2 A.C.

Circuits

Single - Phase AC Circuits

2.1 Equation for generation of alternating induce EMF
 An AC generator uses the principle of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction law. It states that
when current carrying conductor cut the magnetic field then emf induced in the conductor.
 Inside this magnetic field a single rectangular loop of wire rotes around a fixed axis allowing
it to cut the magnetic flux at various angles as shown below figure 2.1.
Magnetic Pole
Magnetic Flux Where,
N =No. of turns of coil
A = Area of coil (m2)
ω=Angular velocity (radians/second)
N S m= Maximum flux (wb)

Wire
Wire
Loop(Conductor)
Axis of Rotation
Axis of Rotation Loop(Conductor)

Figure 2.2.1 Generation of EMF

 When coil is along XX’ (perpendicular to the lines of flux), flux linking with coil= m. When
coil is along YY’ (parallel to the lines of flux), flux linking with the coil is zero. When coil is
making an angle  with respect to XX’ flux linking with coil,  = m cosωt [ = ωt].
X

ωt m cosωt

N Y’ Y S

m sinωt
X’

Figure 2.2 Alternating Induced EMF

 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
d
e  N Em  N m 
dt Where,
N  no. of turns of the coil
(  cos t )
e   Nd m m  Bm A
dt
e   N m (  sin t )   Bm  Maximum flux density (wb/m 2 )
e  N m  sin t A  Area of the coil (m 2 )
e  Em sin t   2f
Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 1
2 A.C. Circuits

 e  N Bm A2f sin t

 Similarly, an alternating current can be express as

i  I m sin t Where, Im = Maximum values of current
 Thus, both the induced emf and the induced current vary as the sine function of the phase
angle t   . Shown in figure 2.3.
Phase Induced
N angle emf
90 e e  Em sin t
C
135 45
D B
t  00 e0
180 E A 0/360 225 270 315 360
0 45 90 135 180
ωt
t  900 e  Em
225 F H 315 t  1800 e  0
G
270

S
t  2700 e   Em

t  3600 e  0
Figure 2.3 Waveform of Alternating Induced EMF

2.2 Definitions
 Waveform
It is defined as the graph between magnitude of alternating quantity (on Y axis) against time
(on X axis).
+V Sine Wave +V Square Wave
Amplitude

Amplitude

0 0
Time Time

-V -V

+V Triangular +V Complex
Amplitude
Amplitude

Wave Wave

0 0
Time Time

-V -V

Figure 2.4 A.C. Waveforms

 Cycle
It is defined as one complete set of positive, negative and zero values of an alternating
quantity.

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2 A.C. Circuits

 Instantaneous value
It is defined as the value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant of given time.
Generally denoted by small letters.
e.g. i= Instantaneous value of current
v= Instantaneous value of voltage
p= Instantaneous values of power
 Amplitude/ Peak value/ Crest value/ Maximum value
It is defined as the maximum value (either positive or negative) attained by an alternating
quantity in one cycle. Generally denoted by capital letters.
e.g. Im= Maximum Value of current
Vm= Maximum value of voltage
Pm= Maximum values of power
 Average value
It is defined as the average of all instantaneous value of alternating quantities over a half
cycle.
e.g. Vave = Average value of voltage
Iave = Average value of current
 RMS value
It is the equivalent dc current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces same amount of heat as produced by an alternating current when flowing through
the same circuit for the same time.
e.g. Vrms =Root Mean Square value of voltage
Irms = Root Mean Square value of current
 Frequency
It is defined as number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second. Symbol is
f. Unit is Hertz (Hz).
 Time period
It is defined as time taken to complete one cycle. Symbol is T. Unit is seconds.
 Power factor
It is defined as the cosine of angle between voltage and current. Power Factor = pf = cos,
where  is the angle between voltage and current.
 Active power
It is the actual power consumed in any circuit. It is given by product of rms voltage and rms
current and cosine angle between voltage and current. (VI cos).
Active Power= P= I2R = VI cos.
Unit is Watt (W) or kW.

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2 A.C. Circuits

 Reactive power
The power drawn by the circuit due to reactive component of current is called as reactive
power. It is given by product of rms voltage and rms current and sine angle between voltage
and current (VI sin).
Reactive Power = Q= I2X = VIsin.
Unit is VAR or kVAR.
 Apparent power
It is the product of rms value of voltage and rms value of current. It is total power supplied
to the circuit.
Apparent Power = S = VI.
Unit is VA or kVA.
 Peak factor/ Crest factor
It is defined as the ratio of peak value (crest value or maximum value) to rms value of an
alternating quantity.
Peak factor = Kp = 1.414 for sine wave.
 Form factor
It is defined as the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating quantity. Denoted by
Kf. Form factor Kf = 1.11 for sine wave.
 Phase difference
It is defined as angular displacement between two zero values or two maximum values of the
two-alternating quantity having same frequency.

