MODULE 5

LESSON 7
MATRIX ALGEBRA
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Define matrices and perform arithmetic on matrices, and

2. Apply matrix algebra to solve systems of linear algebraic equations.

Matrix. A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers or functions defined below.

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
[ ⋮ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Elements of a The numbers or functions, 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎22 , … , 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ,

Matrix: in the array are called elements of the matrix. The
entry in the 𝑖th row and 𝑗th column of a matrix is
written as 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .

Size of a Matrix: The size of a matrix is the 𝑚 number of rows by the

𝑛 number of columns of the matrix written as
𝑚 𝑥 𝑛.

Special Matrices

1. Row Matrix. A matrix with only one row.

Example: 𝑨 = [2 −5 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 1 𝑥 3)

2. Column Matrix. A matrix with only one column.

 4
Example: 𝑩 = [−2] (Size of Matrix 𝑩: 4 𝑥 1)
5
8

3. Null Matrix. A null matrix has all elements zero.

0 0 0
Example: 𝑵 = [0 0 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 3 𝑥 3)
0 0 0

4. Square Matrix. A matrix whose number of rows is the same as the number
of columns. The size of a square matrix is written as 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛. Moreover, a
square matrix is also called a matrix of order 𝒏.

1 2 15 6 −1 −2
3 14 7 8 −3 −4
0 5 0 −2 −2 5
Example: 𝑪=
8 −3 8 3 0 15
−7 0 13 −5 −6 8
[ 0 0 11 8 −5 21 ]
(Size of Matrix 𝑪: 6 𝑥 6)

5. Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix which has zero elements everywhere

except the principal diagonal.

1 0 0 0
Example: 𝑫 = [0 2 0 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑫: 4 𝑥 4)
0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4

6. Scalar Matrix. When the entries 𝑎𝑖𝑖 of a diagonal matrix are all equal.

5 0
Example: 𝑺=[ ] (Size of Matrix 𝑺: 2 𝑥 2)
0 5

Note: An 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 scalar matrix is simply a scalar multiple of a diagonal

matrix in which the main diagonal entries are all equal to 1.

5 0 1 0
𝑺=[ ] = 5[ ]
0 5 0 1
7. Identity Matrix. A diagonal matrix whose elements of the principal diagonal
are all 1.

1 0 0
Example: 𝑰 = [0 1 0 ] (Size of Matrix 𝑰: 3 𝑥 3)
0 0 1

8. Transpose of a Matrix. The transpose of a matrix is a result of

interchanging the columns and rows of a matrix. The transpose of matrix
𝑨 is denoted by 𝑨𝑻 as illustrated below.

1 2
Example: 𝑨 = [3 4] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 3 𝑥 2)
5 6

1 3 5
𝑨𝑻 = [ ] (Size of Matrix 𝑨𝑻 : 2 𝑥 3)
2 4 6

9. Symmetrical Matrix. A square matrix whose elements are symmetrical

about its main diagonal. This means that 𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻 .

1 3 4
Example: 𝑴 = [3 8 7] (Size of Matrix 𝑴: 3 𝑥 3)
4 7 5
1 3 4
𝑻
𝑴 = [3 8 7] (Size of Matrix 𝑴𝑻 : 3 𝑥 3)
4 7 5

𝑴 = 𝑴𝑻

10. Skew Symmetrical Matrix. A square matrix whose elements are

symmetrical about its main diagonal but of negative sign. This means that
𝑨 = −𝑨𝑻 .

0 2 3
Example: 𝑯 = [−2 0 7]
−3 −7 0
(Size of Matrix 𝑯: 3 𝑥 3)
 0 −2 −3
𝑯 𝑻 = [2 0 −7]
3 7 0
(Size of Matrix 𝑯𝑻 : 3 𝑥 3)

𝑯 = −𝑯𝑻

11. Triangular Matrix. A square matrix whose non-zero elements are confined
in the upper or lower triangle.

Upper Triangular Matrix

1 4 1 4
Example: 𝑩 = [0 1 4 1] (Size of Matrix 𝑩: 4 𝑥 4)
0 0 2 5
0 0 0 3

Lower Triangular Matrix

1 0 0
Example: 𝑪 = [ 2 4 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑪: 3 𝑥 3)
−3 7 5

Arithmetic of Matrices

1. Equality of Matrices.
Two 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩 are equal if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for each 𝑖 and
𝑗.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
Example: The matrices [ ] and [ ] are equal if and
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
only if
𝑎 = 𝑒, 𝑏 = 𝑓, 𝑐 = 𝑔, 𝑑 = ℎ.

2. Matrix Addition.
 If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices, then their sum is

𝑨 + 𝑩 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚 𝑥 𝑛

1 2 5 6
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ ] and 𝑩 = [ ]. Then,
3 4 7 8

1+5 2+6
𝑨+𝑩=[ ]
3+7 4+8
6 8
=[ ]
10 12

3. Scalar Multiple of a Matrix.

If 𝑘 is a real number, then the scalar multiple of a matrix 𝑨 is

𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎1𝑛

𝑘𝑎21 𝑘𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎2𝑛
𝑘𝑨 = [ ] = (𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚 𝑥 𝑛
⋮ ⋮
𝑘𝑎𝑚1 𝑘𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎𝑚𝑛

1 2
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ ],
3 4
1 2 3(1) 3(2)
3𝑨 = 3 [ ]=[ ]
3 4 3(3) 3(4)
3 6
=[ ]
9 12

4. Matrix Multiplication. Let 𝑨 be a matrix having 𝑚 rows and 𝑝 columns,

and let 𝑩 be a matrix having 𝑝 rows and 𝑛 columns. The product 𝑨𝑩
is the 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏11 𝑏12 ⋯ 𝑏1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏21 𝑏22 ⋯ 𝑏2𝑛
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 [ 𝑏𝑝1 𝑏𝑝2 ⋯ 𝑏𝑝𝑛 ]
=
𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎11 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎12 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛
𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎21 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎22 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛
⋮ ⋮
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑏11 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛 ]

= (∑𝑝𝑘=1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 )𝑚 𝑥 𝑛

 Note: The product 𝑨𝑩 is defined only when the number of columns in
matrix 𝑨 is the same as the number of rows in matrix 𝑩. That is,

(𝑨𝑚 𝑥 𝑝 )(𝑩𝑝 𝑥 𝑛 ) = (𝑨𝑩)𝑚 𝑥 𝑛

2 3
3 6 1
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ 1 3] and 𝑩 = [ ],
6 −1 8
−1 2
find the product 𝑨𝑩.

