SMA 102: BASIC MATHEMATICS

Course Description

Quadratic equations and inequalities. Remainder and Factor Theorem and their applications.
Permutations and combinations, Binomial theorem and its applications. Set theory: Basic
operations on sets, Laws of set theory, Venn diagrams and application. Logic: Propositions,
compound propositions and truth tables. Methods of proof: Direct, indirect, Induction,
contradiction, cases, counter examples. Complex numbers: Arithmetic operations, Geometric
representations and polar form. De Moiver’s Theorem and its applications.

LESSON ONE
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

1.1 Introduction

In this lesson we discuss quadratic equations and inequalities. In Mathematics we sometimes need
to use quadratic equations and inequalities to solve word problems. The most important thing when
solving these types of problems is to make sure that they are set up correctly so we can use the
quadratic equation and inequalities to easily solve them.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) Solve quadratic equations using factorization, completing square and quadratic formula.
ii) Solve quadratic inequalities

1.2.1 Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a, b and c are real

numbers and a  0 .

1.2 .1.1 Methods of solution

i) Graphical method
ii) Factorization
iii) Completing square meth
iv) Quadratic Formula

Example 1.1

1
Solve 2 x 2 − 5 x − 3 = 0 by factorization method.

Solution

Look for two numbers a and b such that a + b = −5 and a  b = −6 , take a = −6 and b = 1 .

Therefore we can write

2 x 2 − 5x − 3 = 2 x 2 − 6 x + x − 3 = 0

 2 x (x − 3) + (x − 3) = 0

 (2 x + 1)(x − 3) =0

Either (2 x + 1) = 0 or (x − 3) = 0

 x = −1 or x = 3 .
2

NB

(2 x + 1) and (x − 3) are called factors of 2 x 2 − 5 x − 3 = 0 while x = −1

2
and x = 3 are called
the roots of the equations.

Reverse

(x − 3) = 0 or (2 x + 1) = 0
 (x − 3)(2 x + 1) = 0

 x 2 + x − 3x − 3 = 0
2 2

 2 x 2 + x − 6 x − 3 = 0 or 2 x 2 − 5 x − 3 = 0 .

Example 1.3

Solve the equation 5 x 2 − 6 x − 2 = 0 by completing square method.

Solution

Divide throughout by 5 to get

x2 − 6 x − 2 = 0
5 5

Or

2
x2 − 6 x = 2 .
5 5

Complete the square by adding 1  − 6

2
(5
)2
on both sides,

5 5
( )
x2 − 6 x + − 3 = 2 + − 3
5 5
2
( ) 2
= 2 + 9 = 19 .
5 25 25

Factorize the left hand side to get,

(x − 3 5 )
2
= 19
25 .

Taking the square root on both sides,

19 19
x−3 = = .
5 25 5

3  19
x =
5

3 + 19 3 − 19
x = or  x = .
5 5

Example 1.4

Solve ax 2 + bx + c = 0 by completing square method.

Solution

Divide throughout by a to obtain .

x2 + b x + c = 0
a a

Or

x2 + b x = − c .
a a
2
 b 
Complete the square by adding   on both sides,
 2a 

x2 + b x + b
a
( )
−c + b
2a = a
2

2a
( ) 2
= −c +b
a
2

4a 2
=
b 2 − 4ac
4a 2
.

3
Factorize the left hand side to get,

(x + b 2a )
2
=
b 2 − 4ac
4a 2
.

Taking the square root on both sides,

(x+b
2a
)
=
b 2 − 4ac  b 2 − 4ac
4a 2
=
2a

−b b 2 − 4ac
x = 
2a 2a

− b  b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

This is called the quadratic formula.

Now, b 2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation.

If b 2 − 4ac  0 , then ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two real distinct roots.

If b 2 − 4ac = 0 , then ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal real roots.

If b 2 − 4ac  0 , then ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots.

1.2.1.2 Roots of Quadratic Equation

Consider the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . Then

x2 + b x + c = 0 i)
a a

Let  and  be roots of equation i), then

x =  or x =  .