+V In Phase (  ) +V Positive Phase () +V Negative Phase (-)

0 -
0 0
t  t t

-V
V(t) = Vmsinωt -V
V(t) = Vmsin(ωt+ -V
V(t) = Vmsin(ωt-

Figure 2.5 A.C. Phase Difference

 Leading phase difference

A quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value before the compared to the
other quantity.
 Lagging phase difference
A quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value after the other quantity.

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2 A.C. Circuits

2.3 Derivation of average value and RMS value of sinusoidal AC signal

 Average Value
Graphical Method Analytical Method

Voltage Voltage Area Under the Curve

V5 V6
Vm V4 Vm
V7
V3 V8

V2 V9
V1 V10

Time Time
180 /n

Figure 2.6 Graphical Method for Average Value Figure 2.7 Analytical Method for Average Value

Sum of All Ins tantan eous Values Area Under the Curve
Vave  Vave 
Total No. of Values Base of the Curve

v1  v2  v3  v4  v5  ......  v10
V m Sin t d t
Vave  Vave  0

10 
Vm
  cos t 0

Vave 

V
Vave   m  cos   cos 0 

2V
Vave  m

Vave  0.637 Vm

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2 A.C. Circuits

 RMS Value
Graphical Method Analytical Method

Voltage
Voltage
V5 V6
Vm V4 + Vm
V7
V3 V8 + Vrms
V2 V9
V1 V10

Time
Time Half Cycle
180 /n
- Vrms

- Vm
One Full Cycle

Figure 2.8 Graphical Method for RMS Value Figure 2.9 Analytical Method for RMS Value

Sum of all sq. of instantaneous values Area under the sq. curve
Vrms  Vrms 
Total No. of Values Base of the curve
2

V Sin 2 t d t
2
m

Vrms  0
2
v 2  v 2  v 2  v 2  v 2  ......  v102
Vrms  1 2 3 4 5 2
Vm2 ( 1  cos 2t )
2 0
10 Vrms  d t
2

V 2m   (sin 2t )  
2

 t 0  
2
Vrms   
4   2 0 
Vm
Vrms  ( 2  0 )
4
V
Vrms  m
2
Vrms  0.707 Vm

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2 A.C. Circuits

2.4 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities

 Sinusoidal expression given as: v(t) = Vm sin (ωt ± Φ) representing the sinusoid in the time-
domain form.
 Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.
Vector
Ratotaion
ω rads /s
90 +Vm v(t)=Vm sinωt
120 60

150 30

ωt
0 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
180
360 30 60 90 120 150 t

210 330

240 300
270 -Vm
Rotating Sinusoidal Waveform in
Phasor Time Domain
Figure 2.10 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities

Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

 The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be
written as:
v  Vm Sin t
i  I m sin ( t   )

Voltage (v)
+Vm
+Im Current (i)

 V
0
ωt 
LEAD
-Im 
ω
-Vm
LAG
I

Figure 2.11 Wave Forms of Voltage & Current Figure 2.12 Phasor Diagram of Voltage & Current

 As show in the above voltage and current equations, the current, i is lagging the voltage, v by
angle  .
 So, the difference between the two sinusoidal quantities representing in waveform shown in
Fig. 2.11 & phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle  and the resulting
phasor diagram shown in Fig. 2.12.

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2 A.C. Circuits

2.5 Purely Resistive Circuit

 The Fig. 2.13 an AC circuit consisting of a pure resistor to which an alternating voltage
vt=Vmsinωt is applied.
Circuit Diagram
It

Where,
R VR vt = Instantaneous Voltage
vt=Vmsinωt
Vm = Maximum Voltage
VR = Voltage across Resistance

Figure 2.13 Pure Resistor Connected to AC Supply

Equations for Voltage and Current

 As show in the Fig. 2.13 voltage source
vt  Vm Sin t

 According to ohm’s law

vt
it 
R
V sin t
it  m
R
it  I m sin t
 From above equations it is clear that current is in phase with voltage for purely resistive
circuit.
Waveforms and Phasor Diagram
 The sinewave and vector representation of vt  Vm Sin t & it  I m sin t are given in
Fig. 2.14 & 2.15.

vt=Vmsinωt
V,i
it=Imsinωt ω

IR VR
0
ωt

Figure 2.14 Waveform of Voltage & Current for Pure Resistor

Figure 2.15 Phasor Diagram of Voltage & Current for Pure
Resistor

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2 A.C. Circuits

Power
 The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the
instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous power
p( t )  v  i
p( t )  Vm sin t  I m sin t
p( t )  Vm I m sin 2 t
Vm I m ( 1  cos 2t )
p( t ) 
2
Average Power
2
Vm I m ( 1  cos 2t )
 2
d t
Pave  0
2
Vm I m   (sin 2t )  
2

