Gravity 5

Objectives

Instruments

Gravity Gravity 5
Corrections

Drift and
Instruments and gravity processing
Tides

Latitude

Free Air Chuck Connor, Laura Connor

Atmosphere

Simple
Bouguer

Summary Potential Fields Geophysics: Week 5

Further
Reading

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Objectives for Week 5

Gravity 5

Objectives

Instruments

Gravity
• Learn about gravity
Corrections instruments
Drift and
Tides • Learn about
Latitude processing of gravity
Free Air data
Atmosphere
• Make the
Simple
Bouguer corrections to
Summary calculate a simple
Further
Reading
Bouguer anomaly
EOMA

Gravity 5
 The pendulum

The first gravity data collected in the US were

Gravity 5
obtained by G. Putman working for the Coast and
Geodetic survey, around 1890. These gravity data
comprised a set of 26 measurements made along a
roughly E-W transect across the entire continental
Objectives US. The survey took about 6 months to complete and
was designed primarily to investigate isostatic
Instruments compensation across the continent.

Gravity Putnam used a pendulum gravity meter, based on the

Corrections relation between gravity and the period of a pendulum:
Drift and
Tides 4π 2 l
g=
Latitude T2

Free Air where:

l is the length of the pendulum
Atmosphere
T is the pendulum period
Simple Example
Seems easy enough to obtain an absolute gravity
Bouguer
reading, but in practice pendulum gravity meters are Assuming the period of a pendulum is known to be 1 s
Summary problematic. The length of the pendulum can change exactly, how well must the length of the pendulum be
with temperature, the pendulum stand tends to sway, known to measure gravity to 10 mGal precision?
Further air density effects the measurements, etc. The
Reading Mendenhall pendulum (around 1910) handles some of
these problems, for instance by using a vacuum, but T 2 ∆g
l= = 2.5µ
EOMA basically one cannot see subtle variation in gravity 4π 2
with a pendulum apparatus!

Gravity 5
 The zero-length spring gravimeter

The first truly portable gravimeter was invented

Gravity 5
by Lucien LaCoste in the mid-thirties, when he was in
his twenties.This gravimeter makes relative
measurements rather than absolute measurements. It
does not provide any information about the absolute
Objectives acceleration due to gravity, only the relative change in
gravity from place to place. These types of meters are
Instruments still the work-horses of the gravity world. Most gravity
measurements you will use are made using this type of
Gravity instrument, now manufactured by Burris.
Corrections
This gravimeter contains a mass attached to a
Drift and
cantilevered beam and suspended with a metal or
Tides
quartz spring. The tension on the spring can be
Latitude adjusted to bring the beam to a null position. The
force required to move the beam to the null position is
Free Air proportional to the change in gravity. The apparatus The main features of the gravimeter design have not
is called a zero-length spring meter because the spring changed from LaCoste’s early concept. Improvements
Atmosphere is pre-stressed: if the mass were removed altogether, have been made to electronically determine the null
the spring would contract to “zero” length. position of the meter, using a servo motor interfaced
Simple
Bouguer to a PDA. A number of features of the Burris gravity
To make accurate measurements, the instrument must meter are designed to minimize instrument drift,
Summary be level (aligned with the vector of the Earth’s gravity including a heater to maintain constant temperature,
field), in a place quiet enough to avoid vibrations a sealed case to minimize the speed of pressure
Further (trucks rumbling by and earthquakes are a problem!), change inside the gravimeter, and electronic
Reading and given sufficient time to be in thermal and monitoring of the instrument level. In ideal conditions,
mechanical equilibrium (avoiding sharp changes in gravity measurements with this instrument are good
EOMA temperature that effect the instrument’s metal parts, to 1–10 µGal.
etc.).

