Earthquakes

Bhuj Earthquake, India, 2001

7.6 magnitude earthquake
Causes of the earthquake
Indian plate pushing into the Eurasian plate
Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF)
Tension built in the South Wagad fault system due to friction
Released in blind thrust earthquake
Strike and slip intraplate faulting

Impacts of the earthquake

20000 killed, 150000 injured
350000 buildings collapsed, 600,000 homes damaged
Economic cost of around $5.5 billion
Affected textile, chemical and pharmaceutical industries
Bhuj, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Jamnagar affected
Billions of relief dollars by Indian/State governments and other countries

Volcanoes
Mount Etna, Italy, October 2002
Causes
Hot spot - eruptive fissure (huge amount of magma)
African plate subducts under Eurasian plate (Pernicana fault system)
Rifting (along eastern coast of Sicily) which caused fractures in the crust
6 September 2002 - 5.6 magnitude earthquake near North Sicilian coast

Impacts
Earthquakes at Acireale (town at base of Etna)
Heavy ashfalls - Catania airport closed, 50,000 tourists averted
80 sq. km agricultural land covered by ash
Total economic impact of around €100 million
1000+ people left homeless
Lava flows - 4 sq. km, 11,000 displaced, Nicolosi - 100 homes destroyed
Mount Vesuvius
Opportunities
Fertile soil due to volcanic ash and rock deposits - grapes (200,000 tonnes annually), citruses
and olives
Tourism - historic value and beauty of the mountain, landmarks such as Pompeii, 2.5 million
visitors annually
Italian government invests €20 million annually - archeological research, conservation and
preservation historical sites

Hazards
Pyroclastic flows (fast moving clouds of hot gas and ash) - 79 AD Pompeii and Herculaneum
buried, 700 km/h
Ashfalls - 1944 ashfall caused damage to building and hectares of crops, caused respiratory
problems
Lava flows - 1631 destroyed 23 buildings

Rivers
Brahmaputra, Assam
Snowmelt/rainfall and 651000 sq km. flood plain
39.6% prone to flooding
Hazards
Bank erosion (80 sq km./year)
Property loss (1998 - 75% Bangladesh flooded, 30 million homeless)
Damaged crops (1998 - 700000 hectares destroyed, 2018 - 90% standing crops)

Management of hazards
651000 sq km. flood plain
Dredging (120 km waterway) to enhance capacity - Burhi Dihing, Barak, Puthimari rivers
Embankments (4500 km) at bow shaped eroded line (geotextile tubes) near Kaziranga, Majuli,
Dibrugarh
Improved drainage (schemes - 875 km, 600+ sluices)

Causes of flooding
Floods in monsoon season every year
2,500 mm/year
Tectonic activity - Indian plate moving towards Eurasian plate
Heavy erosion on bank (readily erodible rocks) - lot of load carried
Impacts of flooding
2022 floods
100 people died - Barpeta, Goalpara, Dhemaji
2 million displaced
6,000 villages affected - 100,000 houses damaged
NH 27, historic Saraighat bridge severely affected
1.6 million hectares affected - temporary food shortage

Opportunities
Sundarbans Delta
Fertile alluvial soil - paddy cultivation
Extensive waterways - inland water transport
Ecotourism (Sundarbans - Bengal tigers, Kaziranga (UNESCO) - one-horned rhinoceros)
Hydropower generation - Subansiri Lower
Fishing industry (300 fishing villages) - carps, catfish, hilsa

Coasts
Maharashtra
720 km indented coastline
Management of hazards
4.5 km curved concrete sea wall Nariman Point to Chowpatty
2 tonne tetrapod rock armor in double layers
20-40 kg gabions in Varsoli and Theronda tied with nylon rope
Beach nourishment (replenishing Dadar)

Odisha Coast
Hazards
Cyclones - 2013 Cyclone Phailin, 2019 Cyclone Fani
Storm surges - heights of 5-7 meters, causing extensive flooding
500,000 hectares of crops destroyed in 2013
Erosion and river bank recession, 1 - 10 meters/year

Opportunities
480 km bordering Bay of Bengal
Tourism (Chilika Bird Lake Sanctuary - 150+ species, Olive Ridley turtles)
35% coast has valuable resources (limestone), seabed mining, offshore oil
Fishing (shrimp) and rich coastal plains
Australia - Great Barrier Reef
Conditions for coral formation
600 species over 354k sq km
Large ancient limestone ridge
Salinity of 36 ppt and clear unpolluted water
Oxygenated water - East Australian current
25-27°C water (zooxanthellae algae)
Depth of 11-15 meters

Typhoon Haiyan, Philippines, 2013

Impacts of the tropical storm
Category 5 (200 mph wind)
6000+ died, 1 million homeless, 4 million displaced, 30k casualties
$13bn lost, 100k tonnes of sugar, 130k tonnes of rice, 175k acres farmland
Oil/sewage leaks, pollution, coconut (main export) trees flattened

Deserts
Thar Desert, Rajasthan
Characteristics of climate
100-500 mm/year
Subtropical high pressure region
Extreme temperatures - 45°C daytime, subzero nighttime
Strong winds, dry masses create thermal differentials
Seasonal monsoon in July-September

Causes of climate
100-500 mm/year
Rainshadow - Aravalli range
Parallel to Arabian sea branch of monsoon winds
Subtropical high pressure belts and scorching heat - evaporation and low humidity
27° north of equator - Hadley cell

Characteristics of ecosystem
Plants
Herbaceous and stunted shrubs
Khejri (prosopis cineraria - state tree), small leathery thorny leaves
Low trees of acacia nilotica with deep roots
Euphorbia caducifolia - succulent with thick fleshy stems and spines
Animals
Camels - humps, thick fur, long eyelashes
Indian gazelle (chinkara) - light coloration for camouflage, nocturnal behavior

Rainforests
Western Ghats
160000 sq km. rainforest
35% lost to deforestation
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Causes of deforestation
Agricultural expansion into plantations (tea, coffee, spices - cardamom) - accounted for 42%
loss between 2000 and 2014
Urban activities - 3.5% population growth rate (Athirappilly Power Station cancelled - 140
hectares of land, 15,145 giant trees)
Illegal logging and legal timber extraction
Mining for minerals (hematite, bauxite, chromite etc) and quarrying

Impact of deforestation
Human
50 million people directly depend on the rainforest for livelihood
Over 2 million people (tribes) displaced from ancestral lands
Provides water to 245 million people - 4-5% reduction in rainfall
Natural
IUCN - 50% amphibian species threatened with extinction
4-5% reduction in rainfall
Landslide risks rose by 26%
Approximately 250 million tonnes of CO2 would have been absorbed

Characteristics of ecosystem
Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen trees
7000+ flowering plants, 650+ tree species, 54% endemic
1,500 epiphytic plants
Canopy - rosewood, indian mahogany, white cedar
Understory - black pepper, bay leaf, wild cinnamon
Shrub - indian gooseberry, forest pepper, bamboo, wild coffee
Forest floor - indian pennywort, blue pea, mosses and lichens
Mammals - asian elephant, malabar giant squirrel, Indian gaur, macaques
Birds - whistling thrush, great hornbill, nilgiri wood pigeon

Characteristics of climate
2,000-8,000 mm/year, 250-350 mm/month
60-90% humidity levels
Tropical monsoons - 90% of annual precipitation
Annual average temperatures of 20-30°C

Causes of climate
Rainshadow effect - windward side
Orographic rainfall - 4,000 mm/year due to mountain range
Arabian Sea monsoon winds
Equatorial low pressure - 10°N of equator