Therefore,

(x −  ) = 0 or (x −  ) = 0

 (x −  )(x −  ) = 0

4
x( x −  ) −  ( x −  ) = 0

 x 2 − x − x +  = 0 or

Or .

x 2 − ( +  )x +  = 0 ii)

Comparing i) and ii), we get

−b
− ( +  ) =
b
 +  =
a a

and

c
 = .
a

Example 1.5

Write down the sums and products of the roots of the following equations;

i) 3x 2 − 2 x − 7 = 0
ii) 2 x(x + 1) = x + 7
iii) 2 x 2 + 5 x = 1

Solution

− b − (− 2) 2 c −7
i)  +  = = = and  = =
a 3 3 a 3
ii) and iii) Exercise

Example 1.6

Express the following in terms of  +  and  .

i)  2 +  2
( −  )
2
ii)
iii)  3 +  3

Solution

5
 ( +  ) =  2 + 2 +  2
2
i)

  2 +  2 = ( +  ) − 2
2

( −  ) =  2 − 2 +  2
2
ii)
=  2 +  2 − 2
= ( +  ) − 2 − 2 from part i)
= ( +  ) − 4 .

iii) ( +  ) =  + 3  + 3 + 
33 2 2 3

=  3 +  3 + 3 2  + 3 2
=  3 +  3 + 3 ( +  )

 3 +  3 = ( +  ) − 3 ( +  )
3

.
Example 1.7

The roots of the equation 3x + 4 x − 5 = 0 are  and  . Find the equation whose roots are
2

1 1
i) and
 
ii)  and 
22

Solution

From the given equation,

−b −4
Sum:  +  = =
a 3

c −5
Product:  = =
a 3

 +  −4 3 4
1 1
i) Sum: + = =
−5
=
   5
3
and

1 1 1 −3
Product:  = =
   5
The required equation is: x − ( sum of roots ) x + product of roots=0
2

6
 4  −3 
i.e. x − x +   =0
2

5  5 
i. or
5x − 4 x − 3 = 0 .
2

ii) Sum:  +  = ( +  ) − 2

2 2 2

 −4   −5 
2
46
=   − 2  = =
 3   3  9

 −5 
2
25
Product:    = ( )
2
2 2
=  =
 3  9

46 25
Required equation: x −
2
x+ = 0 or 9 x 2 − 46 x + 25 = 0
9 9

1.2.2 Quadratic Inequalities

A quadratic inequality is an inequality in which one side is a quadratic polynomial and the other
side is zero.

Eg. 2 x 2 − x − 6  0

Consider the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . Now, if b2 − 4ac  0 , then this equation has two
distinct real roots. Let the roots be  and  with    . Then this equation can be written as

ax 2 + bx + c = a ( x −  )( x −  ) . (1)
Next consider the number line below;

Then values of the factors in equation (1) in the three regions on the number line above are as
shown in the table below.

7
 x − x− ( x −  )( x −  )
x  Negative Negative Positive
 x Positive Negative Negative
x Positive Positive Positive

When a  0, ax 2 + bx + c  0 when x   or when   x .

ax 2 + bx + c  0 when   x   .

When a  0, ax 2 + bx + c  0 when   x   .

ax 2 + bx + c  0 when x   or when   x .

Example 1.8

Find the set of all values of x for which 2 x 2 + 5 x − 3  0 .

Solution

The roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 5 x − 3 = 0 are 1 and -3 . Therefore

2

(
2 x 2 + 5 x − 3 = 2 ( x + 3) x − 1
2 )
and a = 2  0,  = −3 and  = 1 . Thus we have
2

x+3 x− 1
2 (
2 ( x + 3) x − 1
2 )
x  −3 Negative Negative Positive

−3  x  1 Positive Negative Negative

2
1 x Positive Positive Positive
2

( )
Thus 2 ( x + 3) x − 1 2  0 when x  −3 or when x  1 . That is 2 x 2 + 5 x − 3  0 when x  −3
2
or when x  1 .
2
Example 1.9

Find the set of all values of x for which 1 + 2 x − 3x 2  0 .

8
Solution

The roots of the equation 1 + 2 x − 3x 2 = 0 are − 1 and 1 . Therefore

3

(
1 + 2 x − 3 x 2 = −3 x + 1
3 ) ( x − 1) and we have the table below;

x+ 1
3
x −1
( x + 13 ) ( x − 1) (
−3 x + 1
3 ) ( x − 1)
x−1 Negative Negative Positive Negative
3
− 1  x 1 Positive Negative Negative Positive
3
1 x Positive Positive Positive Negative

( )
Thus −3 x + 13 ( x − 1)  0 when x  − 1 or x  1 . That is 1 + 2 x − 3x 2  0 when x  − 1 or
3 3
x 1.

