Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Matrices and Determinants

MATRIX

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or functions enclosed by a pair of

brackets. These numbers or functions are called entries or commonly known as elements.

The following are examples of matrices.

0.3 5 4
(1) [ ]
2 −6 7
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
(2) [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
−2𝑥
(3) [𝑒 4 2𝑥 2 ]
𝑥 𝑒 6𝑥
(4) [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧]
4
(5) [ ]
3

A matrix can also be represented by array of numbers enclosed by a pair of parenthesis, ( )

or by a pair of double bars, ‖ ‖.

Consider the matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

 The numbers or function aij are called the elements of the matrix.
 The horizontal array of elements [𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 ] is called a row.
 The vertical array of elements is called a column.
𝑎11
𝑎21
[ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1
 A matrix that contains only one row or column is called a vector. Thus, a matrix with
only one row is called a row vector and a matrix with only one column is a column
vector. Matrix (4) is a row vector while matrix (5) is a column vector.
 The double subscript notation A = [ aij ], i correspond to the row number while j
correspond to column number where the element aij stands.

1
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

where: i = 1, 2, 3, …, m and j = 1, 2, 3, …, n
 A matrix with m number of rows and n number of columns is considered of order or
size m by n or “m× n”.

LINEAR SYSTEMS, MAJOR APPLICATION OF MATRICES

In a system of linear equations, called a linear system, such as

4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 66𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 205𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10

The coefficients of the unknowns x, y and z are the entries of the coefficient matrix, call it
matrix A,
4 6 9
𝐴 = [6 1 −2]
5 −8 1
The matrix
4 6 9 6
𝐴̃ = [6 1 −2 20]
5 −8 1 10
is obtained by augmenting A by the right sides of the linear system and is called the
augmented matrix of the system.

EQUALITY OF MATRIX

Two matrices A and B are to be said equal if they have the same order and each
element of matrix A is exactly the same as the corresponding elements of matrix B.

Example: Solve for x and y, if A = B

2 −3 −4
𝐴=[ ]
5 6 1
2 𝑥 + 1 −4
𝐵=[ ]
𝑦−9 6 1
Since A = B, thus
𝑥 + 1 = −3 = −4
and
𝑦 − 9 = 5 = 14

SPECIAL TYPES OF MATRICES

1. Row Matrix – a matrix having only one row of elements.

2
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝐴 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 ]

2. Column Matrix – a matrix having only one column of elements.

𝑎11
𝑎21
𝐴=[ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1

3. Transposed Matrix –if a matrix A of order m × n, the transpose of matrix A denoted

by AT is another matrix of n × m order obtained by interchanging corresponding
rows and columns of A.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
𝐴=[ 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] 𝐴𝑇 = [𝑏 𝑒 ℎ]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
Or
𝑎 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑇
𝐵=[ ] 𝐵 = [𝑏 𝑒]
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
𝑐 𝑓
Note: (AT)T = A

4. Square Matrix – a matrix in which the number of row and column are equal.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑎
𝐴 = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
The elements a11, a22 and a33 are called the diagonal elements. The diagonal
elements are located in the principal diagonal. The principal diagonal is where the
row and column number is equal. An n × n square matrix is said to have an order
“n”.
The sum of the diagonal elements is called the Trace of A.
Trace 𝐴 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎33

5. Null Matrix or Zero Matrix – is a matrix in which all elements are zero.

0 0 0
𝐴 = [0 0 0]
0 0 0

3
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

6. Diagonal Matrix – a square matrix in which all elements are zero except for the
diagonal elements.

𝑎 0 0 0
𝐴 = [0 𝑏 0 0]
0 0 𝑐 0
0 0 0 𝑑

7. Triangular Matrix – is a square matrix in which who’s elements below or above the
principal diagonal is zero.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
0 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔
𝐴=[ ]
0 0 ℎ 𝑖
0 0 0 𝑗

8. Scalar Matrix – a diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal.

𝑎 0 0 0
𝐴 = [0 𝑎 0 0]
0 0 𝑎 0
0 0 0 𝑎

9. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix – is a scalar matrix in which the diagonal elements are
all one. This is denoted by I.

1 0 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0 0]
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

10. Inverse Matrix – the inverse of a square matrix A denoted by A-1 is a matrix
satisfying the equation.

(𝐴)(𝐴−1 ) = 𝐼

11. Conjugate Matrix – is a matrix containing complex elements, then the conjugate of
each element is the corresponding element of the conjugate matrix denoted by Ā or
A*.

𝑎11 + 𝑗𝑏11 𝑎12 + 𝑗𝑏12

𝐴=[ ]
𝑎21 + 𝑗𝑏21 𝑎22 + 𝑗𝑏22

4
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝑎11 − 𝑗𝑏11 𝑎12 − 𝑗𝑏12

𝐴 = 𝐴∗ = [ ]
𝑎21 − 𝑗𝑏21 𝑎22 − 𝑗𝑏22

12. Pure Imaginary Matrix – for a matrix A, if A = −Ā, the A is a pure imaginary matrix.

𝑗2 −𝑗5
𝐴=[ ]
−𝑗 𝑗4

13. Symmetric Matrix – if a matrix A is equal to the transpose of a matrix B, then they
are symmetrical matrix. Or if a matrix A is equal to its transpose, matrix A is said to
be symmetric.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = [𝑏 𝑐 𝑎]
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴𝑇 = [𝑏 𝑐 𝑎]
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏

14. Involutory Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to its inverse is said to be involutory
matrix.
𝐴 = 𝐴−1
15. Real Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to its conjugate matrix is a real matrix.