 t 0  
2
Pave   
4   2  0 
V I
Pave  m m  2  0   0  0
4
V I
Pave  m m
2
V I
Pave  m m
2 2
Pave  Vrms I rms
Pave  VI
 The average power consumed by purely resistive circuit is multiplication of Vrms & Irms .
2.6 Purely Inductive Circuit
 The Fig. 2.16 an AC circuit consisting of a pure Inductor to which an alternating voltage
vt=Vmsinωt is applied.
Circuit Diagram
it

vt=Vmsinωt L VL

Figure 2.16 Pure Inductor Connected to AC Supply

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2 A.C. Circuits

Equations for Voltage and Current

 As show in the Fig. 2.16 voltage source
vt  Vm Sin t

 Due to self-inductance of the coil, there will be emf indued in it. This back emf will oppose
the instantaneous rise or fall of current through the coil, it is given by
di
eb  -L
dt
 As, circuit does not contain any resistance, there is no ohmic drop and hence applied voltage
is equal and opposite to back emf.
vt  -eb Waveform and Phasor Diagram
 di  v,i Vt=Vmsinωt
vt     L 
 dt  Vm
di Im It=Imsin(ωt- 90)
vt  L
dt
di 0
Vm sin t  L ωt
dt
V sin t dt
di  m 90
L
 Integrate on both the sides,
Vm
 di  L  sin t dt Figure 2.17 Waveform of Voltage & Current for Pure Inductor

Vm   cos t 
it   
L   V ω
Vm
it   cos t 90
L
 Vm 

it  I m sin t  90   L  I m 
 
 From the above equations it is clear that I
the current lags the voltage by 900 in a Figure 2.18 Phasor Diagram of Voltage & Current for Pure
purely inductive circuit. Inductor

Power
 The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the
instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous Power
pt  v  i
pt  Vm sin t  I m sin  t  90 
pt  Vm sin t  (  I m cos t )
 2Vm I m sin t cos t
pt 
2

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2 A.C. Circuits

Vm I m
pt   sin 2t
2
Average Power
2
Vm I m
 2
sin 2t
Pave  0
d t
2
2
V I   cos 2t 
Pave   m m  
4  2 0

V I
Pave  m m  cos 4  cos 0
8
Pave  0
 The average power consumed by purely inductive circuit is zero.
2.7 Purely Capacitive Circuit
 The Fig. 2.19 shows a capacitor of capacitance C farads connected to an a.c. voltage supply
vt=Vmsinωt.
Circuit Diagram
it

q+
vt=Vmsinωt C VC
q-

Figure 2.19 Pure Capacitor Connected AC Supply

Equations for Voltage & Current

 As show in the Fig. 2.19 voltage source
vt  Vm Sin t
 A pure capacitor having zero resistance. Thus, the alternating supply applied to the plates of
the capacitor, the capacitor is charged.
 If the charge on the capacitor plates at any instant is ‘q’ and the potential difference between
the plates at any instant is ‘vt’ then we know that,
q  Cvt
q  CVm sin t
 The current is given by rate of change of charge.
dq
it 
dt
dCVm sin t
it 
dt

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2 A.C. Circuits

it  CVm sin t
Vm
it  cos t
1 / C
V
it  m cos t
Xc
Vm
it  I m sin( t  90o ) (  Im )
Xc
 From the above equations it is clear that the current leads the voltage by 900 in a purely
capacitive circuit.
Waveform and Phasor Diagram

vt=Vmsinωt I
V,i
ω
it=Imsin(ωt+90)

0 90
ωt V
+90

Figure 2.20 Waveform of Voltage & Current for Pure Capacitor Figure 2.21 Phasor Diagram of Voltage & Current
for Pure Capacitor

Power
 The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the
instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous Power
p( t )  v  i


p( t )  Vm sin t  I m sin t  90 
p( t )  Vm sin t  I m cos t
p( t )  Vm I m sin t cos t
2Vm I m sin t cos t
p( t ) 
2
V I
p( t )  m m sin 2t
2
Average Power
2
Vm I m
 2
sin 2 t
Pave  0
d t
2

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2 A.C. Circuits

2
V I   cos t 
Pave  m m 
4  2 0

V I
Pave  m m   cos 4  cos 0
8
Pave 0
 The average power consumed by purely capacitive circuit is zero.

2.8 Series Resistance-Inductance (R-L) Circuit

 Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R ohms and a purely inductive coil of
inductance L henry in series as shown in the Figure 2.22.
VR VL

R L

it

vt=Vmsinωt
Figure 2.22 Circuit Diagram of Series R-L Circuit

 In the series circuit, the current it flowing through R and L will be the same.
 But the voltage across them will be different. The vector sum of voltage across resistor VR
and voltage across inductor VL will be equal to supply voltage vt.
Waveforms and Phasor Diagram
 The voltage and current waves in R-L series circuit is shown in Fig. 2.23.
vt=Vmsinωt
V,i
it=Imsin(ωt- )

0
ωt



Figure 2.23 Waveform of Voltage and Current of Series R-L Circuit

 We know that in purely resistive the voltage and current both are in phase and therefore
vector VR is drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector and in purely inductive
circuit the current I lag the voltage VL by 90o.
 So, to draw the vector diagram, first I taken as the reference. This is shown in the Fig. 2.24.
Next VR drawn in phase with I. Next VL is drawn 90o leading the I.
 The supply voltage V is then phasor Addition of VR and VL.