The size of 𝑨 is 3 𝑥 2 and the size of 𝑩 is 2 𝑥 3. The product

𝑨𝑩 is possible since the number of columns of 𝑨 (which is 2) is
the same as the number of rows of 𝑩 (which is 2). The size of
𝑨𝑩 is 3 𝑥 3.

2(3) + 3(6) 2(6) + 3(−1) 2(1) + 3(8)

𝑨𝑩 = [ 1(3) + 3(6) 1(6) + 3(−1) 1(1) + 3(8) ]
−1(3) + 2(6) −1(6) + 2(−1) −1(1) + 2(8)
6 + 18 12 − 3 2 + 24
= [ 3 + 18 6−3 1 + 24 ]
−3 + 12 −6 − 2 −1 + 16
24 9 26
= [21 3 25]
9 −8 15

Important Properties

A. Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Suppose 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices and 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are scalars.
Then

1. 𝑨+𝑩= 𝑩+𝑨
2. 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪
3. (𝑘1 𝑘2 )𝑨 = 𝑘1 (𝑘2 𝑨)
4. 1𝑨 = 𝑨
5. 𝑘1 (𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑘1 𝑨 + 𝑘2 𝑩
6. (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑨 = 𝑘1 𝑨 + 𝑘2 𝑨

B. Properties of Matrix Multiplication

 Suppose 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices. Then

1. 𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨 (in general)
2. 𝑨(𝑩𝑪) = (𝑨𝑩) 𝑪
3. 𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪
4. (𝑩 + 𝑪)𝑨 = 𝑩𝑨 + 𝑪𝑨

C. Properties of Transpose
Suppose 𝑨 and 𝑩 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices and 𝑘 is a scalar. Then

1. (𝑨𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝑨
2. (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝑇 = 𝑨𝑇 + 𝑩𝑇
3. (𝑨𝑩)𝑇 = 𝑩𝑇 𝑨𝑇
4. (𝑘𝑨)𝑇 = 𝑘𝑨𝑇

Example Find the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑤 and 𝑧 in

7.1. [
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦
]=[
1 2
].
𝑧 𝑤+𝑧 3 4

Use Equality of Matrices.

𝑥+𝑦 𝑦 1 2
[ ]=[ ]
𝑧 𝑤+𝑧 3 4

𝑥+𝑦 =1
𝑦=2
𝑧=3
𝑤+𝑧 = 4

To solve 𝑥: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2
𝑥+2=1
𝑥 = −1
To solve 𝑤: 𝑤 + 𝑧 = 4 , 𝑧 = 3
𝑤+3=4
𝑤=1

Example 7.2. Find the values of the unknowns in

𝑥 𝑦 2 1 5 −1
[ ][ ]=[ ].
𝑧 𝑤 3 7 3 8

Use Matrix Multiplication first.

 𝑥
𝑦 2 1
[ ][ ]
𝑧
𝑤 3 7
𝑥(2) + 𝑦(3) 𝑥(1) + 𝑦(7)
=[ ]
𝑧(2) + 𝑤(3) 𝑧(1) + 𝑤(7)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑥 + 7𝑦
=[ ]
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 𝑧 + 7𝑤

Use Equality of Matrices.

𝑥 𝑦 2 1 5 −1
[ ][ ]=[ ]
𝑧 𝑤 3 7 3 8
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑥 + 7𝑦 5 −1
[ ]=[ ]
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 𝑧 + 7𝑤 3 8

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5 (1)
𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1 (2)
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3 (3)
𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8 (4)

(Get Equations (1) and (2) and eliminate 𝑥)

(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5)
− 2(𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1)

(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5)
− (2𝑥 + 14𝑦 = −2)
−11𝑦 = 7
7
𝑦 = − 11

(Solve for 𝑥)
𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1
7
𝑥 + 7 (− 11) = −1
49
𝑥 − 11 = −1
49
𝑥 = −1 + 11
38
𝑥 = 11

(Get Equations (3) and (4) and eliminate 𝑧)

(2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3)
− 2(𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8)

(2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3)
− (2𝑧 + 14𝑤 = 16)
−11𝑤 = −13
 13
𝑤 = 11

(Solve for 𝑧)
𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8
13
𝑧 + 7 (11) = 8
91
𝑧 + 11 = 8
91
𝑧 = 8 − 11
3
𝑧 = − 11
Example 7.3. Find elements 𝑐11 and 𝑐23 of the matrix 𝑪 =
3𝑨 − 2𝑩 given that
2 3 −1
𝑨=[ ] and
1 6 0
4 0 6
𝑩=[ ].
−1 3 −5

𝑪 = 3𝑨 − 2𝑩
2 3 −1 4 0 6
= 3[ ]− 2[ ]
1 6 0 −1 3 −5
6 9 −3 8 0 12
=[ ]−[ ]
3 18 0 −2 6 −10
6−8 9−0 −3 − 12
=[ ]
3 − (−2) 18 − 6 0 − (−10)
−2 9 −15
=[ ]
5 12 10

Element 𝑐11 = −2 and element 𝑐23 = 10

Example 7.4. If 𝑨 = [
1 2
] and 𝑩 = [
−2 3
] , find
3 4 5 7
(a) −2𝑨 + 3𝑩𝑇 , (b) 𝑨𝑇 (𝑨 − 𝑩).

1 2 1 3
𝑨=[ ] 𝑨𝑇 = [ ]
3 4 2 4
−2 3 −2 5
𝑩=[ ] 𝑩𝑇 = [ ]
5 7 3 7

(a) −2𝑨 + 3𝑩𝑇

1 2 −2 5
= −2 [ ] + 3[ ]
3 4 3 7
−2 −4 −6 15
=[ ]+[ ]
−6 −8 9 21
 −2 + (−6) −4 + 15
=[ ]
−6 + 9 −8 + 21
−8 11
=[ ]
3 13

(b) 𝑨𝑇 (𝑨 − 𝑩)
= [1 3] ([
1 2] − [−2 3])
2 4 3 4 5 7
1 − (−2) 2 − 3
= [1 3] ([ ])
2 4 3−5 4−7
=[
1 3] [ 3 −1]
2 4 −2 −3
1(3) + 3(−2) 1(−1) + 3(−3)
=[ ]
2(3) + 4(−2) 2(−1) + 4(−3)

=[
3 − 6 −1 − 9 ]
6 − 8 −2 − 12
= [−3 −10]
−2 −14

Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations. A system of 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛

variables, or unknowns, has the general form

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

Where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 pertains to the coefficients of the variables in the 𝑖th row and 𝑗th column
of the linear system and the numbers 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑚 are called the constants of the
system.

Note that if all the constants are zero in the linear system, it is said to be
homogeneous; otherwise, it is nonhomogeneous.