1.2.2.1 Alternative Method

Steps

1. Turn the inequality into an equation

2. Find the solutions to the equation
3. Make a number line and check each interval.

Example 1.10

Solve the inequality x 2 + 2 x − 8  0 .

Solution

Solve the equation

x2 + 2 x − 8 = 0

( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = 0
 x = −4 or x = 2

-4 2
9
Consider any point less than −4 , say x = −6 then

( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = ( −6 + 4 )( −6 − 2 ) = ( −2 )( −8 ) = 16  0
 the set of all x such that x  −4 is a solution.

Next, consider any point in the interval −4  x  2 , say x = 0 then

( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = ( 0 + 4 )( 0 − 2 ) = ( 4 )( −2 ) = −8  0
 the set of all x such that −4  x  2 is not a solution.

Finally, consider any point greater than 2, say x = 4 then

( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = ( 4 + 4 )( 4 − 2 ) = (8 )( 2 ) = 16  0
 the set of all x such that x  2 is a solution

Hence the solution to the inequality x 2 + 2 x − 8  0 is the set of all x such that either x  −4 or
x2.

E-tivity 1.2.2: Quadratic inequalities

1.3 Assessment

1. The roots of 2 x + 3x − 4 = 0 are  and  . Find the values of

2

1 1
a) 2 + 2 b) + c) ( + 1)(  + 1)
 
2. Prove that if one root of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other, then 2b 2 = 9ac .
3. The sum of the squares of the roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is 1, prove that b 2 = 2ac + a 2 .
4. Find the set of all values of x for which

a) 6 + x  12 x 2

b) x 2 − 2 x − 15  0

1.4 References
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman
Publishers Ltd.

2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

10
 3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

https://www.spps.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=56460&dataid=3434
1&FileName=precalculus_7th_-_larson_hostetler_2.pdf

LESSON TWO
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
2.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study the Remainder theorem and Factor Theorem and their applications.
The applications include factorization of polynomials of degree greater than two and solution of
equations involving polynomials of degree 3 and higher.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) State and apply the Remainder Theorem

ii) State and apply the Factor Theorem

2.2.1 The Remainder Theorem

2.2.1.1 Long Division of Polynomials
A polynomial in x of degree n is an expression of the form

an x n + an−1 x n−1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , where a0 , a1 , a2 , , an are real numbers and an  0 .

Eg f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 4 x 2 + x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 3.

When a polynomial f ( x ) is divided by another polynomial g ( x ) , we obtain a quotient q ( x ) and

a remainder r ( x ) . This is similar to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.

The degree of the remainder r ( x ) is less than that of the divisor g ( x ) .

11
 q ( x)
g ( x) f ( x)

r ( x)

f ( x) r ( x)
We write f ( x ) = g ( x ) q ( x ) + r ( x ) or = q ( x) + .
g ( x) g ( x)

Example 2.1

Divide a) f ( x ) = 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 + x − 1 by i) g ( x) = x −1

ii) g ( x ) = x2 − 2

b) f ( x ) = 4 x 3 − x + 2 by g ( x ) = 3 x + 2

Solution

3x 2 + 5 x + 6
a) i) x − 1 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 + x − 1
3x3 − 3x 2
5x2 + x
5x2 − 5x
6 x −1
6x − 6
5

 q ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 5 x + 6 and r ( x ) = 5

3x + 2
ii) x − 2 3 x + 2 x + x − 1
2 3 2

3x3 − 6 x
2x 2 + 7 x
2 x2 − 4
7x + 3

 q ( x ) = 3 x + 2 and r ( x ) = 7 x + 3

12
 4 x2 − 8 x + 7
3 9 27
b) 3 x + 2 4 x3 − x + 2
4 x3 + 8 x 2
3
- 8 x2 − x
3
- 8 x 2 - 16 x
3 9
7 x+2
9
7 x + 14
9 27
40
27

Therefore q ( x ) = 4 x 2 − 8 x + 7 and r ( x ) = 40 .
3 9 27 27
Theorem 2.1 (The Remainder Theorem)

If a polynomial f ( x ) is divided by x − a , the remainder is f ( a ) .

Proof

Suppose that when f ( x ) is divided by x − a the remainder is r ( x ) . Then by division algorithm,

f ( x) = ( x − a) q ( x) + r ( x) .

