Chapter 3

Network Analysis of AC
Circuits

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 Contents
• Impedance of R, L and C
• Power and the Basic Elements
• Series Configuration
– Average Power and the Power Factor
– Voltage Divider Rule
– Frequency Response for Series AC Circuits
• Parallel Configuration
– Current Divider Rule
– Frequency Response of Parallel Elements
– Series-Parallel AC Networks
• Power Triangle and Power-Factor Correction
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 Impedance of R, L and C
• Resistive Element:
v = Vmsin t  V = Vrms 0 (where: Vrms = 0.707 Vm)

i is in phase with v, therefore:

i = Imsin t  I = Irms0 (where: Irms = 0.707 Im)

ZR = V / I  (Vrms  0) / (Irms  0)

= R  0

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Example 3.1
Using complex algebra, find the current i for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
20 sin ωt

v
i

i v
t

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Example 3.2
Using complex algebra, find the voltage v for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
Answer : 8 sin (ωt + 30°)
30˚)

i t

30

v
i

30
t

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 Impedance of R, L and C
• Inductive Reactance:
v = Vmsin t  V = Vrms 0 (where: Vrms = 0.707 Vm)

v leads i by 90, therefore:

i = Imsin (t-90)  I = Irms -90 (where: Irms = 0.707 Im)

ZL = V / I  (Vrms  0) / (Irms  -90)

= XL  90 (where: XL = 2fL = L)

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Example 3.3
Using complex algebra, find the current i for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
Answer :
90˚)
i = 8 sin (ωt - 90°)

v
i
t

90

v
t
90

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Example 3.4
Using complex algebra, find the voltage v for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
Answer :
20 sin (ωt + 120˚)
120°)

v
i
t

120
30

30 i

30
t


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 Impedance of R, L and C
• Capacitive Reactance:
v = Vmsin t  V = Vrms 0 (where: Vrms = 0.707 Vm)

v lags i by 90, therefore:

i = Imsin (t+90)  I = Irms 90 (where: Irms = 0.707 Im)

ZC = V / I  (Vrms  0) / (Irms  90)

= XC  -90 (where: XC = 1 / (2fC) = 1 / C)

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Example 3.5
Using complex algebra, find the current i for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
Answer :
90˚)
7.5 sin (ωt + 90°)

v
i
t

90

i
90 v
 t

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Example 3.6
Using complex algebra, find the voltage v for the following
circuit. Sketch the waveforms of v and i and draw the
respective phasor diagram.
Answer :
150˚)
3.0 sin (ωt - 150°)
i

v
t

150
60

30 t
60
 i 
v

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Impedance Diagram:

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 Power and the Basic Elements
• ac power delivered to
resistive elements has the
same format as for dc
circuits:

• the peak value of the

sinusoidal function defining
the power curve is the product
of the effective or rms values
of the voltage and current

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 Power and the Basic Elements
• Note that the entire power curve is above the
horizontal axis, indicating that all power
delivered is dissipated by the resistive element
• The area under the curve is the energy
dissipated by the resistive element
– for one full period of the applied voltage or current:

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Example 3.7
a) Find the instantaneous power delivered to the resistor at times t1
through t6.
b) Plot the results of part (a) for one full period of the applied voltage.
c) Find the average value of the curve of part (b) and compare the level to
that determined by the equation (V2 / R).
d) Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full period of the
applied voltage.

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Answers:
a) t1 : pR = 0 W
t2 : pR = 36 W
t3 : pR = 9 W
t4 : pR = 0 W
t5 : pR = 36 W
t6 : pR = 0 W

b) The resulting plot of vR, iR, and pR appears in the above figure.

c) The average value of the curve is 18 W, which is an exact match

with that obtained using the equation.
P = (VmIm) / 2 = (12 V) (3 A) / 2 = 18 W

d) The area under the curve is determined by

WR = VI / f = VmIm / 2f = (12V) (3A) / 2 (1 kHz) = 18 mJ
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 Power and the Basic Elements
• The power curve has a sinusoidal pattern at twice
the frequency of the applied voltage or current
– for every cycle of the voltage or current there are two
cycles of the power curve (delivered to the inductor)

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 Power and the Basic Elements
• Due to the 90 phase shift, there are regions where
either the voltage or current will be negative,
resulting in a negative product for the power level
• The power curve has equal areas above and below
the axis for one full period of the applied signal
– over one full cycle the energy absorbed is equal to that
returned - no net dissipation
• For inductors, a quantity called reactive power has
been defined

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Example 3.8
For the inductive circuit:
a) Find the instantaneous power level for the inductor at times t1 through t5.
b) Plot the results of part (a) for one full period of the applied voltage.
c) Find the average value of the curve of part (b) over one full cycle of the
applied voltage and compare the peak value of each pulse with the value
determined by QL = VI.
d) Find the energy stored or released for any one pulse of the power curve.