Example: 3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 5𝑥3 = 0 is a homogeneous system, while
4𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 = 0
 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −5
5𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 11 is a nonhomogeneous system.
𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 2

A solution of a linear system is a set of 𝑛 numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 that satisfies

each equation in the system.

1 7 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
Example: 𝑥1 = − 3 and 𝑥2 = 3 is a solution of { .
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3

A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution,

and inconsistent if it has no solution. Moreover, if a linear system is consistent, it
has either (a) a unique solution (exactly one solution), or (b) infinitely many solutions.

Augmented Matrix. The system of linear equations can be written in matrix form
by entirely dropping the variables forming what we call as an augmented matrix (see
below).

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1 𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2 𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
⋮ [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚
(Augmented Matrix)

Example: Write the system of equations as an augmented matrix.

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2 1 1 2
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3 [ ]
2 −1 −3

3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 3 −2 1 0
−𝑥1 + 5𝑥3 = 0 [−1 0 5 0]
4𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 = 0 0 4 −7 0

Solving Linear Systems Using Elementary Row Operations. We can solve

systems of linear equations using elementary row operations on a matrix; that is,

(1) Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.

(2) Interchange any two rows.
 (3) Add a nonzero multiple of one row to any other row.

Two matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from the other through a
sequence of elementary row operations. The procedure of carrying out elementary
row operations on a matrix to obtain a row-equivalent matrix is called row
reduction.

Elimination Methods. To solve an augmented matrix, we can use either Gaussian

elimination or Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

Gaussian elimination involves row-reducing the augmented matrix until getting a

row-equivalent augmented matrix in row-echelon form:

(a) The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is 1.

(b) In consecutive nonzero rows, the first entry 1 in the lower row appears to
the right of the 1 in the higher row.
(c) Rows consisting of all zeros are at the bottom of the matrix.

This is illustrated below.

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1 1 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛 𝑑1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2 0 1 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛 𝑑2
[ ] [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚 0 0 ⋯ 1 𝑑𝑚
(Row-echelon form)

Gauss-Jordan elimination involves the steps in Gaussian elimination but

continued until obtaining an augmented matrix that is in reduced row-echelon
form. A reduced row-echelon form has the same three properties listed above, but
in addition:

(d) A column containing a first entry 1 has zeros everywhere else.

This is illustrated below.

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1 1 0 ⋯ 0 𝑑1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2 0 1 ⋯ 0 𝑑2
[ ] [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚 0 0 ⋯ 1 𝑑𝑚
(Reduced row-echelon form)

The following notations are useful in performing elementary row operations.

 ✓ Interchange rows 𝑖 and 𝑗: 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗
✓ Multiply the 𝑖th row by a nonzero constant 𝑘: 𝑘𝑅 𝑖
✓ Multiply the 𝑖th row by 𝑘 and add the 𝑗th row: 𝑘𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑗

Example Solve the following systems of linear equations using (a) Gaussian
7.5. elimination and (b) Gauss-Jordan elimination.

1. 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3

(a) Gaussian elimination

1 1 2
The augmented matrix is [ ] and the goal is a
2 −1 −3
matrix in
1 𝑐12 𝑑1
row-echelon form, [ ].
0 1 𝑑2

Use elementary row operations:

a. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[ ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(1) = −3
2 −1 −3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −3 − 2(2) = −7

1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [ ]
2 −1 −3 0 −3 −7
1
b. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = − 3 𝑅2
1
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 3 (0) = 0
[ ] : 1
0 −3 −7 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − (−3) = 1
3
1 7
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 3 (−7) =3

1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [0 1 3]
7
0 −3 −7

Do back substitution:
1 1 2 → 1(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 2 (1)
[0 1 3] →
7 7
0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3 (2)
 7
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3
7
𝑥2 = 3

From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
7
𝑥1 + 3 = 2
7
𝑥1 = 2 − 3
1
𝑥1 = − 3

(b) Gauss-Jordan elimination

1 1 2
The augmented matrix is [ ] and the goal is a
2 −1 −3
matrix in
1 0 𝑑1
reduced row-echelon form, [ ].
0 1 𝑑2

Use elementary row operations:

a. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[ ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(1) = −3
2 −1 −3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −3 − 2(2) = −7

1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [ ]
2 −1 −3 0 −3 −7
1
b. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = − 3 𝑅2
1
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 3 (0) = 0
[ ] : 1
0 −3 −7 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 3 (−3) = 1
1 7
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 3 (−7) = 3

1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [0 1 3]
7
0 −3 −7

c. To make 𝑎12 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅2

1 1 2 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 1 − 0 = 1
[0 1 3] :
7 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 1 − 1 = 0
7 1
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = 2 − 3 = − 3
 1
1 1 2 1 0 −3
[0 7] → [
1 3 7 ]
0 1 3

Form the equations:

1 1
1 0 −3 → 1(𝑥1 ) + 0(𝑥2 ) = − 3 (1)
[ 7 ] 7
0 1 3 → 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3 (2)

7
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3
7
𝑥2 = 3
1
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥1 ) + 0(𝑥2 ) = − 3
1
𝑥1 = − 3

2. 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 9

(a) Gaussian elimination

2 6 1 7
The augmented matrix is [1 2 −1 −1] and the goal is a
5 7 −4 9
1 𝑐12 𝑐13 𝑑1
matrix in row-echelon form, [0 1 𝑐23 𝑑2 ].
0 0 1 𝑑3

Use elementary row operations:

a. To make element 𝑎11 = 1, do 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2

2 6 1 7 1 2 −1 −1
[1 2 −1 −1] → [2 6 1 7 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9

b. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1

𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 6 − 2(2) = 2
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − 2(−1) = 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 7 − 2(−1) = 9
 1 2 −1 −1
[2 6 1 7 ] :
5 7 −4 9

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[2 6 1 7 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9

c. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 5 − 5(1) = 0

[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 7 − 5(2) = −3
5 7 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 5(−1) = 1
−4 9
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 9 − 5(−1) = 14

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 0 −3 1 14
1
d. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 2 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 (0) = 0
[0 2 3 9 ] : 1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 2 (2) = 1
0 −3 1 14 1 3
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = (3) =
2 2
1 9
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = (9) =
2 2

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 1 2 2
]
0 −3 1 14 0 −3 1 14

e. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

3 9
[0 1 2 2
] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
3 11
0 −3 1 14 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 + 3 (2) = 2
9 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 14 + 3 (2) = 2

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
] → [0 1
3 9
[0 1 2 2
2 2 ]
11 55
0 −3 1 14 0 0 2 2

