasted
Raw yam
plantain plantain yam plantain plantain yam yam
Ingestion 31919.45 50738.65 149508.00 23114.72 62767.77 99774.66 293999.00 45453.78

Inhalation 1.19 x 10-4 2.75E-05 0.000261 8.46 x 10-5 2.58 x 10-6 4.11 x 10-6 1.21 x 10-5 1.87 x 10-6

Source: Extracted by the researcher, 2023

Table 4.8 Cancer Risk Ingestion of heavy metals in plantain and yam
Adult Children
Raw
Metals
Raw Roasted Raw Roasted Plantai Roasted Raw Roasted
Plantain Plantain yam yam n Plantain yam yam
118.0
Cr 27.83 5.80 60.03 19.80 54.74 11.41 4 38.93
502.2
Cu 81.79 32.84 255.40 104.59 160.84 64.58 4 205.67
As 0 19.88 45.099 0 0 39.10 88.68 0
Cd 0 0.76 0 0.27 0 1.50 0 0.54
Source: Extracted by the researcher, 2023

Table 4.9 Cancer Risk Dermal of heavy metals in plantain and yam
CR Dermal
Adult Children
Raw Roasted Raw Roasted
Metals
Plantai Plantai Raw Roaste Plantai Plantai Raw Roaste
n n yam d yam n n yam d yam
Cr 1.78 0.37 3.84 1.27 19.05 3.97 41.078 13.55
Cu 3.27 1.31 10.22 4.18 34.98 14.05 109.24 44.73
As 0 0.08 0.177 0 0 0.83 1.88 0
Cd 0 0.05 0 0.02 0 0.52 0 0.19

27
4.2 DISCUSSIONS

The concentrations of the heavy metals in the studied street foods sample (raw and roasted

plantains and yam) were presented in Table 1. All metal concentrations were determined on the

dry weight basis. All results are expressed as mg/kg/dry weight. Arsenic was not detected in the

roasted plantain and yam, cadmium was not detected in the raw plantain and yam, and Silver was

not detected in the roasted plantain Samples.

In raw plantain the metals ranged from 33.08 mg/kg to 0.57 mg/kg, these values which indicated

that the highest concentration in Cr and the lowest concentration in Ag. Roasted plantain values

ranged from 30.04 to 0.69 which indicates that we have the highest concentration in Zn and the

lowest concentration in Pb. Raw yam samples ranged from 89.26 to 7.52 that is Cu to Pb, and

roasted yam ranges from 36.55 to 0.32 mg/kg which indicates a higher concentration of Cu to

Cd.

Zinc is an essential heavy metal and it is found in many organisms cells as one of the major

components of different enzymes. It is involved in various aspects of cellular metabolism.

(Osredkar et al., 2011). It is also important for an immune system and well-functioningision

synthesis of protein and collagen. (Yirgu, 2011). However, high amounts of zinc become

harmful to human health. (WHO, 2011). In the present study, the maximum concentration of zinc

was found in raw yam among the four samples of food followed by roasted plantain, raw

plantain, and roasted yam with their values which are 53.45, 30.04,24.40 and 13,61 mg/kg. These

values are below the WHO recommended limit of 60 mg/kg in food. These can be compared

with Zn content exceeded the standard significantly more than other heavy metals, and according

28
to the analysis, the main sampling sites in the study were located near the main roads and the

parking lots of residential areas, while some studies suggested that high concentration of Zn was

related to wear and tear for car parts and tires (Goix et al. 2016).

The Average dose ingestion values are represented in Table 4.2 the Zn values follow the

ascending order in adults: Raw yam, roasted plantain, raw plantain, and roasted yam with values

of 89.96, 50.55, 41.07 and 22.91respectively. In children, raw yam has the highest value

followed by roasted plantain, with raw plantain with toasted yam having the lowest; the values

are 176.91, 99.41, 80.77 and 45.06 respectively. The Average dose dermal and inhalation values

for Zn were lower than one which indicates the safety of the Zn in these studies except for the

raw yam in ADDderm which is greater than 1 in children and indicates the risk to human health.