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Answers:
a) t1 : pL = 0 W
t2 : PL = -10 W
t3 : PL = 0 W
t4 : PL = 10 W
t5 : PL = 0 W

b) The resulting plot of vR, iR, and pL appears in the above figure.

c) The average value for the curve is 0 W over one full cycle of the
applied voltage. The peak value of the curve is 10 W, which
compares directly with that obtained from the product
VI = (VmIm) / 2 = (10 V) (2 A) / 2 = 10 W

d) The energy stored or released during each pulse of the power

curve is:
WL = VI / ω1 = VmIm / 2ω1 = (10V) (2A) / 2 (200 rad/s) = 50 mJ
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 Power and the Basic Elements
• Since the ideal capacitor and inductor are purely
reactive elements the results obtained for the capacitor
will be a close match to those for the inductor

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 Series Configuration
• The total impedance of series ac elements is the
sum of the individual impedances

• The current is the same at every point in a series

ac circuit

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be applied in the same

manner as it is employed for dc circuits
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 Series Configuration
• If we plot the
impedance of each
quantity on the same
set of axes, we obtain
an impedance diagram
• We can find the total
impedance using
vector algebra

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Example 3.9
Draw the impedance diagram for the circuit and find the total impedance.

Answer:
ZT = 4 + j8
= 8.94Ω  63.43

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Example 3.10
Determine the input impedance to the series network. Draw the impedance
diagram.

Answer:
ZT = 6 + j(10 – 12)
= 6.32Ω  -18.43

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 Series Configuration
• The current is determined by:
IS = E/ZT
• And the voltage across each element by:
VR = ISZR, VL = ISZL, VC = ISZC
• Since power is only dissipated by the
resistive element, the total power delivered
by the source or absorbed by the circuit is:

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 Average Power and the Power
Factor
• The average or real power to a network composed
solely of resistive elements can be found by
finding the product of the applied voltage and the
resulting current

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 Average Power and the Power
Factor
• The introduction of phase shift between the
applied voltage and the resulting current will
cause a decrease in the power delivered
• The relationship between the magnitude of the
phase angle (between V and I) and the power is:

• The power factor of the network is:

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 Average Power and the Power
Factor
• Power factor gives an indication of whether
the network is primarily resistive or reactive
in nature
• Inductive networks have lagging power
factors and capacitive networks have
leading power factors
• The angle  is the angle associated with the
total impedance of a network

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Example 3.11
Phasor Notation R-L Circuit
e = 141.4 sin ωt E = 100 V  0

ZT = 3 + j4 = 5Ω  53.13

I = E / ZT = 20 A  -53.13

VR = I ZR = 60 V  -53.13 = 36 – j48 V

VL = I ZL = 80 V  36.87 = 64 + j48 V

E = VR + VL = 100 V + j 0
= 100 V  0

PT = EI cos θT = 1200 W
or = I2R = 1200 W

Fp = cos θT = R / ZT = 3Ω / 5Ω
= 0.6 lagging
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Example 3.12
Phasor Notation R-C Circuit
i = 7.07 sin (ωt + 53.13) I = 5 A  53.13

ZT = 6 – j8 = 10Ω  -53.13

E = I ZT = 50 V  0

VR = I ZR = 30 V  53.13 = 18 + j24 V

VC = I ZC = 40 V  -36.87 = 32 – j24 V

E = VR + VC = 50 V + j 0
= 50 V  0

PT = EI cos θT = 150 W
or = I2R = 150 W

Fp = cos θT = R / ZT = 3Ω / 5Ω
= 0.6 leading
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Example 3.13
Phasor Notation R-L-C Circuit

ZT = 5Ω  53.13

I = E / ZT = 10 A  -53.13 

VR = I ZR = 30 V  -53.13 = 18 – j24 V
VL = I ZL = 70 V  36.87 = 56 + j42 V
VC = I ZC = 30 V  -143.13 = -24 – j18 V

E = VR + VL + VC = 50 V + j 0
= 50 V  0

PT = EI cos θT = 300 W
or = I2R = 300 W

Fp = cos θT = R / ZT = 3Ω / 5Ω
= 0.6 lagging

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 Voltage Divider Rule
• The basic format for the voltage divider rule in
ac circuits is exactly the same as that for dc
circuits:

where:
• VX is the voltage across one or more elements in series
that have total impedance ZX
• E is the total voltage appearing across the series circuit
and ZT is the total impedance of the series circuit

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Example 3.14
Using the voltage divider rule, find the unknown voltages VR, VL, VC and V1
for the circuit.