Putting x = a , we get

f (a) = 0 q (a) + r (a)

 Remainder = r ( a ) = f ( a )

Example 2.2

Find the remainder when x5 − 4 x3 + 2 x + 3 is divided by a) x − 1

b) x + 2

Solution

Let f ( x ) = x 5 − 4 x 3 + 2 x + 3 , then

a) The remainder when f ( x ) is divided by x − 1 is

13
 f (1) = 1 − 4 + 2 + 3 = 2

b) The remainder when f ( x ) is divided by x + 2 is

f ( −2 ) = ( −2 ) − 4 ( −2 ) + 2 ( −2 ) + 3 = −1
5 3

Example 2.3

Prove that when a polynomial f ( x ) is divided by ax + b, where a  0 , the remainder is

 b
f −  . Hence find the remainder when 4 x3 − 6 x + 5 is divided by ( 2 x − 1) .
 a

Proof

Suppose that when f ( x ) is divided by ax + b, where a  0 the remainder is r ( x ) . Then

f ( x ) = ( ax + b ) q ( x ) + r ( x ) .

b
Putting x = − , we get
a

 b  b  b
f −  = 0 q−  + r−  .
 a  a  a

 b  b
 Remainder = r  −  = f  −  .
 a  a

If f ( x ) = 4 x 3 − 6 x + 5 is divided by 2 x − 1 , the remainder is

 ( −1) 
( ) ( ) ( )
3
f −  = f 12 = 4 12 − 6 12 + 5
 2 
=5 .
2
2.2.2 The Factor Theorem
Cororally 2.2 (The Factor Theorem)

If for a given function f ( x ) , f ( a ) = 0 then ( x − a ) is a factor of f ( x ) .

That is if ( x − a ) is a factor of f ( x ) , then there will be no remainder when f ( x ) is divided by

( x − a) ;
R =0 f ( a ) = 0.

14
Example 2.4

Factorize x 4 − 3x3 + 4 x 2 − 8 completely.

Solution
We use try and error method together with the factor theorem.

Let f ( x ) = x 4 − 3 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 8 , then

f (1) = 1 − 3 + 4 − 8  0  x − 1 is not a factor of f ( x )

f ( 2 ) = 16 − 24 + 16 − 8 = 0  x − 2 is a factor of f ( x )

Dividing,

x3 − x 2 + 2 x + 4
x − 2 x 4 − 3x3 + 4 x 2 − 8
x 4 − 2 x3
- x3 + 4 x 2
− x3 + 2 x 2
2 x2 − 8
2 x2 - 4 x
4x − 8
4x − 8
...

Next, we factorize f1 ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + 2 x + 4 . Now

f1 (1) = 1 − 1 + 2 + 4  0  x − 1 is not a factor of f1 ( x )

f1 ( 2 ) = 8 − 4 + 4 + 4  0  x − 2 is not a factor of f1 ( x )

f1 ( −1) = −1 − 1 − 2 + 4  x + 1 is a factor of f1 ( x )

15
 x2 − 2 x + 4
x + 1 x3 − x 2 + 2 x + 4
x3 + x 2
- 2 x2 + 2 x
−2 x 2 − 2 x
4x + 4
4x + 4
...

By using try and error method, it can be shown that x 2 − 2 x + 4 no linear factors. Hence

x 4 − 3x3 + 4 x 2 − 8 = ( x − 2 )( x + 1) ( x 2 − 2 x + 4 )

Example 2.5

Solve the equation x3 − 7 x − 6 = 0 .

Solution

Let f ( x ) = x 3 − 7 x − 6 then,

f (1) = 1 − 7 − 6  0  x -1 is not a factor of f ( x )

f ( 2 ) = 8 − 14 − 6  0  x-2 is not a factor of f ( x )

f ( −1) = −1 + 7 − 6 = 0  x +1 is a factor of f ( x )

x2 − x − 6
x + 1 x3 − 7 x − 6
x3 + x 2
− x2 − 7 x
− x2 − x
− 6x − 6
−6 x − 6
...

x 2 − x − 6 = ( x − 3)( x + 2 ) .

Therefore

16
( x + 1)( x − 3)( x + 2 ) = 0
 x = −1, or x = 3 or x = −2.

2.3 Assessment

1. Find the remainder when 2 x3 − x 2 + 3x − 5 is divided by

a) 2x+1 b) 3x-2

2. A cubic polynomial ax3 + bx + 6 is divisible by x+2. It leaves a remainder -3 when divided

by x-1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial completely.

