GEOMETRIC

OPTICS

SNC2D – Grade 10 Science

 LIGHT &
LIGHT SPECTRUM
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Waves
Colour Theory
Visible Light
Basics of the Ray Model of Light
 WHAT IS
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

LIGHT?
Light is electromagnetic radiation that can
be detected by the human eye.
Electromagnetic radiation occurs over an
extremely wide range of wavelengths,
from gamma rays with wavelengths less
than about 1 × 10−11 meters to radio
waves measured in meters.
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Video: Bozeman Science - Light

Video: Light absorption, reflection and transmission

WHAT IS A

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
WAVE?
A Wave is a disturbance
that transfers energy from
one point to another
without transferring matter.
HOW DO

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
WAVES WORK?
“Electricity can be static, like the energy that can make your hair

stand on end. Magnetism can also be static, as it is in a refrigerator

magnet. A changing magnetic field will induce a changing electric

field and vice-versa—the two are linked. These changing fields

form electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves differ from

mechanical waves in that they do not require a medium to

propagate. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel not

only through air and solid materials, but also through the vacuum

of space.”- https://science.nasa.gov/
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

P R O P E RT I E S O F WAV E S

A CREST is the highest point

of the wave.

A TROUGH is the lowest

point of the wave.

The REST POSITION is the

level when there is no wave.
PROPERTIES
OF WAVES
A WAVELENGTH is the distance from one
place in the wave to a similar place in the
wave (symbol for wavelength is λ)

The AMPLITUDE is the wave height from

the point of rest to the crest or trough. The
larger the amplitude the more energy carried
in the wave.

The FREQUENCY is the rate of repetition

of a wave. (symbol for frequency is f,
frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).

**If a wave crest passes a dock 10 times in a minute,

the frequency of the wave is 10 cycle/minute

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Mathematical Relationship
within Waves
Speed (v)
Speed = Frequency x Wavelength
Frequency (f)
v = f x λ
Wavelength (λ)
 Electromagnetic Radiation

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Wave pattern made of electric and magnetic fields

that oscillate and can travel through empty space

Wave Model
Similarities between light and movement of waves

on surface used as a representation of explanation

Electromagnetic Spectrum for properties of light

The range of radiation from shortest (gamma) to

longest (radio) wavelength

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (nm)

R e d 4.3 x 1014 Hz 700 nm

C = Speed of Light O r a n g e 5.0 x 1014 Hz 600 nm

(in a vacuum) Y e l l o w 5.2 x 1014 Hz 580 nm

WHITE LIGHT G r e e n 5.7 x 1014 Hz 550 nm

C = 3.00 x 108 m/s

B l u e 6.4 x 1014 Hz 450 nm

I n d i g o 6.7 x 1014 Hz 430 nm

V i o l e t 7.5 x 1014 Hz 400 nm

GEOMETRIC OPTICS

ADDITIVE COLOR THEORY SUBTRACTIVE COLOR THEORY

 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
RED & GREEN REFLECTED RED REFLECTED
BLUE ABSORBED BLUE & GREEN ABSORBED
 LUMINOUS VS. NON-LUMINOUS
Luminous – able to produce light
Non-Luminous – unable to produce light

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
SUN MOON ANGLER FISH JELLYFISH
Luminous Non-Luminous Luminous Luminous
Bioluminescence
A living organism that produces its own light through chemiluminescence

Firefly Glow Worm Algae

Chemiluminescence
The emission of light during a chemical reaction which does not produce significant quantities of heat.

Medical
Forensics Glow Sticks Diagnosis
Incandescence
The emission of visible light from a substance or object as a result of heating it to a high temperature.