2
f. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 11 𝑅3
 2
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 11 (0) = 0
3 9 2
[0 1 2 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 11 (0) = 0
11 55 2 11
0 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = ( )=1
2 2 11 2
2 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 11 ( 2 ) = 5

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 1 2 3 9
2 ] → [0 1 2 ]
2
11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 1 5

Do back substitution:
1 2 −1 −1 → 1(𝑥) + 2(𝑦) − 1(𝑧) = −1 (1)
3 9 3 9
[0 1 2 ] → 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + (𝑧) = (2)
2 2 2
0 0 1 5 → 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5 (3)

From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5

𝑧=5
3 9
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 2 (𝑧) = 2
3 9
𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2
3 9
𝑦 + 2 (5) = 2
15 9
𝑦+ =2
2
9 15
𝑦 =2− 2
𝑦 = −3

From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥) + 2(𝑦) − 1(𝑧) = −1

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1
𝑥 + 2(−3) − 5 = −1
𝑥 − 11 = −1
𝑥 = −1 + 11
𝑥 = 10

(b) Gauss-Jordan elimination

 2 6 1 7
The augmented matrix is [1 2 −1 −1] and the goal is a
5 7 −4 9
1 0 0 𝑑1
matrix in reduced row-echelon form, [0 1 0 𝑑2 ].
0 0 1 𝑑3
Use elementary row operations:
a. To make element 𝑎11 = 1, do 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2

2 6 1 7 1 2 −1 −1
[1 2 −1 −1] → [2 6 1 7 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9

b. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 6 1 7 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 6 − 2(2) = 2
5 7 −4 9 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − 2(−1) = 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 7 − 2(−1) = 9

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[2 6 1 7 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9

c. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 5 − 5(1) = 0

[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 7 − 5(2) = −3
5 7 −4 9 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 5(−1) = 1
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 9 − 5(−1) = 14

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 0 −3 1 14
1
d. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 2 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = (0) = 0
2
[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 =
1
(2) = 1
2
0 −3 1 14 1
(3) =
3
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 2
1 9
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = (9) =
2 2

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 1 2 2
]
0 −3 1 14 0 −3 1 14
e. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

3 9 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
[0 1 2 2
] : 3 11
0 −3 1 14 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 + 3 (2) = 2
9 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 14 + 3 ( ) =
2 2

1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
] → [0 1
3 9
[0 1 2 2
2 2 ]
11 55
0 −3 1 14 0 0 2 2

f. To make 𝑎12 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2

1 2 −1 −1 𝑎11 : 𝑐12 = 1 − 2(0) = 1

3 9 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[0 1 2 2 ] : 3
𝑎13 : 𝑐13 = −1 − 2 (2) = −4
11 55
0 0 2 2
9
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = −1 − 2 (2) = −10

1 2 −1 −1 1 0 −4 −10
3 9 3 9
[0 1 2 2 ] → [
0 1 2 2 ]
11 55 11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 2 2

2
g. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 11 𝑅3
2
1 0 −4 −10 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = (0) = 0
11
3 9 2
[0 1 2 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 =
11
(0) = 0
11 55 2 11
0 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = ( )=1
11 2
2 2
2 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = ( )=5
11 2

1 0 −4 −10 1 0 −4 −10
3 9
[0 1 3 9
2 2 ] → [0 1 ]
2 2
11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 1 5

3
h. To make 𝑎23 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2 𝑅3 .

1 0 −4 −10 3
𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 0 − (0) = 0
3 9 2
[0 1 2 2
] : 𝑎22 :
3
𝑐22 = 1 − 2 (0) = 1
0 0 1 5 𝑎23 :
3 3
𝑐23 = 2 − 2 (1) = 0
9 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 2 − 2 (5) = −3
 1 0 −4 −10 1 0 −4 −10
3 9
[0 1 2 2
] → [0 1 0 −3 ]
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5

i. To make 𝑎13 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 + 4𝑅3 .

1 0 −4 −10 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 1 + 4(0) = 1

[0 1 0 −3 ] : 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 0 + 4(0) =
0 0 1 5 𝑎13 : 𝑐23 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = −10 + 4(5) = 10

1 0 −4 −10 1 0 0 10
[0 1 0 −3 ] → [0 1 0 −3]
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5

Form the equations:

1 0 0 10 → 1(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = 10 (1)
[0 1 0 −3] → 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = −3 (2)
0 0 1 5 → 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5 (3)

From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = 10

𝑥 = 10

From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = −3

𝑦 = −3

From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5

𝑧=5

3. 4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 5𝑑 = −4
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 7𝑐 + 𝑑 = −18
 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 5𝑑 = 14
5𝑎 − 6𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 8𝑑 = 31

(a) Gaussian elimination

4 3 2 −5 −4
The augmented matrix is [ 3 −2 −7 1 −18] and the
1 1 −3 5 14
5 −6 2 8 31
goal is a matrix in row-echelon form,
1 𝑐12 𝑐13 𝑐14 𝑑1
0 1 𝑐 23 𝑐24 𝑑 2
[ ].
0 0 1 𝑐34 𝑑3
0 0 2 1 𝑑4

Use elementary row operations:

a. To make element 𝑎11 = 1, do 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3

4 3 2 −5 −4 1 1 −3 5 14
[3 −2 −7 1 −18] → [3 −2 −7 1 −18 ]
1 1 −3 5 14 4 3 2 −5 −4
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31

b. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1

1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −2 − 3(1) = −5
[34 −2
3
−7
2
1
−5
−18
−4
] : 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = −7 − 3(−3) = 2
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = 1 − 3(5) = −14
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −18 − 3(14) = −60

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[34 −2
3
−7
2
1
−5
−18
−4
] → [04 −5
3
2 −14
2 −5
−60
−4
]
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31

c. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1

1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 4 − 4(1) = 0

[04 −5 2 −14 −60
] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 3 − 4(1) = −1
3 2 −5 −4 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 − 4(−3) = 14
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −5 − 4(5) = −25
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −4 − 4(14) = −60
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[04 −5
3
2 −14
2 −5
−60
−4
] → [00 −5 2 −14 −60
−1 14 −25 −60
]
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31

d. To make 𝑎41 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1

 1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 5 − 5(1) = 0
[00 −5 2 −14 −60
] : 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = −6 − 5(1) = −11
−1 14 −25 −60 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = 2 − 5(−3) = 17
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = 8 − 5(5) = −17
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 31 − 5(14) = −39
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0
0
−5
−1
2 −14 −60
] → [ 00 −5
−1
2 −14 −60
]
14 −25 −60 14 −25 −60
5 −6 2 8 31 0 −11 17 −17 −39

e. 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[ 00 −5
−1
2 −14 −60
] → [ 0 −1 14
2
−25
−14
−60
−60
]
14 −25 −60 0 −5
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 −11 17 −17 −39

f. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = −𝑅2 .