2.4 References
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman
Publishers Ltd.

2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

https://www.spps.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=56460&dataid=34341&F
ileName=precalculus_7th_-_larson_hostetler_2.pdf

LESSON THREE
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
3.1 Introduction

In this lesson we will study Permutations and Combinations. In mathematics, the notion of
permutation relates to the act of permuting, or rearranging, members of a set into a particular
sequence or order. Permutations occur, in more or less prominent ways, in almost every area of
mathematics. They often arise when different orderings on certain finite sets are considered,
possibly only because one wants to ignore such orderings and needs to know how many
configurations are thus identified. On the other hand combinations are selections that disregard
order.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) Apply permutations in counting

ii) Apply combinations in counting

17
3.2.1 Permutations
3.2.1.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle
The Fundamental Counting Principle gives the guiding rule for finding the number of ways to
accomplish two tasks.

Theorem 3.1 [The Fundamental Counting Principle]

If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m  n ways of doing
both.

Example 3.1
a) Let’s say you want to flip a coin and roll a die. There are 2 ways that you can flip a coin
and 6 ways that you can roll a die. Therefore there are 2  6 = 12 ways that you can flip a
coin and roll a die.
b) If you want to draw 2 cards from a standard of 52 cards without replacing them, then there
are 52 ways to draw the first and 51 ways to draw the second, so there are a total of
52  51 = 2652 ways to draw the two cards.
Definition 3.1 (Permutations)
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order.
Example 3.2
In how many ways can letters A, B and C be arranged in three consecutive positions?
Solution

ABC 
ACB 
BAC 
 Six permutations
BCA 
CAB 

CBA 

Or equivalently,
1st 2nd 3rd

A B C
C B

18
 B A C
C A

C A B
B A
That is
1. If we have ABC, we can choose either A or B or C for the first position. Therefore there
are 3 distinct ways of filling the first position.
2. Once the first position is filled two letters remain and any of them can be used in the 2nd
position. For each of the 3 ways of filling the 1st position, we have two ways of filling
the second position.
3. The third position can be filled in any of one way.
Therefore total number of arrangements is

3  2 1 = 6 ways.
Similarly, if there are four objects, then there are

4  3  2 1 = 24 ways of arranging them and so on

Each of the arrangements in the above example is called a permutation.
Definition 3.2
The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is

n  ( n − 1)( n − 2 )   3  2 1

which is denoted by n! and read as ‘n factorial.’

4! = 4  3  2 1 = 24
3! = 3  2 1 = 6
2! = 2 1 = 2
1! = 1
By convention 0! = 1, the number of ways of arranging zero objects.
Example 3.3
Evaluate

19
 9! 6!
a) b)
2! 7! (3!) 2

Solution

9! 9  8  7! 9  8
a) = = = 36
2! 7! 2! 7! 2

6! 6  5  4  3! 6  5  4
b) = = = 20
(3!) 2
3!3! 3  2 1

Example 3.4
Write 40  39  38  37 in factorial notation.

Solution

36  35   3  2 1
40  39  38  37 = 40  39  38  37 
36  35   3  2 1
40!
=
36!
Now, consider a situation where 4 letters are to be filled in two positions. How many arrangements
or permutations are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 objects?
i) There are 4 ways of filling the first position
ii) Once the first position is filled, three letters remain; therefore there are 3 ways of filling
the second position.
Therefore the total number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 4 objects will be

4  3 = 12 .
4! 4!
But 4  3 = = .
2! ( 4 − 2 )!

In the same way,

5  4 = 20 is the number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 5 objects.

5! 5!
But 5  4 = = .
3! ( 5 − 2 )!

5  4  3 = 60 is the number of arrangements of three objects chosen from 5 distinct object.

5! 5!
But 5  4  3 = = .
2! ( 5 − 3)!

20
Definition 3.3
The number of arrangements or permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects denoted
by n Pr is given by

n!
n
Pr = , rn and n is an integer .
( n − r )!
Example 3.5
In a lottery a total of a thousand tickets were sold. Determine the winners of the 1st, 2nd, and the
3rd prizes if three tickets are drawn one after the other?
Solution
This is a permutation of 3 tickets chosen from 1000 tickets. Therefore we have,

1000! 1000!
1000
P3 = =
(1000 − 3)! 997!
1000  999  998  997!
=
997!
=9.97 10 ways.
8

Example 3.6
Five letter words are formed from letters of the word TIEGROUP. How many of these have no
repeated words?