Light Bulb Stove Burner Lava Flow

Fluorescence
Luminescence that is caused by the absorption of radiation at one wavelength followed by
nearly immediate reradiation usually at a different wavelength and that ceases almost at
once when the incident radiation stops

Highlighters Fluorescent Lights C.F.L.’s

Phosphorescence
Luminescence that is caused by the absorption of radiations (such as light or
electrons) and continues for a noticeable time after these radiations have stopped

Glow-In-The-Dark Glow-In-The-Dark Glow-In-The-Dark

Stickers Paint Emergency Signs
Triboluminescence
Light is generated when a material is mechanically pulled apart, ripped, scratched, crushed, or rubbed.

Wintergreen
Lifesaver Peeling Tape Quartz
Electric Discharge
The release and transmission of electricity in an applied electric field through a medium such as a gas

Spark Plug Static Discharge Lightning

L.E.D.
A semiconductor diode that emits light when a voltage is applied to it and that is used especially in
electronic devices (as for an indicator light)

O.L.E.D.
A light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic
compound that emits light in response to an electric current.

Plasma
Created by adding energy to a gas so that some of its electrons leave their atoms. This is ionization. It
results in negatively charged electrons, and positively charged ions.

L.C.D.
A flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.
What is a
L.A.S.E.R. ?

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation

A device that emits light through a

process of optical amplification based on
the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation
 RAY
DIAGRAMS
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Plane, Converging, Diverging Mirrors

Refraction / Index of Refraction
Converging, Diverging Mirrors
Thin Lens / Mirror Equation
Magnification Equation
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Ray Models of Light

TRANSLUCENT TRANSPARENT
allowing light, but not allowing light to pass
detailed shapes, to pass through so that objects
through; semi-transparent behind can be distinctly
seen
OPAQUE
not able to be seen through; not transparent
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Types of Reflection

Specular Reflection Diffuse Reflection

is reflection from a mirror-like surface, where occurs when a rough surface causes reflected
parallel rays all bounce off at the same angle rays to travel in different directions
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Types of Shade

Umbra Penumbra
the fully shaded inner region a region of lighter shadow
of a shadow cast by an opaque around the darkest part of a
object shadow
 Law of
Reflection

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Is a principle or rule that governs the
phenomenon of reflection of light. The law of
reflection states that a light ray will reflect off a
surface at the same angle that it came into the
surface. The angle, measured from the Normal,
at which a light beam strikes a surface is known
as the angle of incidence, and the angle at which
the beam of light bounces off the surface,
measured from the Normal as well, is known as
Θr = Θi the angle of reflection. The law also states that
the Incident Ray, the Reflected Ray, and the
Normal all lie in the same plane.
 NORMAL
An imaginary line, drawn as dashes, that is

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
perpendicular to the surface of a plane mirror.

INCIDENT RAY (IR)

Some The represented incoming light ray.

Reflection ANGLE of INCIDENCE (θi)

The measured angle between the Incident Ray
and the Normal.

Definitions REFLECTED RAY (rR)

The represented outgoing light ray (bounced off
surface).

ANGLE of REFLECTION (θr)

The measured angle between the Reflected Ray
and the Normal.
Image in a
Plane Mirror

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Any mirror that has a flat reflective surface is
called a PLANE MIRROR.

Any image formed by rays that do not actually

pass through the location of the image is a
VIRTUAL IMAGE.

The interchange of left side and right side in

image of the object when reflected by a plane
mirror is called LATERAL INVERSION.
FOCAL POINT (F)
The point at where light rays either converge
to or diverge away from in a curved mirror.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
FOCAL LENGTH (f)
The measurement from the vertex of the
mirror to the Focal Point of the mirror.

VERTEX (v)
The point at which the curved mirror is
bisected by the Principal Axis

PRINCIPAL AXIS (PA)

An imaginary line drawn to show where a
curved mirror is bisected.

CENTER OF CURVATURE (PA)

The point that is exactly the center of a
circle. It also happens to be two times the
focal length (2f)
DISTANCE OF OBJECT (do)
The measurement from the vertex to the
object

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
DISTANCE OF IMAGE (di)
The measurement from the vertex to the
point where the image is produced either
“real” or “virtual”.