This studies was observed to be greater than the result 0f roasted plantain, fish, meat, and corn in

Lagos. (Oyet and Samuel 2020). And 1 mg/kg is CODEX maximum limit of contaminant, but

similar to the result of doughnut, meat pie, chinchin, hot dog, and sausage roll, analyzed in

southern Nigeria(chukwujindu et al.,2013).

The hazard quotient of zinc in ingestion and inhalation in all the selected food samples for adults

and children are less than 1, The results for the hazard quotient are presented in Table 4.5 and

4.6, the hazard quotient value for the selected foods in adults is higher than that of children and

the values are less 1 is which is the safety limit, this indicates that there is no health risk for adult

and children taking this foods.

The results of this study show that all the food samples were contaminated with copper. Copper

on the other hand is also an essential heavy metal and an important constituent of a living

organism. It plays an important role in the production of myelin, melanin, and hemoglobin. It

29
helps in the proper functioning of the thyroid gland. (Osredkar et al., 2011). In this study, the

concentration of copper is presented in Table 1. The highest concentration was found in raw

yam followed by roasted yam, raw plantain and the lowest concentration was found in roasted

plantain and the values are represented 89.26, 36.55, 28.59 and 11.48. The average dose

ingestion (ADDing) of copper was presented in Table 4.2, with raw yam,raw plantain, roasted

yam and plantain in Adults are represented by 150.14, 61.52, 48.11and 19.32, respectively and in

children with 294.43,120.98, 94.61, and 37.99 respectively.The average dose dermal (ADDderm)

of copper was presented in Table 4.2, with raw yam,raw plantain, roasted yam and plantain in

Adults are represented by 150.14, 61.52, 48.11and 19.32, respectively and in children with

294.43,120.98, 94.61, and 37.99 respectively.The average dose inhalation(ADDinh) of copper

was presented in Table 4.2, with raw yam,raw plantain, roasted yam and plantain in Adults are

represented by 150.14, 61.52, 48.11and 19.32, respectively and in children with 294.43,120.98,

94.61, and 37.99 respectively.

The values for the hazard quotient for copper are presented in Table 4.5 and 4.6. The values for

hazard quotient are higher for both adult and children in the tables shows, the hazard quotient

values to be below the concern level which is 1 and how safe the selected foods are to human

health.

Arsenic is classified as a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC,

2012). It is in the form of both organic and inorganic. Inorganic arsenic is more toxic than

organic arsenic. (Zeitoun&Mehana, 2014). Long periods of exposure to arsenic affect the lungs,

skin, kidneys, and urinary bladder (WHO, 2011). There is no significant difference in arsenic

concentration among the studied of the selected food. The concentration of arsenic in the

selected food are as follow raw yam and roasted plantain with values of 17.86 and 7.88 which
30
are above the permissible limit of 1 mg/kg of arsenic in fish. (FAO/ WHO, 2002). The

concentration of raw plantain and roasted yam was not detected in this study. The arsenic

concentration reported by Paudel et al., 2016 is 0.69mg/kg/dry weight in economically important

fishes in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The Table for hazard quotient values for adult and children

is represented in Table 4.5 and 4.6, and the values for hazard quotient in adults and children were

lower than 1 in both ingestion and inhalation.