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2 A.C. Circuits

VL ω
VL
R
I +V
VR
= VL
I V

R L
VR I

Figure 2.24 Phasor Diagram of Series R-L Circuit

 Thus, from the above, it can be said that the current in series R-L circuit lags the applied
voltage V by an angle  . If supply voltage
v  Vm Sin t
Vm
i  I m sin  t    Where I m 
Z
Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

r,S

Reactive Power,Q
e
A) w
(V t Po
I*Z

(VAr)
Z

en
V=

VL=I*XL XL
r
pa
Ap

 

VR=I*R R
Real Power,P
(Watt)
Figure 2.25 Voltage Triangle Series R-L Figure 2.26 Impedance Triangle Series
Circuit R-L Circuit Figure 2.27 Power Triangle Series R-L
Circuit

V  VR2  VL2 Z  R 2  X L2 Re al Power P  V I cos

 ( IR )2  ( IX L )2 XL  I 2R
1
  tan Re active Power Q  V I sin 
 I R 2  X L2 R
 I2XL
 IZ
Apparent Power S  V I
where, Z  R 2  X L2
 I 2Z
Power Factor
R
Power factor  cos  
Z
P

S

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2 A.C. Circuits

Power
 The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the
instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous power
pt  v  i
pt  Vm sin t  I m sin  t   
pt  Vm I m sin t  sin  t   
2 Vm I m sin t  s in  t   
pt 
2
Vm I m
pt  cos - cos(2t- )
2
 Thus, the instantaneous values of the power consist of two components.
 First component is constant w.r.t. time and second component vary with time.

Average Power
2
Vm I m
Pave   cos - cos(2t- ) d t
0
2
2
V I 1
Pave  m m
2  2 cos - cos(2t- ) d t
0

Vm I m  
2 2
Pave    cos d t-  cos(2t- ) d t 
4  0 0 
V I   sin(2t- )  
2

 m m cos   t 0 - 
2
Pave  
4   2 0 
V I V I
Pave  m m  2 cos  - m m  sin  4     sin    
4 8
V I V I
Pave  m m  cos  - m m   sin   sin 
2 8
V I
Pave  m m cos -0
2
Vm I m
Pave  cos 
2
V I
Pave  m m cos 
2 2
Pave  VI cos 

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2 A.C. Circuits

2.9 Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

 Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R ohms and a purely capacitive of
capacitance farad in series as in the Fig. 2.28.

VR VC

R C

it

vt=Vmsinωt
Figure 2.28 Circuit Diagram of Series R-C Circuit

 In the series circuit, the current it flowing through R and C will be the same. But the voltage
across them will be different.
 The vector sum of voltage across resistor VR and voltage across capacitor VC will be equal to
supply voltage vt.
Waveforms and Phasor Diagram

vt=Vmsinωt
V,i
it=Imsin(ωt+)

0
ωt


Figure 2.29 Waveform of Voltage and Current of Series R-C Circuit

 We know that in purely resistive the voltage and current in a resistive circuit both are in
phase and therefore vector VR is drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector and in
purely capacitive circuit the current I lead the voltage VC by 90o.
 So, to draw the vector diagram, first I taken as the reference. This is shown in the Fig. 2.30.
Next VR drawn in phase with I. Next VC is drawn 90o lagging the I. The supply voltage V is then
phasor Addition of VR and VC.
I VR I
-
VR
I VC V=
V C+ ω
VR
R C VC

Figure 2.30 Phasor Diagram of Series R-C Circuit

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 16

2 A.C. Circuits

 Thus, from the above equation it is clear that the current in series R-C circuit leads the applied
voltage V by an angle  . If supply voltage
v  Vm Sin t
i  I m sin  t    Where, I m 
Vm
Z
Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle
Real Power,P
VR=IR A R (Watt)

Reactive Power,Q
O

- - -

Ap

(VAr)
pa
VC=I(-XC) -XC

r
V=

e n VA )
Z
IZ

tP
(

ow
er,S
D
Figure 2.31 Voltage Triangle of Series R-C Figure 2.32 Impedance Triangle
Figure 2.33 Power Triangle Series R-L
Circuit Series R-L Circuit
Circuit

V  VR2  VC2 Z  R 2  X C2 Real Power, P  V I cos

XC  I 2R
 ( IR )2  ( IX C )2   tan1

R Reactive Power, Q  V I sin

 I R 2  X C2  I2 XL
 IZ where, Z  R 2  X C2 Apparent Power ,S  V I
 I 2Z
Power Factor
R P
p. f .  cos   or
Z S
Power
 The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the
instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous power
pt  v  i
pt  Vm sin t  I m sin  t   
pt  Vm I m sin t  sin  t   
2 Vm I m sin t  sin  t   
pt 
2
Vm I m
pt  cos - cos(2t   )
2
 Thus, the instantaneous values of the power consist of two components. First component
remains constant w.r.t. time and second component vary with time.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 17