Gravity 5
 Absolute gravimeter

Gravity 5
An absolute gravimeter, like a
pendulum apparatus, measures
gravitational acceleration directly, rather
then the relative change in gravity from
Objectives place to place. These instruments are “sort
of” portable (weighing around 50 kg), can
Instruments make accurate determinations of the
gravity field within one hour, and are
Gravity increasingly field-worthy, although still
Corrections quite expensive (>100K USD).
Drift and
Tides The current generation of absolute gravity
meters are free-fall devices, simply
Latitude measuring the time it takes an object to
fall a given distance in a vacuum.
Free Air Improvements in the instrument have
involved improving the timing of the fall
Atmosphere (using an atomic clock) and the distance of
the fall (using a high-precision laser), the
Simple
quality of the vacuum, a dampening system
Bouguer
to lessen the effect of vibrations, and the
Summary ease with which free-fall measurements are
repeated.
Further
Reading The absolute precision on the best absolute
gravimeters is about 1 µGal.
EOMA

Gravity 5
 Gravity from space

Gravity 5
Space-based gravity observations generally rely on
accurately measuring a satellite’s position and
comparing it to its theoretical position given a model
Objectives of the Earth’s (or other planet’s) gravity field,
assuming no anomalous mass distribution. In early
Instruments efforts, this involved tracking a single satellite in its
orbit and the departure of its true position from an
Gravity expected position.
Corrections

Drift and Alternatively, the exact altitude of the satellite could

Tides be compared to its expected altitude, by measuring
altitude using a satellite-mounted laser altimeter.
Latitude Variations in altitude measured by laser are a
particularly good way to track variation in gravity at
Free Air sea. Because the altimeter is measuring the ocean
height variation, this method essentially maps gravity
Atmosphere variation on the ocean surface rather than at the
height of the satellite, so relatively small anomalies
Simple can be detected.
Bouguer
Modern gravity missions, such as GRACE and GRAIL, map variation in the gravity field by placing two
Summary
satellites in orbit along the same orbital track. Gravity anomalies cause the distance between the two
Further satellites to deviate from their expected distance of separation. The size of the gravity anomaly (or the
Reading excess mass that will be detected) depends on the altitude of the satellites and the distance between them.

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Gravity corrections

Gravity 5
Putman had a big job on his hands after he • Tidal corrections, to account for the time
finished gathering his gravity data. He knew that the varying gravitational acceleration due to the
gravity varied for many reasons other than lateral motion of the Sun and Moon

Objectives
variations in mass in the subsurface. We have already
seen that gravity varies with latitude due to the shape
• Theoretical gravity correction, to account for
the shape and rotation of the Earth
and rotation of the Earth, the tides, and with
Instruments dg
variations in elevation ( dR ).
• Free air correction, to account for variations
in gravitational acceleration with elevation
Gravity
Corrections Gravity corrections involve reducing the effects of • Atmospheric correction, to account for varying
these features of Earth/planetary gravity in order to density of the atmosphere with elevation
Drift and
Tides
isolate the effects of lateral variations in mass. These • Simple Bouguer correction, to account for the
corrections are not a trivial exercise. Some of the average density of rocks as a function of
corrections are mathematically complex (e.g., the elevation (sometimes called the Bullard A
Latitude effect of latitude). By making the corrections in a correction)
step-wise fashion, removing one effect at a time
Free Air
systematically, we often can learn more about the • Spherical cap correction, to account for the
interior of the Earth than we could if we simply make change in the Bouguer correction due to the
Atmosphere
the corrections all at once. roughly spherical shape of the Earth (also
Simple known as the Bullard B correction)
Bouguer The usual corrections made to gravity data include: • Terrain correction, to account for the exact
Summary • Instrument drift, associated with variations in
form of the terrain and its influence on density
distribution around the gravity station (also
gravity only due to the fact that the
known as the Bullard C correction)
Further gravimeter registers different readings with
Reading time, due to mechanical, thermal, and • Isostatic correction, to account for broad
electrical changes in the instrument (long wavelength) variations in gravity due to
EOMA isostatic compensation of the crust.

Gravity 5
 Instrument drift and the tides

Gravity varies over time at a specific location for several reasons:

Gravity 5

1 The instrument reads out different values of

gravity over time because of changes in the
instrument itself. For example, changes in
Objectives temperature might cause thermal expansion of
the beam, changing the tension on the
Instruments “zero-length” spring. This type of variation
with time is referred to as instrument drift.
Gravity
Corrections 2 Gravity varies due to tidal effects. For any
location at the surface of the Earth, the
Drift and distance to the Sun and Moon change
Tides continually with time, changing the gravity
field.
Latitude
3 On short time scales, gravity varies due to
Free Air ground vibrations, microseismic events, or
teleseisms (ground motion due to distant
Atmosphere earthquakes). The instrument may also go
Simple out of level during measurements due to
Bouguer settling on soft ground. These types of effects
are usually referred to as noise and are
Summary minimized by adapting field procedures.