HEIGHT OF OBJECT (ho)

The measurement from the principal axis
either up (+) or down (-) of the object

HEIGHT OF IMAGE (hi)

The measurement from the principal axis up
(+) or down (-) where the image is produced
either “real” or “virtual”.
 Object “Beyond C (2f)”
CONVERGING
(Concave) MIRRORS

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
f
• Surface curves inward like a bowl

• Focal Point and Center of Curvature are

on the same side as object
S: Smaller L: Between C / “2f “and f (Same Side)
A: Inverted T: Real
• The image created can be “real” ,
Object “@ C (2f)”
“virtual” or “no clear image” depending
on where the object is in relation the
Focal Point and Center of Curvature

f
• The Size, Attitude, Location, and Type of
image all change in relation to the objects
position in relation to these points.
S: Same L: @ C / “2f “ (Same Side)
A: Inverted T: Real
 S: Larger
Object “Between C / “2f” and “f” S: Larger
A: Inverted
A: Upright
L: Beyond 2F
L: Opposite Side of Object
Same Side
T: Virtual
T: Real
f
Object Inside “f”

Object “@ “f” S: no clear image f

A: no clear image
L: no clear image
T: no clear image

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
f
 DIVERGING (Convex)
MIRRORS

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Diverging Mirror (Object Always Opposite C / “2f” and “f”)

• Surface curves outward

• Focal Point and Center of Curvature are on the

Opposite side as object

• The image created can only “virtual” (never

f “real” or “no image”). This is because object
is always Opposite the Center of Curvature
and the Focal Point.

• The Size, Attitude, Location, and Type of

ALWAYS image never changes regardless of where the
object is placed in relation to the mirror
S: Smaller L: Opposite Side of Object
A: Upright T: Virtual
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
 REFRACTION
OF LIGHT
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Refraction
The Speed of Light
Index of Refraction
Dispersion
How Light Refracts
Total Internal Reflection
 REFRACTION
The BENDING of light rays
as they pass between two
different media.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
The Speed of Light
The Speed of Light
or “c” is a constant.

It is equal to
3.00 x 108 m/s
or 300,000,000 m/s
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Refraction

When a ray of light moves When a ray of light moves When a ray of light moves
from air (less dense) to water from the water (more dense) to from air (less dense) to glass
(more dense) it is refracted air (less dense) it is refracted (more dense) it is refracted
toward the normal. away from the normal. toward the normal. When it
moves from the glass (more
dense) to air (less dense) it is
Θi > ΘR Θi < ΘR refracted away from the
normal.
Θi > ΘE
FERMAT’S
PRINCIPLE
Fermat's principle, also known as the
principle of least time, is the link
between ray optics and wave optics. In
its original "strong" form, Fermat's
principle states that the path taken by a
ray between two given points is the
path that can be traveled in the least
time.
FERMAT’S PRINCIPLE
The Index of Refraction
Index of Refraction
Speed of Light in a Vacuum

c Sin θ1
n= n=
v Speed of Light in a Medium
Sin θ2

The RATIO of how fast light is travelling in a particular medium to how fast it
travels in a vacuum.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Refractive
Materials
List
The list to the left is a
series of materials and
their refractive index.

The index is inversely

proportional to the
speed of light in that
medium.
 Index of Refraction Examples
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

• The speed of light in • The speed of light • What is the speed of
leaded glass is through a material is light through Zircon
1.66 x 108 m/s. What is 1.24 x 108 m/s. What is (n= 1.92)?
the index of refraction material is it?
for this type of glass?
• G: c= 3.00 x 108 m/s • G: c= 3.00 x 108 m/s • G: c= 3.00 x 108 m/s
v= 1.66 x 108 m/s v= 1.24 x 108 m/s n= 1.92
• R: n= ?
• A: n=c/v
• R: n= ? • R: v= ?
• A: n=c/v • A: n=c/n
• S: 3.00 x 108 m/s
n= 3.00 x 108 m/s 3.00 x 10 8 m/s
1.66 x 108 m/s • S: n= • S: v=
n = 1.81 1.24 x 108 m/s 1.92
n = 2.42 v = 1.56 x 108 m/s
• The I.O.R. for leaded glass is • The I.O.R. is 2.42 which • The speed of light in Zircon
1.81
makes it diamond is 1.56 x 108 m/s
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

