Math MSC PS03 Solutions

Francesc Dilmé
Mathematics for Economists
Problem Set 3, Solutions

University of Bonn
Solve all problems using proper proofs.
1. Show that [a, b] ⊂ R is closed, for any a < b, a, b ∈ R.

Take arbitrary a, b ∈ R such that a < b and define A ≡ [a, b]. Note that Ac =
(−∞, a)∪(b, ∞). Take an arbitrary x ∈ Ac : either x < a or x > b. If x < a, define
ε ≡ (a−x)
2
> 0. Then Bε (x) ⊂ Ac since ∀y ∈ Bε (x) y < x + ε = x2 + a2 < a. If,
instead, x > b, define ε ≡ (x−b)
2
> 0. Then, again Bε (x) ⊂ Ac since, ∀y ∈ Bε (x),
y > x − ε = x2 + 2b > b. Thus ∀x ∈ Ac ∃ε > 0 such that Bε (x) ⊂ Ac and Ac is
open. This implies A = [a, b] is closed.
2. Let A be a set and int(A) its interior. Assume that B is open and B ⊂ A.
Prove that B ⊂ int(A).
Let B ⊂ A be open. Assume, for the sake of contradiction, that there exists x ∈ B
such that x ∈
/ int(A). Since B is open, there exists ε > 0 such that Bε (x) ⊂ B ⊂ A.
Therefore, x ∈ int(A), which is a contradiction, and so B ⊂ int(A).
3. Prove that if A ⊂ U is a set then A is closed.

c
We want to prove that A is open. Take any x ∈ / A. Necessarily, there is some
ε > 0 such that Bε (x) ∩ A = ∅. Let’s show that Bε/2 (x) ∩ A = ∅. Assume, for
the sake of contradiction, that there is some y ∈ Bε/2 (x) ∩ A. Since y ∈ A there
exists some z ∈ A ∩ Bε/2 (y). In this case, we have
d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
This is a clear contradiction with Bε (x) ∩ A = ∅. So, A is closed.
4. Fix x ∈ Rn and ε > 0. Prove that the open ball of radius ε centered at
x, Bε (x), is convex.
(Hint: use the the fact that d(x1 , x2 ) ≡ kx − yk and k · k is a norm.)
Take any x1 , x2 ∈ Bε (x) and any λ ∈ (0, 1). Then, using the properties of the
norm, we have:
d(λ x1 + (1 − λ) x2 , x) = kλ x1 + (1 − λ) x2 − xk
= kλ (x1 − x) + (1 − λ) (x2 − x)k
≤ kλ (x1 − x)k + k(1 − λ) (x2 − x)k
= λ kx1 − xk + (1 − λ) kx2 − xk
< λ ε + (1 − λ) ε = ε .
1
This proves our result.
5. Show ∂A = Ā\int(A) for any set A.

Let A be a set. If A is empty, the result is trivial (since ∂∅ = ∅¯ = int(∅) = ∅).
Assume then that A is not empty. Note that x ∈ Ā\int(A) if and only if (x ∈
Ā) ∧ (x ∈
/ int(A)). By definition of interior, x ∈
/ int(A) iff ∀ε > 0 Bε (x) 6⊂ A, that
c
is, ∀ε > 0 Bε (x) ∩ A 6= ∅. Therefore, by definition of boundary, x ∈ Ā\int(A) if
and only if x ∈ ∂A.
6. Show that d(x, y) ≡ |x − y| is a distance in R.
(a) Note first that d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ R.