Further 4 Gravity varies with time for geological reasons.

Reading The elevation of the gravimeter might change A drift curve measured with a LaCoste “zero-length”
due to subsidence or inflation of the site. spring instrument in the USF lab. The drift is
EOMA Mass distribution might change with time, dominated by tidal effects. Measurements are at 1 s
through: formation of fractures, intrusion of intervals. Note the random measurement error due to
magma, or dissolution of minerals. ground motion in the lab is about 0.05 mGal.
Gravity 5
 Instrument drift and the tides

Gravity 5 The second component is nearly linear instrument

drift, caused by mechanical and/or thermal changes in
the instrument. The linear drift is approximately 0.081
mGal per day.
Objectives
Example
Instruments
Calculate the tidal acceleration, aT due to the moon
Gravity at the Earth’s equator at lunar noon (the moon is
Corrections directly overhead). From Newton’s law (Module 1):

Drift and !
Tides 1 1
aT = GMm −
(rL − RE )2 2
rL
Latitude

Free Air
where
Atmosphere Mm is the mass of the moon (7.3547 × 1022 kg)
rL is the distance from the center of mass of the
Simple Earth to the moon (3.84 × 108 m)
Bouguer A continuous record of gravitational acceleration in RE is the radius of the Earth at the equator
the USF lab, gathered at 1 s intervals for several days.
(6.378137 × 106 m)
Summary The actual drift curve is shown in red, the detrended
G is the gravitational constant.
drift curve s shown in black.The drift curve (red) can
Further be thought of as consisting of two components. The
Reading Earth tide varies predominantly on approximately 12 With these values, the tidal acceleration is
and 24 hr cycles. The tide develops longer period approximately 0.11 mGal due to the Moon (not
EOMA variation (a beat) due to the elliptical motion of the including the gravitational effect of the Sun).
Sun and Moon.

Gravity 5
 Instrument drift during surveys

During surveys it is not possible to gather

Gravity 5
data with a meter and continually monitor drift
with the same meter. To monitor drift during
surveys, repeated measurements are made by
returning to a base station (BS1, BS2, BS3)
Objectives and change in gravity due to drift is recorded.
What is the drift correction for station S,
Instruments measured at time tS =14:00? The time of this
measurement falls between base station readings
Gravity BS2 and BS3, so a linear drift correction is:
Corrections

Drift and ∆gS = m(tS − tBS2 ) + ∆gBS2

Tides

Latitude where:
m is the local slope of the drift, calculated only
Free Air from successive base station measurements BS2
and BS3
Atmosphere ∆gBS2 is the drift since the beginning of the
daily measurements measured at time tBS2
Simple
Bouguer
If tBS2 =12:29, ∆gBS2 = 0.035 mGal and
Summary tBS3 =17:32, ∆gBS3 = 0.055 mGal, at
tS =14:00, ∆gS = 0.041 mGal. This drift
Further correction is subtracted from the observed
Reading gravity to obtain the drift corrected gravity
reading. That is, instrument drift causes the
EOMA gravity value to be “too high” at 14:00 at station
S and the drift correction accounts for this.

Gravity 5
 Instrument drift during surveys

Gravity 5 There is no a priori reason to think that drift

between successive base station readings is linear. An
alternative model is that the instrument drift varies as
a smooth curve in time, and base station readings
sample this smooth variation.
Objectives
The plot at right shows the drift measured at the base
Instruments
station measured three times during the day. These
Gravity are the same data as shown on the previous slide,
Corrections where a linear drift model was used to estimate drift
at time tS for drift at station S. Now the drift model
Drift and is nonlinear, calculated using a cubic spline. The
Tides spline passes through each base station reading
exactly and interpolates drift in between base station
Latitude readings with as little curvature as possible.