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[ 0 −1 14
2
−25
−14
−60
−60
] → [0 1 −14 25
2 −14
60
−60
]
0 −5 0 −5
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 −11 17 −17 −39

g. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 5𝑅2

1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 5(0) = 0

𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −5 + 5(1) = 0
[0 1 −14 25
2 −14
60
−60
] :
0 −5 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 + 5(−14) = −68
0 −11 17 −17 −39 𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −14 + 5(25) = 111
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −60 + 5(60) = 240
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 1 −14 25
2 −14
60
−60
] → [ 00 1
0
−14 25
−68 111
60 ]
240
0 −5
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 −11 17 −17 −39

h. To make 𝑎42 = 0, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 11𝑅2

1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + 0 = 0
[ 00 1 −14 25 60 ] : 𝑎42: : 𝑐42 = −11 + 11(1) = 0
0 −68 111 240 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = 17 + 11(−14) = −137
0 −11 17 −17 −39 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = −17 + 11(25) = 258
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = −39 + 11(60) = 621

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[ 00 1
0
−14 25
−68 111
60 ] → [0
240 0
1
0
−14
−68
25
111
60 ]
240
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 0 −137 258 621
 1
i. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = − 68 𝑅3
1
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − 68 (0) = 0
[00 1 −14 25 60 ] 1
0 −68 111 240
: 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = − 68 (0) = 0
1
0 0 −137 258 621 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = − (−68) = 1
68
1 −111
𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = − 68 (111) = 68
1 60
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = − 68 (240 ) = − 17

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 −14 25 60
[0
0
1
0
−14
−68
25
111
60 ]
240
→ [0 0
111 60]
1 − −
68 17
0 0 −137 258 621 0 0 −137 258 621

j. To make 𝑎43 = 0, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 137𝑅3 .

1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + 137(0) = 0

0 1 −14 25 60 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 0 + 137(0) = 0
[0 111 60] : 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = −137 + 137(1) = 0
0 1 − −
68 17 −111 2337
0 0 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = 258 + 137 ( )=
−137 258 621 68 68
60 2337
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 621 + 137 (− 17) = 17

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 0 1 −14 25 60
−14 25 60 111 60
[0 0
111 60] →
0 0 1 − −
1 − − 68 17
68 17 2337 2337
0 0 −137 258 621 0 0 0
[ 68 17 ]

68
k. To make 𝑎44 = 1, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 2337 𝑅4 .

1 1 −3 5 14 68
𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 2337 (0) = 0
0 1 −14 25 60 68
1 −
111
−
60
: 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 2337 (0) = 0
0 0 68 17 68
0 0 2337 2337 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = (0) = 0
0 2337
[ 68 17 ] 68 2337
𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = ( )= 1
2337 68
68 2337
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 2337 ( 17 ) = 4

1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 −14 25 60
111 60 0 1 −14 25 60
1 − − → [0 111 60 ]
0 0 68 17 0 1 − −
2337 2337 68 17
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4
[ 68 17 ]

Do back substitution:
→ 1(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 3(𝑐) + 5(𝑑) = 14 (1)
→ 0(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 14(𝑐) + 25(𝑑) = 60 (2)
111 60
→ 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 1(𝑐) − (𝑑) = − (3)
68 17
→ 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 0(𝑐) + 1(𝑑) = 4 (4)
 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 −14 25 60
[0 0
111 60 ]
1 − −
68 17
0 0 0 1 4

From Eqn. (4): 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 0(𝑐) + 1(𝑑) = 4

𝑑=4

111 60
From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 1(𝑐) − (𝑑) = −
68 17
111 60
𝑐− 𝑑 = − 17
68
111 60
𝑐− (4) = −
68 17
111 60
𝑐− = − 17
17
60 111
𝑐 = − 17 + 17
𝑐=3

From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 14(𝑐) + 25(𝑑) = 60

𝑏 − 14𝑐 + 25𝑑 = 60
𝑏 − 14(3) + 25(4) = 60
𝑏 + 58 = 60
𝑏 = 60 − 58
𝑏=2

From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 3(𝑐) + 5(𝑑) = 14

𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 5𝑑 = 14
𝑎 + 2 − 3(3) + 5(4) = 14
𝑎 + 13 = 14
𝑎 = 14 − 13
𝑎=1

(b) Gauss-Jordan elimination

The solution is left as an exercise.

Rank of a Matrix. In a general 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix,

 𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨=[ ⋮ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

the rows

𝒖1 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ], 𝒖2 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ], …,

𝒖𝑚 = [𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]

and columns

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
𝒗1 = [ ⋮ ], 𝒗2 = [ ⋮ ], …, 𝒗𝑛 = [ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑛

are called the row vectors and the column vectors of matrix 𝑨, respectively.
As vectors, the set 𝒖1 , 𝒖2 , … , 𝒖𝑚 is either linearly independent or linearly
dependent.

The rank of an 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨, denoted by 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨), is the maximum number

of linearly independent row vectors in 𝑨.

By definition, a set of vectors < 𝒙1 , 𝒙2 , … , 𝒙𝑛 > is said to be linearly

independent if the only constants satisfying the equation

𝑘1 𝒙1 + 𝑘2 𝒙2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝒙𝑛 = 𝟎

are 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = ⋯ = 𝑘𝑛 = 0. If the set of vectors is not linearly independent,

then it is said to be linearly dependent.

Rank of a Matrix by Row Reduction.

If a matrix 𝑨 is row-equivalent to a row-echelon form 𝑩, then

(a) The row space of 𝑨 = the row space of 𝑩,

(b) The nonzero rows of 𝑩 form a basis for the row space of 𝑨, and
(c) 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = the number of nonzero rows in 𝑩
The concept of rank is related to the solvability of linear systems of algebraic
equations. Suppose 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is a linear system and that [𝑨|𝑩] denotes the
augmented matrix of the system.

Consistency of 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩. A linear system of equations 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is consistent

if and only if the rank of the coefficient matrix 𝑨 is the same as the rank of the
augmented matrix of the system [𝑨|𝑩].

Number of Parameters in a Solution. Suppose a linear system 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 with

𝑚 equations and 𝑛 variables is consistent. If the coefficient matrix 𝑨 has rank
𝑟, then the solution of the system contains 𝑛 − 𝑟 parameters.

The figure below summarizes the type of solution for 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛
variables 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩.

Case 1: If 𝑩 = 𝟎. Let 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟.