DI SPERSI ON
WHEN WHITE LIGHT IS
PASSED THROUGH A GLASS
PRISM IT SPLITS INTO ITS
SPECTRUM OF COLORS (IN
ORDER VIOLET, INDIGO,
BLUE, GREEN, YELLOW,
ORANGE AND RED) AND
THIS PROCESS OF WHITE
LIGHT SPLITTING INTO ITS
CONSTITUENT COLORS IS
TERMED AS DISPERSION.

Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
 APPARENT
The depth of a swimming pool always appears to
be less than it is. This effect is due to the refraction

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
of light rays as they traverse the boundary between
water and air.

In the following graphic, the chest appears to be

DEPTH
closer to the surface than it is.
THE DEPTH OF AN OBJECT
IN A DENSER MEDIUM AS
SEEN FROM THE LESS
DENSE MEDIUM. ITS
VALUE IS SMALLER THAN
THE REAL DEPTH.
 The discontinuous
bending of a stick held

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
partly in and partly out of
water is also a result of
light refraction at the air-
water interface.

Spearfishing is
particularly difficult due
to the apparent depth
phenomenon !!

APPARENT DEPTH
 MI RAGE

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
An optical effect that is
sometimes seen at sea,
in the desert, or over a
hot pavement, that may
have the appearance of
(a) the un-refracted line of sight
(b) the refracted line of sigh a pool of water or a
(c) the apparent position of the refracted
image mirror in which distant
objects are seen
(a)
inverted. It is caused by
(b) n the bending or reflection
of rays of light by a
(c)
layer of heated air of
varying density
Optical Illusions Physiological
illusions occur There are three
when the brain is main types of
trying to figure optical illusions:
out a pattern.

Cognitive Physiological

Literal illusions
Cognitive
are intentionally
illusions are
created by
combining many based on a
person's
smaller images
perception of the
to create a larger
world.
image. ...

Literal Literal
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

SNELL’S LAW
Snell’s Law

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Is a formula used to describe the
relationship between the angles of
incidence and refraction, when referring
to light or other waves passing through a
boundary between two different isotropic
media, such as water, glass, or air. This
law was named after the Dutch
astronomer and mathematician
Willebrord Snellius (also called Snell).
SNELL’S LAW

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Normal Normal

n1 sinθr
=
n2 sinθi
θi θi

n air n air

n water n water
Boundary
between media

n1(sinθi) = n2(sinθr)
θr θr
SNELL’S LAW EXAMPLES
A light ray travels from water (n=1.33) into acrylic (n=1.49). A light ray travels from air (n=1.00) into an unknown media.
The incident ray strikes the boundary between the media at an The incident ray strikes the boundary between the media at an
angle of 49°. What is the angle of refraction (QR)? angle of 32.0°. The measured angle of refraction in the
second medium(QR) is 12.7°. What is the I.O.R. in the second
medium and what is the substance?
G: n1 = 1.33 n2 = 1.49 Qi = 49°
R: QR = ? G: n1 = 1.00 Qi = 32.0° Qi = 12.7°
A: n1(sin Qi) = n2(sin QR) R n2 = ?
S: 1.33(sin 49°) = 1.49(sinQR ) A: n1(sin Qi) = n2(sin QR)
1.33(sin 49°) = (sinQR )
S: 1.00(sin 32.0°) = n2(sin 12.7°)
1.49
1.33(0.755) = (sinQR ) 1.00(sin 32.0°) = n2
1.49 (sin 12.7°)
0.530 = n2
0.674 = (sinQR )
0.220
sin-1(0.674) = QR
n2 = 2.41
QR = 42.4°
S: The angle of reflection QR = 42.4° S: The I.O.R. for the unknown medium is 2.41 and based on
known indices, the substance is likely a diamond (n=2.42)
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