2 A.C. Circuits

Average Power
2
Vm I m
Pave   cos - cos(2t+ ) d t
0
2
2
Vm I m 1
Pave 
2  2 cos - cos(2t+ ) d t
0

Vm I m  
2 2
Pave   cos d t-  cos(2t+ ) d t 
4  0 0 
V I   sin(2t+ )  
2

 m m cos   t 0 - 
2
Pave  
4   2 0 
V I V I
Pave  m m cos   2  0   - m m  sin  4     sin    
4 8
V I V I
Pave  m m  cos  - m m  sin   sin 
2 8
Vm I m
Pave  cos -0
2
V I
Pave  m m cos 
2 2
Pave  VI cos 
2.10 Series RLC circuit
 Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of R ohm, pure inductor of inductance L henry and
a pure capacitor of capacitance C farads connected in series.
R L C

VR VL VC
it

vt=Vmsinωt
Figure 2.34 Circuit Diagram of Series RLC Circuit
Phasor Diagram

VL
Current I is taken as reference.
VR is drawn in phase with current,
VL is drawn leading I by 900,
VR I VC is drawn lagging I by 900

VC

Figure 2.35 Phasor Diagram of Series RLC Circuit

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 18

2 A.C. Circuits

 Since VL and VC are in opposition to each other, there can be two cases:
(1) VL > VC
(2) VL < VC
Case-1 Case-2
When, VL > VC, the phasor diagram would be When, VL < VC, the phasor diagram would be
as in the figure 2.36 as in the figure 2.37
Phasor Diagram Phasor Diagram
ω VR I
VL-VC -
V
V ω

VC-VL
VR I

Figure 2.36 Phasor Diagram of Series R-L-C Circuit for Case Figure 2.37 Phasor Diagram of Series R-L-C Circuit for Case
VL > VC VL < VC

   
2 2
V  VR2  VL  VC V  VR2  VC  VL

   
2 2
 ( IR )2  I X L  X C  ( IR )2  I X C  XL

   
2 2
 I R2  X L  X C  I R2  X C  X L

   
2 2
 IZ where, Z  R 2  X L  X C  IZ where, Z  R 2  X C  X L
 The angle  by which V leads I is given by  The angle  by which V lags I is given by

V  VC 
tan  V 
L
 VL
tan 
C
R

I X L  XC  R
 
1
  tan I XC  X L
1
IR   tan
X  XC  IR
X 
1
  tan
L
 XL
  tan 1
C
R
 Thus, when VL > VC the series current I R
lags V by angle  .  Thus, when VL < VC the series current I
leads V by angle  .
If vt  Vm Sin t
If vt  Vm Sin t
it  I m Sin  t   
 Power consumed in this case is equal to it  I m Sin  t   
series RL circuit Pave  VI cos  .  Power consumed in this case is equal to
series RC circuit Pave  VI cos  .

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 19

2 A.C. Circuits

2.11 Series resonance RLC circuit

 Such a circuit shown in the Fig. 2.38 is connected to an A.C. source of constant supply voltage
V but having variable frequency.
R L C

VR VL VC
it

vt=Vmsinωt
Figure 2.38 Circuit Diagram of Series Resonance RLC Circuit

 The frequency can be varied from zero, increasing and approaching infinity. Since X L and XC
are function of frequency, at a particular frequency of applied voltage, XL and XC will become
equal in magnitude and power factor become unity.
Since XL = XC ,
 XL – XC = 0
 Z R2  0  R
 The circuit, when XL = XC and hence Z = R, is said to be in resonance. In a series circuit since
current I remain the same throughout we can write,
IXL = IXC i.e. VL = VC
Phasor Diagram
 Shown in the Fig. 2.39 is the phasor diagram of series resonance RLC circuit.

VL
 So, at resonance VL and VC will cancel out of
each other.

V=VR I  The supply voltage

V  VR2  (VL  VC )2
 V  VR

VC  i.e. the supply voltage will drop across the

resistor R.
V=VR

I
Figure 2.39 Phasor Diagram of Series Resonance RLC
Circuit

Resonance Frequency
 At resonance frequency XL = XC
1
 2 f r L   f r is the resonance frequency 
2 f r C

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 20

2 A.C. Circuits

1
 f r2 
 2 
2
LC
1
 fr 
2 LC
Q- Factor
 The Q- factor is nothing but the voltage magnification during resonance.
 It indicates as to how many times the potential difference across L or C is greater than the
applied voltage during resonance.
 Q- factor = Voltage magnification
V
Q  Factor  L
VS
IX L XL
 
IR R
L
 r
R
2f r L 1
 But f r 
R 2 LC
1 L
 Q  Factor 
R C
Graphical Representation of Resonance
 Resistance (R) is independent of frequency. Thus, it is represented by straight line.
 Inductive reactance (XL) is directly proportional to frequency. Thus, it is increases linearly
with the frequency.
X L  2 fL
 XL  f
 Capacitive reactance(XC) is inversely proportional to frequency. Thus, it is show as
hyperbolic curve in fourth quadrant.
1
XC 
2 fC
1
 XC 
f
 Impedance (Z) is minimum at resonance frequency.
R2   X L  X C 
2
Z
For, f  fr , Z  R

 Current (I) is maximum at resonance frequency.