VR = E ZR / (ZR + ZL + ZC) = 30 V  83.13

VL = E ZL / ZT = 45 V  173.13
VC = E ZC / ZT = 85 V  -6.87

V1 = E (ZL + ZC) / ZT = 40 V  -6.87

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 Frequency Response for Series
AC Circuits
• The total impedance will be frequency dependent
• The impedance of any one element can be greater
than the total impedance of the network
• The inductive and capacitive reactances are
always in direct opposition on an impedance
diagram
• Depending on the frequency applied, the same
circuit can be either predominantly inductive or
predominantly capacitive
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 Frequency Response for Series
AC Circuits
• At lower frequencies the capacitive elements will
usually have the most impact on the total
impedance, while at high frequencies the inductive
elements will usually have the most impact
• The magnitude of the voltage across any one
element can be greater than the applied voltage

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 Frequency Response for Series
AC Circuits
• The magnitude of the voltage across an element
compared to the other elements of the circuit is
directly related to the magnitude of its impedance;
that is, the larger the impedance of an element, the
larger the magnitude of the voltage across the
element
• The voltages across a coil or capacitor are always
in direct opposition on a phasor diagram

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 Frequency Response for Series
AC Circuits
• The current is always in phase with the voltage
across the resistive elements; lags the voltage
across all the inductive elements by 90; and leads
the voltage across all the capacitive elements by
90
• The larger the resistive element of a circuit
compared to the net reactive impedance, the closer
the power factor is to unity

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Example 3.15 Series R-C ac Circuit

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Example 3.15 cont’d - Series R-C ac Circuit

At frequency:
f = 100Hz ZT = 159.24 kΩ  -88.2

f = 1 kHz ZT = 16.69 kΩ  -72.54 XC = 15.92 kΩ

Vc = 9.53 V  -17.46

f = 15 kHz ZT = 5.11 kΩ  -11.98 XC = 1.06 kΩ

Vc = 2.07 V  -78.02

f = 20 kHz ZT = 5.06 kΩ  -9.04 XC = 795.78 Ω

Vc = 1.57 V  -80.96

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 Parallel Configuration
• For the parallel combination of elements, the total
impedance is:

• For ac networks, the smallest parallel resistor will

have the most impact on the resistive component
of the total impedance while the smallest reactive
element will have the most impact on determining
the reactive component of the total impedance

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 Parallel Configuration
• The applied frequency will affect the terminal
characteristics of an ac network with reactive
elements
– a change in frequency may change the terminal
characteristics from inductive to capacitive or vice-
versa
• The total impedance of a parallel ac network will
define an equivalent series combination of
elements with the same total impedance
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 Parallel Configuration
• If the parallel network is resistive and inductive, the
resulting impedance and series combination of elements
will also be resistive and inductive; similarly for
parallel resistive and capacitive networks
• The voltage is the same across the parallel elements and
the current through each branch is:

• Power delivered to the network can be determined by

summing the powers delivered to all resistive elements:
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Example 15.16:
a) Find the admittance of each parallel branch;
b) Determine the input admittance;
c) Calculate the input impedance;
d) Draw the impedance diagram; and
e) draw the admittance diagram.

Answers :
a) YYRR==0.05
a) 0.05SS++j j00; ; YYLL==00SS--j j0.1
0.1SS
b) YT = 0.05 S - j 0.1 S
b)
c) e)
c) 4.00 Ω + j 7.95 Ω

d)

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Example 15.17
a) Find the admittance of each parallel branch;
b) Determine the input admittance YT;
c) Calculate the input impedance ZT;
d) Draw the impedance diagram; and
e) draw the admittance diagram.

Answers :
a)
a) Y
YRR =
= 0.2
0.2 S
S++ jj 00 ;; Y
YLL =
= 0 S - j 0.125 S ;; Y
YCC =
= 0 S + j 0.05 S
b)
b) YT = 0.2 S - j 0.075 S
c)
c) ZT = 4.38 Ω + j 1.64 Ω
e)

d)

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 Current Divider Rule
• The current divider
rule in ac circuits is
exactly the same as
that for dc circuits
– for two parallel
branches with
impedances Z1 and Z2

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Example 3.18
Using the current divider rule, find the current through each impedance.

Answers : IR = 16A 36.87 ; IL = 12A -53.13

ZR = 30 = 3 ; ZL = 490 = j4 ; ZR + ZL = 3 + j4 = 553.13

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Example 3.19
Using the current divider rule, find the current through each impedance.

