Block Caving: 20.3.1 General Description 20.3.2.2 Determining Cavability

Chapter 20.
3 BLOCK CAVING
D OUGLAS E. J ULIN 20.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Block caving is a general term that refers to a mass mining system where the extraction of the ore depends largely on the action of gravity. By removing a thin horizontal layer at the mining level of the ore column, using standard mining methods, the vertical support of the ore column above is removed and the ore then caves by gravity. As broken ore is removed from the mining level of the ore column, the ore above continues to break and cave by gravity. The term block caving probably originated in the porphyry copper mines where the area to be mined was divided into rectangular blocks that were mined in a checkerboard sequence with all the ore in a block being removed before an adjacent block was mined. This sequence of mining is no longer widely used. Today most mines use a panel system, mining the panels sequentially, or by establishing a large production area and gradually moving it forward as the first area caved becomes exhausted. The term block caving is used for all types of gravity caving methods. There are three major systems of block caving and they are differentiated by the type of production equipment used. (1) The first system based on the original block cave system is the grizzly or gravity system and is a full gravity system wherein the ore from the drawpoints flows directly to the transfer raises after sizing at the grizzly and then is gravity loaded into ore cars. (2) The second system is the slusher system which uses slusher scrapers for the main production unit. (3) The last system is the rubber-tired system which uses load-haul-dump (LHD) units for the main production unit. Each of these systems is described in some detail later. Block caving is the lowest cost of all mine exploitation systems with the exception of open pit mining or in situ recovery.
20.3.2.2 Determining Cavability

After determining that the size of the ore body is large enough to justify consideration for block caving, then the cavability must be determined. The frequency and orientation of the various fracture sets must be evaluated. The first look at the ore is usually through diamond drillholes. Some of the fracture sets can be identified by looking at the drill core; however, trying to determine the orientation of the fractures can be difficult unless the drill cores have been oriented. Determining the rock quality designation (RQD) of the drill core has become rather standard practice when block caving is being considered. RQD is determined by measuring the length of drill core pieces over 4 in. (100 mm) in length and dividing the accumulated length by the actual length of the drillhole section. Usually, the increments used are 10 ft (3 m). RQD can certainly be a first indicator for determining cavability, but it does not give the fracture orientation, it does not adequately identify the fracture intensity, nor does it give a complete picture of all the fracture sets. Access to the ore body by exploratory drifting is almost essential before a final determination of cavability can be made. At least three sets of major fractures are necessary to justify the use of block caving. Two vertical sets at approximately 90 orientation to each other and a third set lying approximately horizontal will form rectangular blocks when the fractures separate. The spacing of the fractures is also important since the spacing will determine the size of blocks that will appear at the drawpoints. The fracture and joint fill material must also be identified since the composition of that material will help determine how easily the fractures will separate or if the fracture fill material is actually stronger than the host rock. The same analysis must be made of the waste capping to be sure that it will also cave as the ore is removed. If it appears that the capping will break more coarsely than the ore, then dilution of the ore will be minimized. If the capping will break more finely than the ore, then dilution will be a greater problem with a greater amount infiltrating into the ore. Major faults and dikes must also be identified since they may have an effect on the caving action and on the mine layout. Heslop and Laubscher (1981), White (1979b), and others have initiated systems for determining rock mass classifications. These classifications incorporate such information as joint spacing, joint conditions, intact rock strength, joint filling, and other factors. Based on the rock mass classification, the ease or difficulty of caving is determined. As can be seen from the above discussion, a thorough geologic and rock mechanics study should be made before a decision to use block caving is made. There are numerous computer programs available to help in the evaluation.
20.3.2 SUITABLE ORE BODIES 20.3.2.1 Ore Body Characteristics

A typical ore body suitable for block caving is a porphyrytype deposit with well-disseminated mineralization and of fairly large lateral and vertical extent such as a copper porphyry deposit. It has also been used in molybdenum porphyries, hematite, asbestos, and diamondiferous deposits. It can be applied to steeply dipping vein deposits of sufficient width and in thick, flat-lying deposits. The rock strength can be fairly weak or fairly strong, but the total mass must have sufficient fractures in different orientations to allow the rock mass to break up under gravity into pieces small enough to pass through the drawholes into the production drifts. The lateral extent of the ore body must be large enough to insure that a cave can be established. The horizontal area required to establish a cave will depend on the strength of the rock mass, but generally the minimum horizontal dimension of the mining area should be about 300 ft (90 m). The height of the ore column should be sufficient to allow a reasonable productive life to the individual drawpoints and also to insure a reasonable rate of return on the development and production costs. The rate of return will also depend on the value of the mineral in the ore.
20.3.2.3 Productive Capacity

Block caving is best suited for high daily production. The system has been used at mines with production rates ranging from 2000 tpd (1800 t/d) to more than 80,000 tpd (72,000 t/d). The productive capacity of a mine will be determined by the rate of vertical draw that can be made and the horizontal area that can be undercut at any given time without producing unusual ground control problems. Draw rates at various mines vary from
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Chapter 20.

20.3.2.2 Determining Cavability

20.3.2 SUITABLE ORE BODIES 20.3.2.1 Ore Body Characteristics

20.3.2.3 Productive Capacity

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