(b) Clearly, for any x, y ∈ R, d(x, y) = |x − y| = 0 only if x = y. Also, if x = y
then d(x, y) = d(x, x) = |x − x| = 0.
(c) For any x, y ∈ R, d(x, y) = |x − y| = | − (x − y)| = |y − x| = d(y, x).
(d) Take 3 arbitrary points x, y, z ∈ R. Call a ≡ x − y and b ≡ y − z. Then
a + b = x − z, so we need to show that:
∀a, b ∈ R, |a| + |b| ≥ |a + b| .
Since both sides are non-negative, we can square them:
a2 + b2 + 2|a||b| ≥ a2 + b2 + 2ab .
Subtracting similar terms gives:
2|ab| ≥ 2ab .
The last statement is clearly true, which justifies all the previous statements
and we have shown that ∀a, b ∈ R, |a| + |b| ≥ |a + b|. Coming back to our
original notation, |x − y| + |y − z| ≥ |x − z|, so d(x, y) + d(y, z) ≥ d(x, z).
7. Let X be a set and d : X × X → R be the following function:

(
0 if x = y,
d(x, y) ≡
1 if x 6= y,
for all x, y ∈ X. Prove that d is a distance on X.

Let’s prove the properties of a distance one-by-one:
(a) Trivially, d(x1 , x2 ) ≥ 0 for all x1 , x2 ∈ X.

(b) Take any x1 , x2 ∈ X. By the definition is clear that d(x1 , x2 ) = 0 if and only
if x1 = x2 .
(c) Take any x1 , x2 ∈ X. If x1 = x2 then clearly d(x1 , x2 ) = 0 = d(x2 , x1 ). If,
alternatively, x1 6= x2 , by definition we have d(x1 , x2 ) = 1 = d(x2 , x1 ).
2
(d) Take any x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ X. If x1 = x3 then clearly the triangle inequality holds
(that is, 0 = d(x1 , x3 ) ≤ d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x2 , x3 )). If x1 6= x3 then either x2 6= x1
or x2 6= x3 , so in this case d(x1 , x2 )+d(x2 , x3 ) ≥ 1 = d(x1 , x3 ), so the triangle
inequality also holds in this case.
8. Show that for any bounded and non-empty set A ⊂ R, Bε (sup(A))∩A 6= ∅

for all ε > 0.
Consider arbitrary set A ⊂ R such that sup(A) ∈ R. Define x̄ ≡ sup(A). Assume
by contradiction, that ∃ε > 0 s.t. Bε (x̄) ∩ A = ∅. Since x̄ is an upper bound
(∀x ∈ A x ≤ x̄) and since Bε (x̄) = (x̄ − ε, x̄ + ε), it follows that ∀x ∈ A x ≤ x̄ − ε.
Now, consider y ≡ x̄ − 2ε , which is an upper bound (∀x ∈ A x ≤ x̄ − ε < y) and
y < x̄. The result contradicts the definition of supremum.
9. Show that Q is dense in R.

Consider x ∈ R. If x ∈ Q then obviously for all ε we have Bε (x) ∩ Q 6= ∅. So let’s
fix some ε > 0 and x ∈ R\Q. Consider N to be a natural such that N > 1/ε. (N
exists by the Archimedean property. For example, adding one to the the integer
part of 1/ε, so ε > 1/N .) Let n be the largest integer such that Nn ≤ x − ε. Then,
n+1 1
x−ε< ≤x−ε+ <x−ε+ε=x .
N N
n+1
So, N
∈ (x − ε, x) ⊂ Bε (x). This proves that Bε (x) ∩ Q 6= ∅.

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Francesc Dilmé

Mathematics for Economists

Problem Set 3, Solutions

Solve all problems using proper proofs.

1. Show that [a, b] ⊂ R is closed, for any a < b, a, b ∈ R.

3. Prove that if A ⊂ U is a set then A is closed.

d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.

This is a clear contradiction with Bε (x) ∩ A = ∅. So, A is closed.

5. Show ∂A = Ā\int(A) for any set A.

6. Show that d(x, y) ≡ |x − y| is a distance in R.

(a) Note first that d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ R.

∀a, b ∈ R, |a| + |b| ≥ |a + b| .

Since both sides are non-negative, we can square them:

Subtracting similar terms gives:

7. Let X be a set and d : X × X → R be the following function:

for all x, y ∈ X. Prove that d is a distance on X.

(a) Trivially, d(x1 , x2 ) ≥ 0 for all x1 , x2 ∈ X.

8. Show that for any bounded and non-empty set A ⊂ R, Bε (sup(A))∩A 6= ∅

9. Show that Q is dense in R.

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