V
I
Z
V
For f  fr , I  is maximum,IMAX
R

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 21

2 A.C. Circuits

 Power factor is unity at resonance frequency.

R
Power factor=cos =
Z
For f  fr , p. f .  1 (unity)

P.F.
cos XL
Z

I
R
0 fr f
-XC

Figure 2.40 Graphical Representation of Series Resonance RLC Circuit

2.11 Parallel Resonance RLC Circuit

 Fig. 2.41 Shows a parallel circuit consisting of an inductive coil with internal resistance R
ohm and inductance L henry in parallel with capacitor C farads.
R L IC
IL

I= IL cosL V
it
L
IC
C

IL
IL sinL

vt=Vmsinωt
Figure 2.41 Circuit Diagram of Parallel Resonance RLC Circuit Figure 2.42 Circuit Diagram of Parallel Resonance RLC
Circuit

 The current IC can be resolved into its active and reactive components. Its active component
IL cos  and reactive component IL sin  .

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 22

2 A.C. Circuits

 A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when the power factor of the circuit becomes
unity. This will happen when the resultant current I is in phase with the resultant voltage V
and hence the phase angle between them is zero.
 In the phasor diagram shown, this will happen when IC = IL sin  and I = IL cos  .
Resonance Frequency
 To find the resonance frequency, we make use of the equation IC = IL sin  .
I C  I L sin 
V V XL

XC ZL Z L
Z L2  X L X C
1 L
Z L2  2 f r L 
2 f r C C

R 2 L

 2r L2 
C
L  1  R2
r   2   2
2

CL  L
L  1  R2
 2f r 
2
  2  2
CL  L
1 1 R2
fr   2
2 LC L

 If the resistance of the coil is negligible,

1
fr 
2 LC
Impedance
 To find the resonance frequency, we make use of the equation I = IL cos  because, at
resonance, the supply current I will be in phase with the supply voltage V.
I  I L cos 
V V R

Z ZL ZL
Z L2 L
Z But Z L2 
R C
L
Z
RC
 The impedance during parallel resonance is very large because of L and C has a very large
value at that time. Thus, impedance at the resonance is maximum.
V
I  will be minimum.
Z

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 23

2 A.C. Circuits

Q-Factor
 Q- factor = Current magnification
IL
Q  Factor 
I
I L sin  sin 
 
I L cos  cos 
r L
 tan  
R
2f r L 1
 But f r 
R 2 LC
1 L
 Q  Factor 
R C
Graphical representation of Parallel Resonance
 Conductance (G) is independent of frequency. Hence it is represented by straight line
parallel to frequency.
 Inductive Susceptance (BL) is inversely proportional to the frequency. Also, it is negative.
1 1 1
BL   ,  BL 
jX L j2 fL f
 Capacitive Susceptance (BC) is directly proportional to the frequency.
1 j
BC    j2 fC ,  BC  f
 jXC XC

P.F.
cos BC
I,Y

Z
G
0 fr f
-BL

Figure 2.43 Graphical Representation of Parallel Resonance RLC Circuit

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 24
2 A.C. Circuits

 Admittance (Y) is minimum at resonance frequency.

Y  G 2   BL  BC 
2

For, f  fr ,Y  G

 Current (I) is minimum at resonance frequency.

I  VY
 Power factor is unity at resonance frequency.
G
Power factor=cos =
Y

2.12 Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance

Sr.No. Description Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
Maximum
Minimum
1 Impedance at resonance L
Z=R Z
RC

Maximum Minimum
2 Current V V
I I
R L / RC
1 1
3 Resonance Frequency fr  fr 
2 LC 2 LC
4 Power Factor Unity Unity
1 L 1 L
5 Q- Factor fr  fr 
R C R C
6 It magnifies at resonance Voltage Current

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 25

2 A.C. Circuits

Three - Phase AC Circuits

2.13 Comparison between single phase and three phase
Basis for Single Phase Three Phase
Comparison
Definition The power supply through one The power supply through three
conductor. conductors.
Wave Shape R R Y B

0 0
180 360
120

240

Number of Require two wires for completing Requires four wires for completing
wire the circuit the circuit
Voltage Carry 230V Carry 415V
Phase Name Split phase No other name
Network Simple Complicated
Loss Maximum Minimum
Power Supply R R
Connection Y Y
B B
N N