Solution
These are distinct arrangements of 5 letters chosen from 8 letters. Thus we get

8! 8!
8
P5 = =
(8 − 5)! 3!
8  7  6  5  4  3!
=
3!
=6720.
Remark 3.1
In some cases the objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be repeated.
E.g BOB, BABA, CHOOSE etc.

If we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind are alike, …., rk
of the kth kind are alike, then the number of distinct permutations is

21
 n!
.
r1 ! r2 ! rk !

Example 3.7
Determine the number of permutations of letters of the words
a) ARRANGE b) SPEEDOMETERS c) MISSISSIPPI
Solution

7! 7  6  5  4  3  2 1
i) = = 1260
2!2! 2  1 2  1
12!
ii) = 9, 979, 200
2!4!
11!
iii) = 34, 650
4!4!2!
Example 3.8
How many even numbers, greater than 2000, can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 4, 8 if each digit
can be used only once in each number?
Solution
If the number is greater than 2000, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways i.e. 2, 4 and 8. Then
whichever has been chosen to be the first digit, there are two ways in which the last digit may be
chosen, in order to make the number even. The second digit can be chosen in two ways and this
leaves one integer for the third place.
Therefore there are 3  2 1 2 = 12 ways.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

3 2 1 2
Example 3.9
How many arrangements can be made of the letters chosen from PEAT if the first letter is a
vowel and each arrangement contains three different letters?
Solution
1st 2nd 3rd

2 3 2

22
Total arrangements = 2  3  2 = 12 .

3.2.2 Combinations
In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important. In some cases, the order of
selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order, it
is referred to as a combination.
Thus ABC, ACB, CBA are different permutations but they are the same combinations of letters.
Example 3.10
How many committees of three persons can be made of five persons namely; Anderson,
Beatrice, Charles, Duncan and Eunice?
Solution
Let A Andrew ABC BCD CDE
B Beatrice ABD BCE
C Charles ABE BDE
D Duncan ACD
E Eunice ACE
ADE
Therefore there are 10 different committees or combinations of 3 persons chosen from five.
However there are 5 P3 = 60 distinct permutations of 3 letters chosen from the letters of the word
ABCDE. Thus one combination of three letters can be rearranged to give 3! = 6 permutations.

Definition 3.4
In general, the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects is given by

n n! n
Pr
=
n
=
n
Cr or   or C
 r  r ! ( n − r )!
r
r!

In the previous example, the number of combinations of 3 persons chosen from 5 is

5 5!
 =
5
C3 or
 3  3! ( 5 − 3)!
5!
=
3! 2!
5 4
= =10
2

23
Example 3.11
Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can this be
done?
Solution

20!
20
C5 =
5! ( 20 − 5 )!
20!
=
5!15!
= 15, 504.

Example 3.12
A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?
Solution

5 men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women can be chosen from 9 women in 9 C6
ways. Therefore by the Fundamental Counting Principle, the total number of ways of selecting
the team is

7! 9!
7
C5 9 C6 = 
5!( 7 − 5 )! 6!( 9 − 6 )!
7! 9!
= 
5!2! 6!3!
=21 84
=1764

Example3.13
A girl wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 4 of them. In how many ways can she
chose whom to invite if two of them are sisters and must not be separated?
Solution
Consider two cases
i) When both sisters are invited
ii) When both sisters are not invited
From i), if the two sisters are to be invited, we select 2 out of 6 in

6!
6
C2 = = 15 ways.
2!4!

24
From ii), if the two sisters are not invited, we select 4 out of 6 in

6!
6
C4 = = 15 ways.
4!2!
Therefore the total number of ways is
15 +15 = 30.

3.3 Assessment

15! 15!
1. Simplify +
11! 4! 12!3!

2. How many odd numbers, greater than 500, 000 can be made from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
a) Without repetition b) with repetition allowed?
3. A committee of six is to be formed from 9 women and 3 men. In how many ways can the
members be chosen so as to include at most 2 men?
3.4 References
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman
Publishers Ltd.

2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

4. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

https://www.spps.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=56460&dataid=3434
1&FileName=precalculus_7th_-_larson_hostetler_2.pdf

25
 LECTURE FOUR
BINOMIAL THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS
4.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study the Binomial Theorem and its applications. The Binomial Theorem
describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial without actually multiplying out.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) State and apply the Binomial Theorem for a positive integer.

ii) . State and apply the Binomial Theorem for any index.