Unique Solution: 𝑿 = 𝟎
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛

Always
𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎
consistent
Infinite Solutions:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑟
arbitrary parameters in
solution

Case 2: If 𝑩 ≠ 𝟎. Let 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟.

Unique Solution:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛

Consistent:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 ([𝑨|𝑩])
Infinite Solutions:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑟
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 arbitrary parameters in
solution
Inconsistent:
Example 7.6. Find the rank of the following matrices.

1 1 −1 3
1. 𝑨 = [2 −2 6 8]
3 5 −7 8

Get the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩 in row-echelon

form using elementary transformations.

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

1 1 −1 3 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 −2 6 8 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −2 − 2(1) = −4
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 6 − 2(−1) = 8
3 5 −7 8 𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = 8 − 2(3) = 2
1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
[2 −2 6 8 ] → [0 −4 8 2]
3 5 −7 8 3 5 −7 8

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 .

1 1 −1 3 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

[0 −4 8 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 5 − 3(1) = 2
3 5 −7 8 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −7 − 3(−1) = −4
𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = 8 − 3(3) = −1

1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
[0 −4 8 2 ] → [0 −4 8 2]
3 5 −7 8 0 2 −4 −1
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 4 𝑅2 .
1
𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 4 (0) = 0
1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 4 (−4) = 1
1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − 4 (8) = −2
1 1
𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = − 4 (2) = − 2
 1 1 −1 3
[0 −4 8 2] :
0 2 −4 −1

1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
1
[0 −4 8 2 ] → [0 1 −2 − ]
2
0 2 −4 −1 0 2 −4 −1

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 .

1 1 −1 3 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 2(0) = 0

1 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[0 1 −2 − 2] : 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 2(−2) = 0
0 2 −4 −1 1
𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −1 − 2 (− 2) = 0

1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
1 1
[0 1 −2 − ] → [0 1 −2 − ]
2 2
0 2 −4 −1 0 0 0 0

∴ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 2 since there are two nonzero

rows in the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩.

1 −2
2. 𝑨 = [ 3 −6 ]
7 −1
4 5

Get the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩 in row-echelon

form using elementary transformations.

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 .

 1 −2
𝑎 : 𝑐 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
[ 3 −6 ] : 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = −6 − 3(−2) = 0
7 −1 22 22
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[ 3 −6 ] → [0 0]
7 −1 7 −1
4 5 4 5

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 7𝑅1 .

1 −2
[0 0 ] : 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 7 − 7(1) = 0
7 −1 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −1 − 7(−2) = 13
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[ 0 0 ] → [0 0]
7 −1 0 13
4 5 4 5

To make 𝑎41 = 0, 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 4𝑅1 .

1 −2
[0 0 ] : 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 4 − 4(1) = 0
0 13 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 5 − 4(−2) = 13
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[ 0 0 ] → [0 0]
7 −1 0 13
4 5 0 13

𝑅4 ↔ 𝑅2

1 −2 1 −2
[ 0 0 ] → [0 13]
0 13 0 13
0 13 0 0

1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = 13 𝑅2 .

1 −2 1
𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 13 (0) = 0
[0 13] :
1
0 13 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 13 (13) = 1
0 0
 1 −2 1 −2
[0 13] → [0 1]
0 13 0 13
0 0 0 0

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 13𝑅2 .

1 −2
𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 13(0) = 0
[0 1] :
𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 13 − 13(1) = 0
0 13
0 0
1 −2 1 −2
[ 0 1 ] → [0 1]
0 13 0 0
0 0 0 0

∴ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 2 since there are two nonzero

rows in the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩.

Example 7.7. Determine the rank of the following systems of

equations and identify the type of solution. If there is
a solution, solve.

1. 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = −9
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13

We have 𝑚 = 3 linear equations in 𝑛 = 2

variables. The augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is
3 2 4
[2 −1 −9].
1 3 13

Getting the row-equivalent matrix:

𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3

3 2 4 1 3 13
[2 −1 −9] → [2 −1 −9]
1 3 13 3 2 4
 To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

1 3 13 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 −1 −9] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(3) = −7
3 2 4 𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −9 − 2(13) = −35

1 3 13 1 3 13
[2 −1 −9] → [0 −7 −35]
3 2 4 3 2 4

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 .

1 3 13 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

[0 −7 −35] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 3(3) = −7
3 2 4 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 4 − 3(13) = −35

1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 −7 −35] → [0 −7 −35]
3 2 4 0 −7 −35
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 7 𝑅2 .

1
1 3 13 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − (0) = 0
7
[0 −7 −35] : 𝑎 : 𝑐 = − 1 (−7) = 1
22 22
0 −7 −35 1
7
𝑏3 : 𝑑2 = − 7 (−35 ) = 5

1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 −7 −35] → [0 1 5 ]
0 −7 −35 0 −7 −35

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 7𝑅2 .

1 3 13 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 7(0) = 0

[0 1 5 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −7 + 7(1) = 0
0 −7 −35 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −35 + 7(5) = 0

1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 1 5 ] → [0 1 5 ]
0 −7 −35 0 0 0

1 3 13
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 5]
0 0 0
1 3
where 𝑨 = [0 1].
0 0
 This example falls under Case 2 where
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 2 and 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]) = 2.

Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]), the system is

consistent. Moreover, since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛
variables, the system has a unique solution.
Solving for the unique solution,

1 3 13 𝑅1 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
[0 1 5] : 𝑅2 : 𝑦=5
0 0 0

Solving for 𝑥: 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
𝑥 + 3(5) = 13
𝑥 + 15 = 13
𝑥 = −2

2. 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 𝑐 = 1
3𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 3𝑐 = −1
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = −3
3𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑐 = 4

We have 𝑚 = 4 linear equations in 𝑛 = 3

variables. The augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is
2 3 −1 1
[3 −4 3 −1 ].
2 −1 1 −3
3 1 −2 4

Getting the row-equivalent matrix:

1
To make 𝑎11 = 1, 𝑅1 ∗ = 2 𝑅1 .
1
2 3 −1 1 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 2 (2) = 1
1 3
[3 −4 3 −1 ] : 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 2 (3) = 2
2 −1 1 −3 1 1
3 1 −2 4 𝑎13 : 𝑐13 = 2 (−1) = − 2
1 1
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = 2 (1) = 2
 3 1 1
2 3 −1 1 1 −
2 2 2
[3 −4 3 −1 ] → 3 −4 3 −1
2 −1 1 −3 2 −1 1 −3
3 1 −2 4 [3 1 −2 4]

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 .