Consumer Load Consumer Load

Efficiency Less High

Economical Less More
Uses For home appliances. In large industries and for running
heavy loads.
2.14 Generation of three phase EMF

S
N
B Y

Figure 2.44 Generation of three phase emf

 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that whenever a coil

is rotated in a magnetic field, there is a sinusoidal emf induced in that coil.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 26

2 A.C. Circuits

 Now, we consider 3 coil C1(R-phase), C2(Y-phase) and C3(B-phase), which are displaced
1200 from each other on the same axis. This is shown in fig. 2.44.
 The coils are rotating in a uniform magnetic field produced by the N and S pols in the
counter clockwise direction with constant angular velocity.
 According to Faraday’s law, emf induced in three coils. The emf induced in these three
coils will have phase difference of 1200. i.e. if the induced emf of the coil C1 has phase of
00, then induced emf in the coil C2 lags that of C1 by 1200 and C3 lags that of C2 1200.

e eR=Emsinωt
eY=Emsin(ωt-120)
Em
eB=Emsin(ωt-240)

e
0 ωt

120
240

Figure 2.45 Waveform of Three Phase EMF

 Thus, we can write,

eR  Em sin t

eY  Em sin t  1200 
eB  Em sin  t  240 
0

 The above equation can be represented by their phasor diagram as in the Fig. 2.46.
eB

120
120

eR
12
0

eY
Figure 2.46 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase EMF

2.15 Important definitions

 Phase Voltage
It is defined as the voltage across either phase winding or load terminal. It is denoted by Vph.
Phase voltage VRN, VYN and VBN are measured between R-N, Y-N, B-N for star connection and
between R-Y, Y-B, B-R in delta connection.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 27

2 A.C. Circuits

 Line voltage
It is defined as the voltage across any two-line terminal. It is denoted by VL.
Line voltage VRY, VYB, VBR measure between R-Y, Y-B, B-R terminal for star and delta
connection both.
R
IR(line)
1 IR(line)
R
VRN(ph)

IR(ph)

h)

VR
(p
VB

(p
VRY(line) VRY(line)

h)

h)
IR
(p

(p
IB

h)
N VY VBR(line)
)
N(
ph
IY(ph)
(ph ) IY(line)
IB
IY( VBR(line) 3 Y
) ph VY(ph) 2
ph )
(
V BN Y VYB(line)
IY(line) IB(line)
B
VYB(line)

B
IB(line)

Figure 2.47 Three Phase Star Connection System Figure 2.48 Three Phase Delta Connection System

 Phase current
It is defined as the current flowing through each phase winding or load. It is denoted by Iph.
Phase current IR(ph), IY(ph) and IB(Ph) measured in each phase of star and delta connection.
respectively.
 Line current
It is defined as the current flowing through each line conductor. It denoted by IL.
Line current IR(line), IY(line), and IB((line) are measured in each line of star and delta connection.
 Phase sequence
The order in which three coil emf or currents attain their peak values is called the phase
sequence. It is customary to denoted the 3 phases by the three colours. i.e. red (R), yellow
(Y), blue (B).
 Balance System
A system is said to be balance if the voltages and currents in all phase are equal in magnitude
and displaced from each other by equal angles.
 Unbalance System
A system is said to be unbalance if the voltages and currents in all phase are unequal in
magnitude and displaced from each other by unequal angles.
 Balance load
In this type the load in all phase are equal in magnitude. It means that the load will have the
same power factor equal currents in them.
 Unbalance load
In this type the load in all phase have unequal power factor and currents.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 28

2 A.C. Circuits

2.16 Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in
case of balanced delta connection.
 Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end of
other phase coil and so on which giving a closed circuit.
Circuit Diagram
IR(line) 1
R

h)

VB
(p
VRY

VR

(p
h)

h)
IB
(p
VBR

(p
IR

h)
IY(ph)
IY(line)
Y 3
2 VY(ph)
VYB

B
IB(line)
Figure 2.49 Three Phase Delta Connection

 Let,
Line voltage, VRY  VYB  VBR  VL
Phase voltage, VR ph  VY  ph  VB  ph  Vph
Line current , IR line   IY  line   I B  line   Iline
Phase current , IR ph  IY  ph  I B  ph  I ph
Relation between line and phase voltage
 For delta connection line voltage VL and phase voltage Vph both are same.
VRY  VR( ph)
VYB  VY ( ph )
VBR  VB( ph)
VL  Vph
Line voltage = Phase Voltage
Relation between line and phase current
 For delta connection,
IR  line  =IR  ph  IB ph
IY line  =IY ph  IR  ph
IB line   IB ph  IY ph
 i.e. current in each line is vector difference of two of the phase currents.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 29

2 A.C. Circuits

IB(line)

IB(

)
ph
ph

(
-IY
)
60

-IR(ph) IR(ph)

60 60

-IB
)
ph

ph(
IR(line)
IY(

IY(line)
)

Figure 2.50 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Delta Connection

 So, considering the parallelogram formed by IR and IB.