Free Air
Comparing the linear and nonlinear drift curves, it is
Atmosphere clear that the drift correction for station S is different.
In the linear model ∆gS = 0.041 mGal; in the
Simple nonlinear model ∆gS = 0.05 mGal. This difference
Bouguer gives a sense of the uncertainty in the drift correction.
The more base station readings made, the more likely
Summary the linear and nonlinear models will agree, but at the
cost of making fewer readings at other gravity stations.
Further If few base station readings are made, there will be This cubic spline fit was graphed using gnuplot.
Reading greater uncertainty in estimation of instrument drift. Gnuplot has great functionality for fitting drift data
If drift readings are only made at the beginning and using a variety of methods. The drift at time S was
EOMA end of the day, then drift can only be estimated using also determined using Gnuplot. Example codes for
a linear model, and the uncertainty is not known. estimating the nonlinear drift are provided in the
supplementary material.
Gravity 5
 Instrument drift during surveys with multiple base
stations
Gravity 5 It is often impractical to return to the base station
to measure drift, especially in areas where transport is
problematic or the survey area is very large. Usually in
such circumstances, multiple base stations are
established to measure drift.
Objectives

Instruments The stations must be “tied” by overlapping

measurements in time as illustrated on the drift curve
Gravity plot at right. Three base station readings are shown
Corrections for the first base station (BS1.1 – BS1.3). At
14:00, a second base station is established (BS2.1 –
Drift and BS2.3). The difference in the drift curves
Tides interpolated between the time of measuring BS2.1
and BS1.3 gives a sense of uncertainty in the drift
Latitude
model. Drift can be estimated at time tS for gravity
Free Air station S because the drift curve for base station 2 is
tied to the drift curve for base station 1. That is, the
Atmosphere total drift when BS2.1 is established at 14:00 is
known from the first base station drift curve. So, all
Simple drift during the survey can be corrected relative to the
Bouguer first reading of the day (BS1.1).
Summary
If multiple base stations are required and very high
Further precision in the drift correction is needed, then a
Reading network is established by returning to both base
station 1 and base station 2, and additional stations as
EOMA needed, repeatedly during the survey.

Gravity 5
 Tides and drift

A large fraction of the change in gravity with time

Gravity 5
is not due to actual instrument drift, but due to actual
changes in gravitational acceleration associated with
the Earth tide. The Earth tide, as distinguished from
the ocean tide, is the change in acceleration due to
Objectives the change in position of the Sun and Moon. Unlike
the instrument drift discussed on previous slides, it is
Instruments possible to develop a physical model of the expected
change in Earth tide at any location and at any time
Gravity on the surface of the Earth, as long as an
Corrections astronomical model of the position of the Sun and
Moon is available.
Drift and
Tides
The plot at right shows a model of the expected
Latitude variation in gravity due to the Earth tide calculated for
a specific location and time.
Free Air
Many modern field gravimeters include software that
Atmosphere calculates the Earth Tide. Usually, these instruments
Simple will report the gravity reading, the tide correction, and
Bouguer the corrected value. Older field gravimeters do not
include this feature, so often the tidal correction is
Summary applied and drift calculated on the residual.
Earth tide programs do not account for all possible
Further tidal effects. For example, the ocean tide is usually
The plot shows calculated upward acceleration due to
Reading out of phase with the Earth tide, but the change in
the Earth tide. In order to correct for the tide the
ocean height with the tide may have a significant
EOMA calculated values are added to the the observed
impact on gravity measured near the coast. This effect
gravity.
is not accounted for in the Earth tide correction.

Gravity 5
 Summary of Drift and Tidal Corrections

Gravity 5

• Drift and tide corrections are a critical part of gravity data

collection and processing. The frequency with which base
Objectives station readings are made depends on the precision required.

Instruments
• Tidal corrections are routinely made using Earth tide codes and
algorithms. These calculations do not account for all aspects
of time variation in gravity due to the tide: ocean loading and
Gravity
the local elastic response to the tide also play significant roles.
Corrections
• Usually the drift correction is made after the tidal correction is
Drift and made. That is, the instrument drift is the residual time varying
Tides gravity after the theoretical Earth tide is removed.
Latitude • Instrument drift is not completely known during surveys.
Therefore the instrument drift is modeled. Models include
Free Air linear interpolation and nonlinear interpolation between base
station readings.
Atmosphere
• For multi-day surveys, it is critical that drift measurements be
Simple collected at a single base station each day (best method) or at
Bouguer multiple base stations that have been tied to the original base
station.
Summary • Often it is necessary to tie the entire survey to absolute gravity.
Further This can be done if the network of new stations, including
Reading base stations, is tied to a point of known absolute gravity.