Chromium is a non-essential heavy metal. The International Agency of Research on Cancer

(IARC) in 2012 determined chromium compounds as carcinogenic to human health. Long

periods of exposure can cause liver, kidney, circulatory, and nerve tissue damage. (Kim, Kim

&Seo, 2015). A high concentration of chromium (III) in cells leads to DNA damage. (Eastmond,

Macgregor &Slesink, 2008). The highest concentration of chromium was found in raw yam and

the lowest concentration was found in roasted plantain whose value are 71.33 and 6.90

respectively which are above the permissible value of 1 mg/kg. (WHO, 2004). Hassan, Rahman

& Chowdhury, (2013), reported the concentration of chromium in market fish from Dhaka City

as 0.75 mg/kg/dry weight. Ahmed, Shaheen, Mamun, Islam, Bagchi&Stohs 2001 found the

levels of chromium in cultured fish of Bangladesh were within the range of 1.054-1.349

mg/kg/wet weight, both studies have values lower than the present study. The values for the

Average dose ingestion for chromium in this study are presented in Table 4.2. The concentration

values in children was higher than the value for adult which are greater than 1. Table 4.5 and 4.6

shows the hazard quotient (ingestion and inhalation) value for chromium in adults and children,

the calculations were made using the UESPA standard procedure (UESPA, 2011). The Hazard

quotient values of chromium through consumption of selected food in hazard quotient (ingestion

and inhalation are less than 1.This implies the safety of the studies in Mushin area.

31
Lead was found in all selected samples and the pattern of accumulation follows in this order:

Raw plantain, roasted yam, raw yam and roasted plantain. The raw plantain sample showed a

higher lead concentration of 19.82 mg/kg and lower concentration of 0.69 mg/kg in roasted

plantain From previous research reported by Alturiqi&Albedair (2012), lead was found in the

range of 3.24-9.17mg/kg/dry weight in three different sites. However, the obtained results of lead

in the samples exceeded the permissible limits of 1.75 mg/kg as recommended by the WHO. The

average dose ingestion of lead is presented in Table 4.2; Children had higher values than adults

with values and that the values were greater than 1(>1), which implies that the combined effect

of all the selected metals could pose health hazard.

The Hazard index values were also calculated for ingestion and inhalation, the resulting values

are presented in Table 4.7, Hazard index values for all metals were found to be greater than 1

(>1), in ingestion, which implies that the combined effect of all the selected metals could pose

health hazards. But for the inhalation the values were less than 1, this also implies how healthy it

is to human health.

The cancer risk (Ingestion and dermal) values are represented in Table 4.7 and 4.8. For all the

selected food, the cancer risk values for Chromium and Copper were detected and there values

were high both in adults and children, which indicates a very high cancer risk to those in Mushin

area. Not all the selected food was detected in Arsenic and Cadmium. In As raw plantain and

roasted yam was not detected while in Cd raw plantain and raw yam was not detected. Cd has

low concentration in all the selected food both in adult and children except for the roasted

plantain in CRinh which greater than 1.All the values greater than 1 implies increase in cancer

risk and values less than 1 implies decrease in cancer risk to human`s health living in Mushin

area.

32
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

The results of this study demonstrate that the analyzed samples' mean heavy metal concentration

was higher than the permitted levels set by the WHO, FAO, and CODEX. This is good news

because, although copper deficiency may result in anemia and low white blood cell counts,

cadmium may cause cancer in humans.

These metals have lower hazard quotients, hazard indexes, and average daily dosages, all of

which suggest lesser pollution. The cancer risk is also less than one, suggesting decreased cancer

risk, except lead, where it was greater and suggested a high cancer risk.

These meals can become polluted by car exhaust, raw ingredients sourced from highly

contaminated sources, inadequate hygiene practices, and unsanitary circumstances. As a result,

eating foods from the street poses a major risk to one's health; it is crucial to regulate and

enhance these foods' environmental circumstances.

5.2 Recommendation

Environmental health professionals should inform street sellers of the risks associated with

exposing food to the elements near the road, and periodical examinations should be made to

determine the extent of heavy metal contamination in food.

The Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Commission (FCCPC) and other pertinent

Nigerian organizations, such as the National Agency for Food, Drug Administration, and Control

(NAFDAC), must impose rigorous adherence to the required quantities of key nutrients in foods.

33
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