3 21 1 21 1 𝑎 : 𝑐 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
1 −2 3 17
2 2 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −4 − 3 ( ) = −
2 2
3 −4 3 −1 : 1 9
2 −1 1 −3 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 3 − 3 (− ) =
2 2
[3 1 −2 4] 1
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −1 − 3 (2) = − 2
5

3 1 1
1
3
−
1 1 1 −
2 2 2
2 2 2 17 9 5
3 −4 3 −1 → 0 − 2 2
−
2
2 −1 1 −3 2 −1 1 −3
[3 1 −2 4] [3 1 −2 4]

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 .

3 1 1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
1 −2 3
2 2 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −1 − 2 (2) = −4
17 9 5
0 −2 −2 : 1
2𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 − 2 (− ) = 2
2
2 −1 1 −3 1
[3 1 −2 4] 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −3 − 2 ( ) = −4
2

3 1 1 3 1 1
1 − 1 −
2 2 2 2 2 2
17 9 5 17 9 5
0 − − → 0 − −
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 −1 1 −3 0 −4 2 −4
[3 1 −2 4] [3 1 −2 4]

To make 𝑎41 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1 .

3 1 1 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
1 −2 3 7
2 2 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 1 − 3 ( ) = −
17 9 5 2 2
0 −2 −2 : 1 1
2𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = −2 − 3 (− ) = −
2 2
0 −4 2 −4 1 5
[3 𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 4 − 3 (2) = 2
1 −2 4]
3 1 1
3 1 1 1 −
1 − 2 2 2
2 2 2
17 9 5
17 9 5 0 − −
0 − − → 2 2 2
2 2 2
0 −4 2 −4 0 −4 2 −4
7 1 5
[3 1 −2 4] [0 − − ]
2 2 2
 2
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 17 𝑅2 .

3 1 1 2
1 −2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 17 (0) = 0
2 2 2 17
17 9 5𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − (− ) = 1
0 − −2 17 2
2 2 : 2 9 9
0 −4 2 −4 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − ( ) = −
17 2 17
7 1 5 2 5 5
[0 −2 −2 2 ] 𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 17 (− 2 ) = 17

3 1 1 1 1
1 − 1
3 −
2 2 2 2 2
17 2
9 5 9 5
0 − − 0 1 −
2 2 2 → 17 17
0 −4 2 −4 0 −4 2 −4
7 1 5 7 1 5
[0 −
2
−
2 2 ] [0 − 2
−
2 2 ]

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 4𝑅2 .

1 1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 4(0) = 0
1
3 −2 2 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
2 9 5
0 1 − 17 17 : 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 + 4 (− 179 ) = − 17
2

5 48
0 −4 2 −4 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −4 + 4 ( ) = −
7 1 5 17 17
[0 − 2 − 2 2 ]
1 1
3 −
1 1
1
3 −
2 2
1 2 2 2 9 5
2
0 1 − 17 17 →
9 5 0 1 −
17 17
2 48
0 −4 2 −4 0 0 − −
7 1 5 7 17 17
[ 0 − − 0 − 1 5
2 2 2 ] [ 2 − ]
2 2
∗ 7
To make 𝑎42 = 0, 𝑅4 = 𝑅4 + 2 𝑅2 .

1 1 7
3 −2 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + 2 (0) = 0
1 2
7 7
2
− 17
9 5 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = − 2 + 2 (1) = 0
0 1 17
2 48 : 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = − 1 + 7 (− 9 ) = − 40
2 2 17 17
0 0 − 17 − 17 5 7 5 60
7 𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 2 + 2 (17) = 17
0 − −2
1 5
[ 2
2 ]

1 1 1 1
1
3 − 1
3 −
2 2 2 2
2 9 5 2 9 5
0 1 − 0 1 −
17 17 17 17
2 48 → 2 48
0 0 − 17 −
17 0 0 − 17 −
17
7
0 − −
1 5 0 0 − 40 60
[ 2
2 2 ] [ 17 17]

17
To make 𝑎33 = 1, 𝑅3 ∗ = − 𝑅3 .
2

17
𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − 2
(0) = 0
17
𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = − 2 (0) = 0
17 2
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = − 2 (− 17) = 1
17 48
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = − (− ) = 24
 1 1
1 2
3 −2 2
9 5
0 1 − 17 17
2 48 :
0 0 − 17 − 17
0 0 − 40 60
[ 17 17]

1 1
3 − 1 1
1 2 2 3 −
2 9 5 1 2 2
0 1 − 2 9 5
17 17 → 0 1 −
2 48 17 17
− − 1 24
0 0 17 17 0 0 40 60
0 0 40 60 −
− [0 0
17 17]
[ 17 17 ]

40
To make 𝑎43 = 0, 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 17 𝑅3 .

1 1 40
3 −2 𝑎41 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 17 (0) = 0
1 2 2
9 5 40
0 1 − 17 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 0 + (0) = 0
17 : 40
17
40
1 24 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = − 17 + 17 (1) = 0
0 0 40 60 60 40
[0 0 − 17 17 ]
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = + (24) = 60
17 17

1 1 1 1
1
3 − 3 −2
2 2 1 2
2 9 5 2
0 1 − 17 9 5
17 → 0 1 − 17 17
0 0 1 24 0 0 1 24
40 60
[0 0 − 17 ] [0 0 0 60]
17

The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] =

1 1 3 1
3 −2 1 −2
1 2 2 2
9 5 9
0 1 − 17 where 𝑨 = 0
17
1 − .
17
0 0 1 24 0 0 1
[0 0 0 60] [0 0 0]

This example falls under Case 2 where

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 3 and 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]) = 4.

Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]), the system is

inconsistent. This means that the system has no
solution.
3. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
−𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

We have 𝑚 = 3 linear equations in 𝑛 = 3

variables. The augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is
1 2 3 0
[ −1 3 2 0 ].
2 1 −1 0

Getting the row-equivalent matrix:

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 .

1 2 3 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = −1 + 1 = 0
[ −1 3 2 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 3 + 2 = 5
2 1 −1 0 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 + 3 = 5
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 0 + 0 = 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[ −1 3 2 0 ] → [ 0 5 5 0]
2 1 −1 0 2 1 −1 0

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 .

1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[0 5 5 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 1 − 2(2) = −3
2 1 −1 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −1 − 2(3) = −7
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 − 2(0) = 0

1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 5 5 0] → [ 0 5 5 0]
2 1 −1 0 0 −3 −7 0
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = 5 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 3 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 5 (0) = 0
[0 5 5 0] : 1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 5 (5) = 1
0 −3 −7 0 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 5 (5) = 1
1
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 5 (0) = 0

1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 5 5 0] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 −3 −7 0 0 −3 −7 0
 To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2 .