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Theoretical gravity

Gravity 5
Putman realized that gravity varies with latitude due to the change in diameter of the Earth with latitude
and change in centrifugal acceleration with latitude. He used a method developed by Helmert to correct for
this variation based on Clairant’s theorem derived from LaPlace’s equation. Now we use the Somigliana
closed-form solution to estimate theoretical gravity, the expected value of gravity as a function of latitude,
Objectives given the value of gravity at the equator:
Instruments
ge (1 + k sin2 φ)
Gravity gT = p ,
Corrections (1 − e2 sin2 φ)

Drift and
Tides where gT , is the theoretical gravity on the GRS80 reference ellipsoid at latitude φ, ge is normal gravity at
the equator equal to 978032.67715 mGal, k is a dimensionless derived constant equal to 0.001931851353,
Latitude and e is the first numerical eccentricity, with e2 having a value of 0.0066943800229. Updated ellipsoids have
been developed since 1980, of course, but they have a negligible effect (measured in thousandths of a milligal)
Free Air on the theoretical gravity. Until a new ellipsoid is internationally accepted, the GRS80 should be used.

Atmosphere

Simple The latitude correction

Bouguer
To compare two gravity stations at different latitudes, it is necessary to compute theoretical gravity, gT , for
Summary each station latitude. The difference in gT between the two stations is the latitude correction. For example,
if base station BS is south of gravity station S, and both are located in the northern hemisphere, then
Further gravity is higher at S than at BS, and the latitude-corrected value of gravity at S will be less than the
Reading observed value at S.

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Free air

Gravity 5

The difference in elevation between the base station and the measurement point results in a difference in
gravitational acceleration. The free air correction is applied to account for difference in gravity due to
difference in height. For the GRS80 ellipsoid, the precise free air correction is:
Objectives

Instruments 2 −8 2
δgh = −(0.3087691 − 0.0004398sin φ)h + 7.2125 × 10 h ,
Gravity
Corrections where the free air correction, δgh , is calculated in milliGals and h is the elevation of the gravity station at
latitude φ with respect to the reference ellipsoid, measured in meters. Note that the free-air correction
Drift and
depends on latitude. That is, the vertical gradient in gravity varies with changes in the shape of the Earth.
Tides

Latitude An approximate formula, δgh = −0.3086h, is widely used, especially to compare the free air correction
among stations in a local network (where change in latitude is not significant).
Free Air

Atmosphere Correcting for differences in elevation

Simple To “free air” correct a gravity station it is necessary to compute δgh , where h is the elevation difference
Bouguer between the gravity station and the reference ellipsoid. If the gravity station, S, is at a higher elevation than
the reference ellipsoid, gravity at S will increase after the free-air correction is applied. Suppose a base
Summary station is at a higher elevation than station S. Gravity will decrease at station S after the free air correction
is made, to “reduce” station S to the base station.
Further
Reading

EOMA

Gravity 5
 The atmospheric mass correction

Gravity 5
For a gravity meter located at the surface of the Earth, the mass of the atmosphere pulls up on the meter,
reducing gravity overall. The mass of the atmosphere varies with height and this change affects gravity
measurements. The atmospheric correction attempts to account for the average change in the mass of the
Objectives atmosphere between the base station, or reference ellipsoid, and the gravity measurement point. The formula
for the atmospheric correction is:
Instruments
−5 −9 2
Gravity δgatm = 0.874 − 9.9 × 10 h + 3.56 × 10 h ,
Corrections

Drift and where the atmospheric correction, δgatm , is given in milligals and h is the elevation of the gravity station in
Tides meters above mean sea level. For a station at sea level, the correction is 0.874 mGal. That is, the mass of
the atmosphere reduces gravity at the sea level station compared to gravity at that position if no atmosphere
Latitude were present. The effect of the atmosphere is less with increasing elevation because less atmosphere is
pulling up on the meter. Note that the correction is done with respect to sea level rather than with respect
Free Air to the ellipsoid. Density of the atmosphere also changes with time, but this change is not accounted for by
the atmosphere correction.
Atmosphere

Simple
Bouguer Making the atmospheric mass correction

Summary For all gravity stations located at the surface of the Earth, gravity will increase after the atmospheric
correction is applied. The magnitude of the increase will be less for gravity stations located at higher
Further elevations than for gravity stations located at lower elevations.
Reading

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Simple Bouguer (Bullard A)