TOTAL
INTERNAL
REFLECTION
THE PHENOMENON WHICH
OCCURS WHEN THE LIGHT
RAYS TRAVEL FROM A MORE
OPTICALLY DENSER MEDIUM
TO A LESS OPTICALLY
DENSER MEDIUM AND THE
LIGHT RAYS NO LONGER
REFRACT BUT ARE
REFLECTED INTERNALLY.

CRITICAL ANGLE
The Angle of Incidence when the Angle of Refraction is 90°
This is the point where all light is reflected internally when
travelling from a more dense to a less dense medium
 LENSES
DRAWINGS & EQUATIONS
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Converging Lens Ray Diagrams

Diverging Lens Ray Diagrams
Thin Lens and Mirror Equation
Magnification Equation
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
 Object “Beyond C (2f)”
CONVERGING
(Convex) LENSES

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
f1

• Surfaces curve outward

• Primary Focal Point and Primary Center of

Curvature are on the opposite side as object
S: Smaller L: Between C / “2f “and f (Opp. Side)
A: Inverted • The image created can be “real” , “virtual” or
T: Real
“no clear image” depending on where the
Object “@ C (2f)” object is in relation the Focal Point and Center
of Curvature

f1 • The Size, Attitude, Location, and Type of

image all change in relation to the objects
position in relation to these points.

S: Same L: @ C / “2f “ (Opp. Side)

A: Inverted T: Real
 S: Larger
Object “Between C / “2f” and “f” S: Larger
A: Inverted
A: Upright
L: Beyond 2F
L: Same Side of Object
Opp. Side
T: Virtual
T: Real

Object Inside “f”

f1

f1
Object “@ “f” S: no clear image
A: no clear image
L: no clear image
T: no clear image

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
f1
Diverging Lens
(Object Always Same Side as C / “2f” and “f”) DIVERGING
(Concave) LENSES

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
• Surface curves Inward
f1
• Primary Focal Point and Primary Center of
Curvature are on the Same side as object

• The image created can only “virtual” (never

“real” or “no image”). This is because object
is always on Same Side as the Primary Center
of Curvature and the Primary Focal Point.
f1
• The Size, Attitude, Location, and Type of
image never changes regardless of where the
object is placed in relation to the mirror

ALWAYS
S: Smaller L: Opposite Side of Object
A: Upright T: Virtual
Thin Lens
(Mirror) Equation

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
The mirror equation expresses the
quantitative relationship between the
object distance (do), the image distance
(di), and the focal length (f). This
equation was first introduced
algebraically by English Mathematician
Edmond Halley (1693).
Thin Lens (Mirror) Equation Examples
An object is placed 28 cm ( do ) from a converging lens. The A coin is placed 9.0 cm in front of a diverging lens. The distance
focal length ( f ) of the lens is 12 cm. Where is the image of the image is -2.8 cm from the optical center. What is the focal
located ( di ) ? length of the lens?

G: do = +28 cm f = +12 cm G: do = +9.0 cm di = -2.8 cm

R: di = ? R: f = ?
! ! !
! ! ! A: " = #$ +
A: = + #%
" #$ #%
! ! !
= − ! ! !
#$ " #% S: " = &'.) +, + -../ +,
! ! !
S: = − !
= -0.36 cm + 0.011 cm
#$ &!' )* &'+ )*
"
! !
= 0.083 cm – 0.036 cm = - 0.25 𝑐𝑚
#$ "
! !
#$
= 0.047 𝑐𝑚 𝑑𝑖= &/.'0 +, = -4.0 cm
! S: The focal length of the lens ( f ) is -4.0 cm
𝑑𝑖= ,.,./ )* = 21 cm
S: The distance of the image ( di ) is 21 cm
 MAGNIFICATION
EQUATION
Is a formula used to describe the
relationship between the measure of the
ratio of how large or small the image of an
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

object is, compared to that of the object.