Answers : IRL = 1.64A -140.54 ; IC = 6.63A 32.33

ZR = 10 = 1 ; ZL = 890 = j8 ; ZRL = 1 + j8 = 8.0682.9
ZC = 2- 90 = - j2 ;
ZRL + ZC = 1 + j8 - j2  = 1 + j6 = 8.0682.9 = 6.08 80.54

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 Frequency Response of Parallel
Elements
• The total impedance is frequency dependent
• The impedance of any one element can be less
than the total impedance
• The smallest parallel resistor or smallest parallel
reactance will have the most impact on the real or
imaginary component of the total impedance
• Depending on the frequency applied, the same
network can be either predominantly inductive or
predominantly capacitive
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 Frequency Response of Parallel
Elements
• At lower frequencies the inductive elements will
usually have the most impact on the total
impedance, while at higher frequencies the
capacitive elements will usually have the most
impact
• The magnitude of the current through any one
branch can be greater than the source current

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 Frequency Response of Parallel
Elements
• The magnitude of the current through an element,
compared to the other elements of the network, is
directly related to the magnitude of its impedance
– the smaller the impedance of an element , the larger the
magnitude of the current through the element
• The current through a coil is always in direct
opposition with the current through a capacitor on
a phasor diagram

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 Frequency Response of Parallel
Elements
• The applied voltage is always in phase with the
current through the resistive elements, leads the
voltage across all the inductive elements by 90,
and lags the current through all capacitive
elements by 90
• The smaller the resistive element of a network
compared to the net reactive component, the closer
the power factor is to unity

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 Series-Parallel AC Networks
• Redraw the network, employing block impedances
to combine obvious series and parallel elements,
which will reduce the network to one that clearly
reveals the fundamental structure of the system
• Study the problem and make a brief mental sketch
of the overall approach you plan to use. Doing
this may result in time- and energy-saving
shortcuts. A single application of a fundamental
law of circuit analysis may result in the desired
solution
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 Series-Parallel AC Networks
• After the overall approach has been determined, it is
usually best to consider each branch involved in your
method independently before tying them together in
series-parallel combinations. In most cases, work back
from the obvious series and parallel combinations to
the source to determine the total impedance of the
network. The source current can then be determined,
and the path back to specific unknowns can be defined
• Check to see that your solution is reasonable by
considering the magnitudes of the energy source and
the elements in the circuit
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 The Power Triangle
• In power systems, the storage of energy by
reactive components will require an increase in
current demand from the supply
• Consider the network below:

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 The Power Triangle
• Obtain the total
impedance, and the
resulting source
current
• Multiplying each
component of the
impedance diagram by
current squared results
in the power diagram
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 The Power Triangle
• The hypotenuse of the power triangle is the apparent
power (S) with the units of volt-ampere (VA)
– initially it would seem “apparent” that the power delivered
to the system is determined by the product of applied
voltage and resulting source current, but the reactive part
of this power will be returned
• The average or real power to a load is:

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 The Power Triangle
• In Summary:
– Apparent power (S) with units of volt-ampere (VA)
– Real power (P) with units of watts (W)
– Reactive power (Q) with units of volt-ampere-reactive
(VAR)

– Power Factor

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 The Power Triangle
• If a capacitive load is
added to the system,
the reactive power will
be the difference
between the inductive
element and the
capacitive element
• The result will be to
reduce the reactive
component
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 The Power Triangle
• The total reactive power of any complex
configuration is the algebraic sum of the reactive
powers to all the reactive elements
• No matter how complex a network, the total
power dissipated is the sum of the powers
delivered to each resistive element
– the smaller the reactive component, the closer the
apparent power will be to the real power component
(power dissipated)

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 The Power Triangle
• To find the total W, VAR, VA and FP:
– find the real power and reactive power for each
branch of the circuit
– the total real power of the system (PT) is the sum of
the average power delivered to each branch
– the total reactive power (QT) is the difference
between the reactive power of the inductive loads and
that of the capacitive loads
– the total apparent power is:
– the total power factor is PT/ST
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 Power-Factor Correction
• The design of any power transmission system is
very sensitive to the magnitude of the current in
the lines as determined by the applied loads
– increased currents result in increased power losses (by a
squared factor, since P = I2R) in the transmission lines
due to the resistance of the lines
– heavier currents also require larger conductors,
increasing the amount of copper needed for the system
– heavier currents also require increased generating
capacities by the utility company

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 Power-Factor Correction
• Every effort must be made to keep current levels
at a minimum
– since line voltage of a transmission system is fixed, the
apparent power is directly related to the current level
– the smaller the net apparent power, the smaller the
current drawn from the supply
• Minimum current is therefore drawn from a
supply when S = P and QT = 0
– increases in QT result in increases in S for the same real
power (P)
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 Power-Factor Correction
• Introduction of reactive elements to bring
the power factor closer to unity is called
power-factor correction
– since most loads are inductive, this normally
involves adding capacitive elements in parallel,
for the sole purpose of improving the power
factor
– the load still receives the same terminal voltage
and draws the same current IL
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 Power-Factor Correction
• The result is a load that appears purely resistive to
the source, creating maximum efficiency for the
generating utility

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 Wattmeters and Power-Factor
Meters
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter can be
used to measure power in a dc or an ac
network

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 Reference
• Chapter 15.
• Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory circuit
analysis. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice
Hall.

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