Gravity 5

The Bouguer correction accounts for the mass of average crust between the base station, or reference
ellipsoid, and the measurement point, given the height difference between them. If the measurement point
located on the Earth’s surface is above the reference ellipsoid, then the “extra” mass of rock between the
Objectives station and reference ellipsoid has the effect of increasing gravity. Similarly, if a measurement station is
located at an elevation below the reference ellipsoid then rock is “missing” that would theoretically be pulling
Instruments
up on the meter, with the effect of reducing gravity at that measurement station. The goal of the simple
Gravity Bouguer correction is to remove this effect of “excess” and “missing” mass, using a formula based on a
Corrections simple shape – the infinite slab (see Module 4):

Drift and
δgbc = 2πGρh
Tides

Latitude where ρ is the density of rock comprising the Bouguer slab, and h is the height difference between the
gravity measurement point and the reference ellipsoid.
Free Air

Atmosphere Making the Simple Bouguer correction

Simple To make the Bouguer correction, it is necessary to compute δgbc , where h is the elevation difference
Bouguer between the gravity station and the reference ellipsoid. If the gravity station, S, is at a higher elevation than
the reference ellipsoid, gravity at S will decrease after the simple Bouguer correction is applied. Suppose a
Summary base station is at a higher elevation than station S. Gravity will increase at station S after the Bouguer
correction is made, to “reduce” station S to the height of the base station.
Further
Reading

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Simple Bouguer (Bullard A + B)

Gravity 5 The Bouguer correction can account for the spherical cap-shape of this mass of rock, as described in La Fehr
(1991). Far from the gravity meter, the topography falls below the horizon because of the Earth’s curvature.
The spherical-cap correction accounts for this curved-shape of the Bouguer slab.The formula for the
spherical-cap Bouguer correction is:
Objectives
gsc = 2πGρ[(1 + µ)h − λ(R + h)],
Instruments

Gravity where gsc is the gravity correction due to the spherical cap in milligals, ρ is the density of the material
Corrections making up the spherical cap, µ and λ are dimensionless coefficients that vary as a function of latitude. R is
the mean radius of the Earth at the latitude of the gravity station and h is the elevation of the gravity station
Drift and with respect to the reference ellipsoid. Unfortunately, the constants µ and λ are complex to calculate!
Tides

Latitude 1 2
µ = η −η
3
Free Air " !#
1 2

2
1/2 n
Atmosphere λ = (d + f δ + δ ) (f − δ) + k + p + m ln
1/2
3 (f − δ + (f − δ)2 +k
Simple
Bouguer
where: d = 3 cos2 (α) − 2, f = cos(α), k = sin2 (α), p = −6 cos2 (α) sin(α/2) + 4 sin3 (α/2),
Summary m = −3 sin2 (α) cos(α), n = 2(sin(α/2) − sin2 (α/2)), δ = R/(R + h), η = h/(R + h),
α = S/R, S = 166735 m, which is the standard radius of the spherical cap.
Further
Reading The simple Bouguer correction (Bullard A) is replaced with the spherical cap correction (Bullard A + B) to
account for curvature of the slab. Is this curvature important? LaFehr found it can effect gravity up to about
EOMA
0.1 mGal in comparing stations at greatly different elevations.

Gravity 5
 Summary

Gravity 5

Most gravity surveys are done to identify subtle variations in density within the Earth, with the goal of better
understanding the geology on a variety of scales, from the near-surface to the entire lithosphere. Because
Objectives gravity anomalies are subtle, many factors not related to density variations within the Earth must be
Instruments accounted for independently. Gravity processing is all about accounting for these factors. One person’s trash,
however, is another person’s treasure. A great deal can be learned from studying gravity anomalies after the
Gravity free-air correction has been made, and before the Bouguer correction has been made.
Corrections
In this module we have concentrated on the steps needed to make a simple Bouguer correction.
Drift and
Tides People often ask, “do I add or subtract the correction?” Please never fall into that trap! The best strategy is
Latitude to visualize what you are trying to accomplish with the correction and to verify that your correction achieves
this goal! This becomes more important as an ever greater variety of platforms are conceived for measuring
Free Air gravity with a ever wider variety of purposes.