Magnification Equation Examples
A small toy building block is placed 7.2 cm ( do )in A coin height of 2.4 cm ( ho ) is placed in front of a
front of a lens. An upright, virtual image of diverging lens. An upright, virtual image of height
magnification ( M ) of 3.2 is noticed. Where is the ( hi ) of 1.7 cm is noticed on the same side of the lens
image located ( di )? as the coin. Where is the magnification of the lens?
( M )?
G: do = 7.2 cm M = 3.2 G: ho = 7.2 cm hi = 1.7cm
R: di = ? R: M = ?
0(#$) 3$
A: M = #% A: M =
3%

di = - 𝑑𝑜 𝑀
& !./ )*
S: di = - 7.2 𝑐𝑚 3.2 S: M = & '.. )*
di = - 23 cm M = + 0.71 cm
S: The distance of the image is -23 cm S: The Magnification of the image is +0.71
 THE EYE AND
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

OPTICAL
DEVICES
The Eye Anatomy
Focusing and Perception
Vision Problems and Corrections
Astigmatism Checker
Color Blindness
Laser Eye Surgery
The Eye Anatomy GEOMETRIC OPTICS

The PUPIL - The pupil is the black opening in the middle of the colored part of your
eye (iris). The pupil gets bigger or smaller in response to changes in light. Muscles in the
iris control the size of the pupil.

The CORNEA - The pupil is the black opening in the middle of the colored part of
your eye (iris). The pupil gets bigger or smaller in response to changes in light. Muscles in
the iris control the size of the pupil.

The IRIS - The cornea is the clear tissue covering the front of your eye. Like the crystal
on your watch or the windshield to your car, your cornea serves as a protective window
that allows light to enter your eye and come to focus on your retina. The cornea must
remain clear for you to have good vision.

The LENS - a nearly transparent biconvex structure suspended behind the iris of
the eye, the sole function of which is to focus light rays onto the retina. The lens is
made up of unusual elongated cells that have no blood supply but obtain nutrients
from the surrounding fluids

The RETINA - The retina is a key bridge between the light that enters your eyes
and the images you see. Special cells in your retina react to light and pass signals to
your brain that lets you see the world around you.

The OPTIC NERVE - The optic nerves relay messages from your eyes to
your brain to create visual images. They play a crucial role in your ability to
see. Millions of nerve fibers make up each optic nerve. Damage to an optic
nerve can lead to vision loss in one or both eyes.
Vision GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Brain
Myopia GEOMETRIC OPTICS

(Near-sightedness)

Brain
Correcting Myopia GEOMETRIC OPTICS

(Near-sightedness)

Diverging Lens
(-) Meniscus

Brain
Hyperopia GEOMETRIC OPTICS

(Far-sightedness)

Brain
Correcting Hyperopia GEOMETRIC OPTICS

(Far-sightedness)

Converging Lens
(+) Meniscus

Brain
Astigmatism GEOMETRIC OPTICS

What is Astigmatism?

Astigmatism (uh-STIG-muh-tiz-um) is a common and

generally treatable imperfection in the curvature of the
eye that causes blurred distance and near vision.

Astigmatism occurs when either the front surface of

the eye (cornea) or the lens inside the eye has
mismatched curves. Instead of having one curve like a
round ball, the surface is egg-shaped. This causes
blurred vision at all distances.

73
 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Astigmatism Check
Instructions:

1. Position yourself 3 meters or 10 feet from the dial chart

2. Cover each eye at a time

3. Observe the lines with each eye carefully.

All the lines are black in color. You are likely to have some
degree of astigmatic error if some lines appear black while
others seem gray.