IR  line  = IR  ph2  IB ph2  2IR  phIB ph cos

IL  Iph2  Iph2  2IphIph cos60

1
IL  Iph2  Iph2  2Iph2   
2
IL  3Iph2
IL  3Iph

 Similarly, IYline  IBline  3 Iph

 Thus, in delta connection Line current = 3 Phase current
Power
P  VphIph cos  VphIph cos  VphIph cos
P  3VphIph cos
 I 
P  3VL  L  cos
 3
P  3VLILcos

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 30

2 A.C. Circuits

2.17 Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in
case of balanced star connection.
 In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are
connected to a common point called star or neutral point.
Circuit Diagram
R
IR(line)

VR(ph)

IR(ph)
VRY

N VB
VBR h)
(ph
)
I Y(p
IB(
ph
h) )
V Y(p
Y
IY(line)
VYB

B
IB(line)
Figure 2.51 Circuit Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

 Let,
line voltage, VRY  VBY  VBR  VL
phase voltage, VR ph  VY  ph  VB  ph  Vph
line current, IR line   IY  line   IB line   Iline
phase current, IR ph  IY  ph  IB ph  I ph
Relation between line and phase voltage
 For star connection, line current IL and phase current Iph both are same.
IR( line )  IR( ph)
IY ( line )  IY ( ph)
I B( line )  IB( ph )
 IL  Iph
Line Current = Phase Current
Relation between line and phase voltage
 For delta connection,

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 31

2 A.C. Circuits

VRY =VR  ph  VY ph

VYB =VY ph  VB ph
VBR =VB ph  VR  ph

 i.e. line voltage is vector difference of two of the phase voltages. Hence,

VBR VRY

VB

)
(PH
(PH

-VY
)
60
60

-VR(PH) VR(PH)

60
)
(PH

-VB
VY

(PH
)

VYB
Figure 2.52 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

From parallelogram,
VRY = VR  ph2  VY ph2  2VR  ph VY ph cos

 VL  Vph2  Vph2  2Vph Vph cos60

 VL  Vph2  Vph2  2Vph2  1  2

 VL  3Vph2
 VL  3Vph

 Similarly, VYB  VBR  3 Vph

 Thus, in star connection Line voltage = 3 Phase voltage
Power
P  VphI ph cos  VphI ph cos  VphI ph cos
P  3VphI ph cos
V 
P  3 L  I L cos
 3
 P  3VL I L cos

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2 A.C. Circuits

2.18 Measurement of power in balanced 3-phase circuit by two-watt meter

method
 This is the method for 3-phase power measurement in which sum of reading of two
wattmeter gives total power of system.
Circuit Diagram
I R(line) M L
R

C V

Z1
VRY

Z3
Z2
I Y(line)
Y
C V
VBY

B
IB(lline)M L

Figure 2.53 Circuit Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

 The load is considered as an inductive load and thus, the phasor diagram of the inductive
load is drawn below in Fig. 2.54.
VBY

-VY
VRY
VB 0
30 I
B


0
30
IY   VR
I
R

VY

Figure 2.54 Phasor Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

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 The three voltages VRN, VYN and VBN, are displaced by an angle of 1200 degree electrical as
shown in the phasor diagram. The phase current lag behind their respective phase voltages
by an angle  . The power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 and W2.
Reading of wattmeter, W1  VRY IR cos1  VL IL cos 30   
Reading of wattmeter, W2  VBY IB cos2  VL IL cos 30   
Total power, P = W1+W2
 P  VL I L cos 30     VL I L cos 30   
 VL IL cos 30     cos 30    
=VL IL cos30cos  sin30sin   cos30cos   sin30sin  
 VL IL 2cos30cos 
  3 
 VL I L 2
  cos  
  2  
 3VL I L cos
 Thus, the sum of the readings of the two wattmeter is equal to the power absorbed in a 3-
phase balanced system.
Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings
 As we know that
W1  W2  3VL I L cos
Now,
W1  W2  VL I L cos 30     VL I L cos 30   
 VL I L cos30cos  sin30sin   cos30cos   sin30sin  
 VL I L 2sin30sin  
 1 
 VL I L 2  sin    VL I L sin 
 2 
3 W1  W2  3VL I L sin 
   tan 
W1  W2  3VL IL cos
3 W1  W2 
 tan  
W1  W2 
 Power factor of load given as,
 3 W1  W2  
cos  cos  tan 1 

 W1  W2  

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Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

 From the Fig. 2.54, it is clear that for lagging power factor cos  , the wattmeter readings are
W1  VL IL cos 30   
W2  VL IL cos 30   
 Thus, readings W1 and W2 will very depending upon the power factor angle  .

p.f  W1  VL IL cos 30    W2  VL IL cos 30    Remark

cos   1 00 3 3 Both equal and +ve

VL IL VL IL
2 2
cos  0.5 600 0 3 One zero and second total
VL IL power
2
cos   0 900 1 1 Both equal but opposite
 VL IL VL I L
2 2

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