Atmosphere There are additional corrections routinely done in processing gravity data. In airborne and marine surveys,
the Estövös correction is used to account for the motion of the vehicle relative to the angular rotation of the
Simple Earth. The terrain correction is used to account for deviations of the topography from the ideal Bouguer slab
Bouguer or spherical cap, the isostatic correction is used to account for regional variations in gravity associated with
Summary isostatic compensation. When do these corrections need to be made? It is best to think of gravity processing
as a process – isolate the anomaly of interest by performing the corrections necessary, and no more!
Further
Reading

EOMA

Gravity 5
 Further reading

Did you have the impression that gravity processing was simple? Many people struggle to make appropriate
Gravity 5 gravity corrections and it is not always clear, even to experts, which corrections are most appropriate. A
simple paper describing standard corrections and an excel spreadsheet to make them is:

• Holm, D. I., and J. S. Oldow, 2007, Gravity reduction spreadsheet to calculate the Bouguer anomaly
Objectives using standardized methods and constants, Geosphere, v. 3; no. 2; p. 86–90; doi:
10.1130/GES00060.1
Instruments

Gravity A more complete discussion of the principles and standards for gravity processing is:
Corrections

Drift and • Hinze, W. J., et al., 2005, New standards for reducing gravity data: The North American gravity
Tides database, Geophysics, v. 70, no. 4; p. J25–J32, doi: 10.1190/1.1988183.
Latitude
A thorough development and discussion of the spherical cap correction is found in:
Free Air
• LaFehr, T. R., 1991, An exact solution for the gravity curvature (Bullard B) correction, Geophysics,
Atmosphere v. 56. no. 8, p. 1179–1184.

Simple
• Talwani, M., 1998, Errors in the total Bouguer reduction. Geophysics 63, Special Section: Shallow
Bouguer Seismic Reflection Papers, 1125–1130. doi: 10.1190/1.1444412
• LaFehr, T. R., 1998, On Talwani’s “Errors in the total Bouguer reduction”. Geophysics 63:4,
Summary 1131–1136.
Further
Reading Are these procedures set in stone? Not at all. See, for example, the paper on alternative reduction
procedures:
EOMA
• Nozaki, K., 2006, The generalized Bouguer anomaly, Earth Planets Space, 58, 287–303.

Gravity 5
 EOMA

Gravity 5 1 Note that the atmospheric mass correction only accounts for change in the mass of the atmosphere
above the gravimeter as a function of height. The atmospheric pressure also changes with time (so
there is wind in the atmosphere!). How significant is the change in atmospheric pressure as a factor
in drift? Approximate the atmosphere as an infinite slab. Recall that the pressure is related to
density, height, and gravity (P = ρgT h), where gT is the theoretical gravity at the location of the
Objectives meter. Substitute this relationship into the infinite slab formula and solve for the change in gravity
Instruments with a 1 millibar change in pressure, and a 10 millibar change in pressure. Discuss you results. Is
these a significant factor for microgravity surveys?
Gravity 2 Use the code earthtide.pl to calculate the upward acceleration due to the Earth tide at 0 N (the
Corrections equator) and 90W starting on October 1, 2013, for a period of seven days. Make a plot of the
output. Repeat the calculation for upward acceleration at 45 N, 90W for the same time period. How
Drift and
does the tide vary with latitude? Explain this result.
Tides
3 The Geophysics field camp made a gravity survey across the Borah Peak fault in the summer of
Latitude 2013. They measured gravity at a base station intermittently during their survey. The base station
measurements are located in the supplementary file: field camp drift.dat. Plot the drift curve using
Free Air
gnuplot (see the file field camp nonlinear.gnu). Describe an anomalies on this drift curve. Use the
Atmosphere gnuplot script: field camp drift corrections.gnu to estimate the drift using the cubic spline model. If
you do not change the script, the output will be printed to the new file:
Simple field camp interpolated drift.out. Now, using this model, correct the observed gravity readings found
Bouguer in the file: field camp observed.dat for drift. Note: these data have already had the tidal correction
applied.
Summary
4 Develop a tool for processing gravity data. Make sure the tool can process data as described in this
Further Module. You need to be able to calculate the simple Bouguer anomaly (Bullard A). You are welcome
Reading to implement the Bullard A+B (spherical cap) correction if you wish. Calculate the simple Bouguer
anomaly for the data in field camp observed.dat, and plot this resulting profile of simple Bouguer
EOMA gravity anomaly vs. distance from the base station. Note; you are welcome to develop this tool as a
script in PERL, Python or Matlab, or as a spreadsheet.

Gravity 5