74
Color

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Blindness
• What is Color Blindness?

• Color blindness — or more accurately, poor or

deficient color vision — is an inability to see
the difference between certain colors. True color
blindness — in which everything is seen in
shades of black and white — is rare.

• Color blindness is usually inherited. Men are

more likely to be born with color blindness.
Most people with color blindness can't
distinguish between certain shades of red and
green. Less commonly, people with color
blindness can't distinguish between shades of
blue and yellow.

75
What Causes
Color
• Light, which contains all color
wavelengths, enters your eye through the
cornea and passes through the lens and

Blindness? transparent, jellylike tissue in your eye

(vitreous humor) to wavelength-sensitive
cells (cones) at the back of your eye in the
macular area of the retina. The cones are
sensitive to short (blue), medium (green)
or long (red) wavelengths of light.
Chemicals in the cones trigger a reaction
and send the wavelength information
through your optic nerve to your brain.

• If your eyes are normal, you perceive

color. But if your cones lack one or more
wavelength-sensitive chemicals, you will
be unable to distinguish the colors red,
green or blue.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
There are two main types of digital projection display systems. The older, less expensive type employs three
transparent liquid-crystal-display (LCD) panels, one for each of the primary colors (red, green, and blue).
The light transmissivity of each pixel varies depending on the image data received from the computer. The
light from a lamp is directed through the LCD panels, collimated using a lens, and projected onto a screen.
The overall construction of the device is similar to that of a slide projector, where the "slide" consists of the
three LCD panels placed close together near the focal point of the projection lens. Advantages of LCD
technology include efficiency, ease of brightness and contrast adjustment, and high image resolution
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
A compound microscope uses two or more lenses to produce a magnified
image of an object, known as a specimen, placed on a slide (a piece of
glass) at the base.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
1. The microscope rests securely on a stand on a table.

2. Daylight from the room (or from a bright lamp) shines in at the bottom.

3. The light rays hit an angled mirror and change direction, traveling
straight up toward the specimen. The mirror pivots. You can adjust it to
capture more light and alter the brightness of the image you see.

4. The light rays pass through a hole in an adjustable horizontal platform

called the stage.

5. The stage moves up and down when you turn a thumb wheel on the side
of the microscope. By raising and lowering the stage, you move the lenses
closer to or further away from the object you're examining, adjusting the
focus of the image you see.

6. To look at something under a microscope (such as a plant leaf), you 10. A selection of other objective lenses can be used to magnify the
prepare a specimen of it. The specimen has to be a very thin slice so light specimen by more or less.
rays will pass through.
11. The thumb wheel makes it easy to swing the other lenses into
7. You mount the specimen on a glass slide with a glass cover slip on top to position.
keep it in place.
12. The eyepiece lens (the one closest to your eye) magnifies the
8. The slide is held in place by two metal clips, one on either side. image from the objective lens, rather like a magnifying glass.

9. Light traveling up from the mirror passes through the glass slide, 13. On some microscopes, you can move the eyepiece up and down
specimen, and cover slip to the objective lens (the one closest to the object). by turning a wheel. This gives you fine control or "fine tuning" of the
This makes the first magnification: it works by spreading out light rays focus.
from the specimen so they appear to come from a bigger object. The
objective "lens" usually consists of more than one lens. 14. You look down on a magnified image of the object.
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
LASER EYE

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
SURGERY
• What is Laser Eye Surgery?

• Laser eye surgery is the most commonly practiced

procedure to correct vision problems caused by
refractive errors, including myopia (near-sightedness),
hyperopia (far-sightedness) and astigmatism (distorted
vision when looking at objects at any distance).

• During laser eye surgery, a surgeon uses a laser device

to make permanent changes to the shape of the cornea.
The laser used most often is the Excimer laser, which
produces a beam of ultraviolet light to vaporize tissue.
Surgically altering the shape of the cornea can correct
mild to moderate refractive errors in most people.

81
Optical Devices