4.2.1 Binomial Theorem for a positive integer

4.2.1.1 Expansion using the Pascal’s Triangle
Definition 4.1
A binomial is a sum or a difference of two terms.
E.g x +y, 2x + 3y are binomials.
Consider the following expansions;

(a + b) = 1
0

(a + b) = a + b
1

( a + b ) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
2
`
( a + b ) = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3
3

( a + b ) = a 4 + 4a3b + 6a 2b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4
4

Writing the coefficients in a triangular array gives;

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

26
This triangular array is called the Pascal’s Triangle (up to degree 4). The entries of any row in the
Pascal’s triangle can be obtained from the row immediately above it by simply adding consecutive
entries of the latter row.
Example 4.1

Expand ( 2 x + 3 y ) in descending powers of x.

3

Solution
This is a binomial of degree 3. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are
1, 3, 3, 1

Therefore letting a = 2 x and b = 3 y we have,

( 2x + 3y ) = ( 2 x ) + 3 ( 2 x ) ( 3 y ) + 3 ( 2 x )( 3 y ) + ( 3 y )
3 3 2 2 3

=8 x3 + 36 x 2 y + 54 xy 2 + 27 y 3

Example 4.2
4
 1
Obtain the expansion of  2 x −  , in descending powers of x.
 2

Solution
This is a binomial of degree 4. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are
1, 4, 6, 4, 1

Therefore letting a = 2 x and b = − 1 we have,

2
4 2 3 4
 1 3 1 2 1  1  1
 2x −  = ( 2x) + 4 ( 2x)  −  + 6 (2x)  −  + 4 (2x)  −  +  − 
4

 2  2  2  2  2
 1 1  −1  1
=16x 4 + 4 ( 8 x3 )  −  + 6 ( 4 x 2 )   + 4 ( 2 x )   +
 2 4  8  16
1
=16x 4 − 16 x3 + 6 x 2 − x + .
16

4.2.1.3 Binomial Theorem

Consider the binomial ( a + b ) of degree 3. Expanding we get

3

a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3 .

Observe that the coefficients in this expansion can also be obtained as follows;

27
  3  3  3  3
1 =  , 3 =  , 3 =  , 1 =   .
 0 1  2  3
In general, we have
Theorem 4.1 (The Binomial Theorem)
If n is a positive integer,

n  n  n  n n
( a + b) =   a n +   a n −1b +   a n −2b2 +
n
  b , where
0 1  2  n

n n!
 = .
 r  r ! ( n − r )!

Example 4.3

( 2 x − 3)
14
Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of .

Solution

14  14  14 

( 2 x − 3) =   ( 2 x ) +   ( 2 x ) ( −3) + +   ( 2 x ) ( −3) +
14 14 13 10 4

0 1 4

Therefore the coefficient of x10 is

14  10
  ( 2 ) ( −3) = 83, 026, 944 .
4

4
Example 4.4
10
 1 
Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of  1 + x  in ascending powers of x. Hence find
 2 
the value of (1.005 ) correct to four decimal places.
10

Solution

10  10 10  9  1  10  8  1  10  7  1 

10 2 3
 1 
1 + x  =  0 1 +  1 1  x  +  2 1  x  +  3 1  x  +
 2      2    2    2 
45 2
= 1 + 5x + x + 15 x3 + ( 6.1)
4
Since

28
 10
 1 
(1.005) = (1 + .005) and comparing with  1 + x  we get
10 10

 2 

1 x = 0.005
2
 x = 2  0.005 = 0.01

Substituting this value of x in equation ( 6.1) we obtain

45
(1.005) = 1 + 5 ( 0.01) +
( 0.01) + 15 ( 0.01) +
10 2 3

4
=1+0.05+0.001125+0.000015+
=1.0511 (4 dp)

Example 4.5

Obtain the expansion of (1 + x − 2 x 2 ) as far as the term in x3.

8

Solution

(1 + x − 2 x ) = 1 + ( x − 2 x 2 ) 
8
2 8

8 8 8

=1+   ( x − 2 x 2 ) +   ( x − 2 x 2 ) +   ( x − 2 x 2 ) +
2 3

1  2  3
=1+8 ( x − 2 x 2 ) + 28 ( x 2 − 4 x3 + ) + 56 ( x 3
+ )+
=1 + 8 x -16 x 2 + 28 x 2 − 112 x 3 + 56 x 3 +
=1 + 8 x + 12 x 2 − 56 x 3 +

4.2.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index

Theorem 4.2
For any rational number n, the binomial theorem is given by

n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
(1 + x )
n
= 1 + nx + x2 + x3 + ,
2! 3!

provided −1  x  1 ie x  1.