1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

[0 1 1 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
0 −3 −7 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −7 + 3(1) = −4
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 1 1 0] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 −3 −7 0 0 0 −4 0
1
To make 𝑎33 = 1, 𝑅3 ∗ = − 𝑅3 .
4

1
1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − 4 (0) = 0
[0 1 1 0 ] : 𝑎 : 𝑐 = − 1 (0) = 0
42 42 4
0 0 −4 0 1
1 2 3 0 𝑎431: 𝑐432 = −
3 4 (−4)
0 =1
[0 1 1 0 ] → 𝑏[ 0: 𝑑 1= −11 (0)0] = 0
4 4 4
0 0 −4 0 0 0 1 0

1 2 3 0
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [ 0 1 1 0]
0 0 1 0
1 2 3
where 𝑨 = [ 0 1 1].
0 0 1

This example falls under Case 1 where

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 3..

Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛 variables, the system is

consistent and has a unique solution.

Solving for the unique solution,

1 2 3 0 𝑅1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
[0 1 1 0] : 𝑅2 : 𝑦+𝑧 =0
0 0 1 0 𝑅3 : 𝑧=0

Solving for 𝑦: 𝑦+𝑧=0

𝑦+0=0
𝑦=0

Solving for 𝑥: 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 2(0) + 3(0) = 0
 𝑥+0+0=0
𝑥=0

4. 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 9𝑐 = 0
−𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0

We have 𝑚 = 3 linear equations in 𝑛 = 3

variables. The augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is
1 4 1 0
[2 −3 −9 0].
−1 2 5 0

Getting the row-equivalent matrix:

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

1 4 1 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 −3 −9 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −3 − 2(4) = −11
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = −9 − 2(1) = −11
−1 2 5 0
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 0 − 2(0) = 0

1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[2 −3 −9 0] → [ 0 −11 −11 0]
−1 2 5 0 −1 2 5 0

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 .

1 4 1 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = −1 + 1 = 0
[ 0 −11 −11 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 + 4 = 6
−1 2 5 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 5 + 1 = 6
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 + 0 = 0

1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[ 0 −11 −11 0] → [0 −11 −11 0]
−1 2 5 0 0 6 6 0
 1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 11 𝑅2 .
1
1 4 1 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 11 (0) = 0
[0 −11 −11 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 1 (−11) = 1
11
0 6 6 0 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − 11 (−11) = 1
1
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 11 (0) = 0

1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[0 −11 −11 0 ] → [0 1 1 0]
0 6 6 0 0 6 6 0

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 6𝑅2 .

1 4 1 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 6(0) = 0

[0 1 1 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
0 6 6 0
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 − 6(0) = 0

1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[0 1 1 0 ] → [0 1 1 0]
0 6 6 0 0 0 0 0

1 4 1 0
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 1 0]
0 0 0 0
1 4 1
where 𝑨=[0 1 1].
0 0 0

This example falls under Case 1 where

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 2..

Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛 variables, the system is

consistent and has infinite solutions.

Solving for the infinite solutions,

1 4 1 0 𝑅1 : 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
[0 1 1 0] : 𝑅2 : 𝑏+𝑐 =0
0 0 0 0

Solving for 𝑦: 𝑏+𝑐 =0

𝑏 = −𝑐

Solving for 𝑥: 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
 𝑎 + 4(−𝑐) + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 − 4𝑐 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 − 3𝑐 = 0
𝑎 = 3𝑐

Let 𝑐 = 𝑘 (where 𝑘 is any constant)

𝑏 = −𝑐 = −𝑘
𝑎 = 3𝑐 = 3𝑘

The solution to the system is

[𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ] = [3𝑘 −𝑘 𝑘]
= 𝑘[3 −1 1]

If 𝑘 = 1, one solution of the system is

(1)[3 −1 1] = [3 −1 1].

If 𝑘 = 2, another solution of the system is

(2)[3 −1 1] = [6 −2 2].

Example 7.8. Find all values of 𝑎 for which the resulting linear
system has (a) a unique solution, (b) an infinite
solution, and (c) no solution.

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = −2
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + (𝑎2 − 5)𝑧 = 𝑎

We have 𝑚 = 3 linear equations in 𝑛 = 3

variables. The augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is
1 1 −1 −2
[1 2 1 3 ].
1 2 𝑎 −5 𝑎2

Getting the row-equivalent matrix:

To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 .

1 1 −1 −2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 1 − 1 = 0
[1 2 1 3 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 2 − 1 = 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − (−1) = 2
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 3 − (−2) = 5
 1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[1 2 1 3 ] → [0 1 2 5]
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎 1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎

To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 .

1 1 −1 −2 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 1 − 1 = 0
[0 1 2 5 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 1 = 1
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 𝑎2 − 5 − (−1) = 𝑎2 − 4
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 𝑎 − (−2) = 𝑎 + 2

1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ] → [0 1 2 5 ]
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎 0 1 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎+2

To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 .

1 1 −1 −2 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 0 = 0
𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 1 − 1 = 0
[0 1 2 5 ] :
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 𝑎2 − 4 − 2 = 𝑎2 − 6
0 1 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎 + 2 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 𝑎 + 2 − 5 = 𝑎 − 3

1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ] → [0 1 2 5 ]
0 1 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎 + 2 0 0 𝑎2 − 6 𝑎 − 3

The row-equivalent matrix is

1 1 −1 −2
[𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 𝑎2 − 6 𝑎 − 3

(a) For the system to have a unique solution,

𝑎2 − 6 ≠ 0
𝑎2 ≠ 6
𝑎 ≠ ±√6

The value of 𝑎 that will give the linear

system a unique solution is
(−∞ , −√6) ∪ (−√6 , √6) ∪ (√6 , +∞).

(b) For the system to have infinite solution,

𝑎2 − 6 = 0 and 𝑎−3=0
 𝑎2 = 6 𝑎=3
𝑎 = ±√6

This should give us a row-equivalent matrix

1 1 −1 −2
that is equal to [ 0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 0 0

This means that both 𝑎2 − 6 and 𝑎 − 3

should be equal to zero at the same time. This
requires a value of 𝑎 that is the intersection of
the solution set of 𝑎2 − 6 = 0 and
𝑎 − 3 = 0. But there is no common value of
𝑎 in both of the solution sets. Therefore, there
is no value of 𝑎 that will give the linear system
infinite solutions.

(c) For the system to have no solution,

𝑎2 − 6 = 0
𝑎2 = 6
𝑎 = ±√6

This should give us a row-equivalent matrix

1 1 −1 −2
that is equal to [ 0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 0 𝑏∗

The value of 𝑎 that will give the linear system

no solution is 𝑎 = −√6 and 𝑎 = √6.