29
Example 4.6

1
Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 .
1− x
Solution

1
= (1 − x )
−1
 n = -1
1− x
Therefore

( −1)( −2 ) ( −1)( −2 )( −3)

(1 − x ) = 1 + ( −1)( − x ) + (−x) (−x)
−1 2 3
+ +
2! 3!
=1 + x + x + x +, provided x  1.
2 3

Example 4.7

Obtain the first five terms of the expansion 1 + 2x in ascending powers of x. State the values
of x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution

1 + 2 x = (1 + 2 x ) 2 , n = 1
1

Therefore

( 1 )( − 1 ) ( 1 )( − 1 ) ( − 3 )
(1 + 2 x ) (2x) + (2x) + 2 2
( )
2 2x +
1 2 2 2 3
2
= 1+ 1
2 2! 3!
( 12 )( − 12 ) ( − 3 2 )( − 5 2 ) ( 2x ) 4
+
4!
=1 + x − 1 x + 1 x3 − 5 x 4 +
2
2 2 8

The expansion is valid for −1  2 x  1 ie x  1 .

2
Example 4.8
1
Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 and state the values of x for
(2 + x)
2

which the expansion is valid.

Solution

30
 −2
1   x 
= (2 + x)
−2
=  2 1 +  
(2 + x)   2 
2

−2
 x
−2
= 2 1 + 
 2
  x  ( −2 )( −3)  x  ( −2 )( −3)( −4 )  x  
2 3

= 1 + ( −2 )   +
1
  +   + 
4 2 2 2
 2! 3! 
= 1 1 − x + 3 x 2 − 1 x 3 + 
4 4 2 
= 1 − 1 x+ 3 x − 1 x +
2 3
4 4 16 8
For the expansion to be valid,

−1  1 x  1 ie x  2.
2
Example 4.9

1+ 2x
Expand up to the term including x3 .
1− x
Solution

1+ 2x
= (1 + 2 x ) 2 (1 − x )
1 −1

1− x
Now,

( 1 )( − 1 ) ( 1 )( − 1 ) ( − 3 )
(1 + 2 x ) (2x) + (2x) + 2 2
( )
2 2x +
1 2 2 2 3
2
= 1+ 1
2 2! 3!
= 1 + x − 1 x 2 + 1 x3 +
2 2

and

(−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3)
(1 − x )
−1
= 1 + (−1)(− x) + ( − x) 2 + (− x)3 +
2! 3!
=1 + x + x + x +
2 3

Therefore

31
 1+ 2x
1− x 2 (
= 1 + x − 1 x 2 + 1 x3 +
2 ) (1 + x + x 2
+ x 3 + )
= (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ) + ( x + x 2 + x 3 + ) + − 1 x 2 − 1 x 3 + +
2 2 ( )
1 x +
2
3
( + )
=1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 2 x 3 +
2

Example 4.10

Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 − 8x )

1
2
in descending powers of x. Substitute
1
x= and obtain the value of 23 correct to five significant figures.
100
Solution

(1 − 8 x )
1
2
= 1 + 1 (−8 x) +
( 12 )( − 12 ) (−8x) + ( 12 )( − 12 ) ( − 3 2 ) (−8x) +
2 3
2 2! 3!
=1 − 4 x − 8 x − 32 x
3
2

1
Substituting x with we have,
100
1 1 1 1
 8  2
 92  2  23  4  2
 4  2
( 23)
1
1 −  =  =  = 
2

 100   100   100   100 

2
= 23
10
Also
1
 8  2

1 −  = 1 − 4(0.01) − 8(0.01) 2 − 32(0.01)3

 100 
=1 − 0.04 − 0.0008 − 0.000032
=0.959168

32
 2
 23 = 0.959168
10
0.959168 10
 23 = = 4.79584
2
 4.7958.

4.3 Assessment

1. Expand (1 + 2x − x 2 ) the following as far as the terms in x 3 .

6

2. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of (1 + 8x )

1
2
in ascending powers of x. Putting
1
x= obtain the value of 3 correct to five decimal places.
100
3. Show that if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected,

1− x x2
 1− x + .
1+ x 2

4.4 References
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman
Publishers Ltd.

2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

https://www.spps.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=56460&dataid=3434
1&FileName=precalculus_7th_-_larson_hostetler_2.pdf

33