𝐴=𝐴
16. Orthogonal Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to the inverse of its transpose matrix is
an orthogonal matrix.

𝐴 = (𝐴𝑇 )−1

17. Hermitian or Associate or Tranjugate Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to the

transpose of its complement matrix is a hermitian matrix.

𝑇
𝐴 = (𝐴)

18. Unitary Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to the inverse of the transpose of its
complement matrix is a unitary matrix.

5
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝑇 −1
𝐴 = (𝐴 )

19. Skew Matrix – a matrix A = [ aij ], if for unequal i and j, aij = −aji, but the elements aij
are not all zero, then the matrix is called skew.
20. Skew Symmetric Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to the negative of its transpose is
called s skew symmetric matrix.

𝐴 = −(𝐴)𝑇

21. Skew Hermitian Matrix – a matrix A that is equal to the negative of the transpose of
its complement matrix is a skew hermitian matrix.

𝑇
𝐴 = −(𝐴)

OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

ADDITION

Given two matrices A and B both of order m × n, then their sum or difference is a
matrix C of order m × n obtained by adding or subtracting every element of A to the
corresponding elements in B.

Example:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵 = [𝑦 𝑧]
𝑐 𝑑
Solve for C = A + B, D = A – B and E = B – A

6
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 𝐷 = 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐷 𝐸 = 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐸
𝑎+𝑤 𝑏+𝑥 𝑎−𝑤 𝑏−𝑥 𝑤−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏
=[ ] =[ ] =[ ]
𝑐+𝑦 𝑑+𝑧 𝑐−𝑦 𝑑−𝑧 𝑦−𝑐 𝑧−𝑑

Addition Conformity: Two matrices can only be added if and only if they have the same
order, this is to be said that they are conformable for addition.
The sum k equal matrix is equal to another matrix whose elements are obtained by
multiplying each element of the given matrix to the total number of matrix to be added.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
If 𝐴 = [ ] then, 𝑘𝐴 = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑

The negative of a matrix A of order m × n is another matrix of the same order each
of whose elements are obtained by multiplying each element of A by negative one. Thus,
𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 0, where 0 is not the scalar zero but a zero matrix of order m × n.

Properties of Matrix Addition

Given matrices A, B and C that are conformable for addition and a scalar k, then
1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 Addition is Commutative
2. 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 Addition is Associative
3. 𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵 Distributive

Example:
−1 3 2 −4 6 −4
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ] 𝐶=[ ]
5 6 4 −7 4 −9
Evaluate:
1. 3𝐴 − 𝐵
2. 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
3. 2𝐵 + 5𝐶
Solution:
1. 3𝐴 − 𝐵
−1 3 2 −4 −3 9 2 −4 −5 13
3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3 [ ]−[ ] 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = [ ]−[ ] 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = [ ]
5 6 4 −7 15 18 4 −7 11 25
2. 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
−1 3 2 −4 6 −4 7 −5
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =[ ]+[ ]+[ ]𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶 = [ ]
5 6 4 −7 4 −9 13 −10
3. 2𝐵 + 5𝐶

7
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

2 −4 6 −4 4 −8 30 −20
2𝐵 + 5𝐶 = 2 [ ] + 5[ ] 2𝐵 + 5𝐶 = [ ]+[ ] 2𝐵 + 5𝐶
4 −7 4 −9 8 −14 20 −45
34 −28
=[ ]
28 −59

MULTIPLICATION

Given a matrix A of order m × p and a matrix B of order p × n, then the product AB

in that order is another matrix C of order m × n obtained by multiplying each elements in
the row of matrix A to each element in the corresponding column of matrix B.

Multiplication Conformity: only conformable matrix can be multiplied. Two matrices are
conformable for multiplication if the number of columns of matrix A is equal to the rows of
matrix B.

Example:
𝑢 𝑣
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑤 𝑥]
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑦 𝑧

The Product AB is a 2 × 2 matrix

𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑣 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑧
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
𝑑𝑢 + 𝑒𝑤 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑧

The Product BA is 3 × 3 matrix

𝑢𝑎 + 𝑣𝑑 𝑢𝑏 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑐 + 𝑣𝑓
𝐵𝐴 = [ 𝑤𝑎 + 𝑥𝑑 𝑤𝑏 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑥𝑓 ]
𝑦𝑎 + 𝑧𝑑 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑒 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑧𝑓

Example:
1 3
2 5 −6
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ 2 0]
3 5 −2
−3 5

1. 𝐴𝐵
2 ∙ 1 + 5 ∙ 2 ± 6 ∙ −3 2 ∙ 3 + 5 ∙ 0 ± 6 ∙ 5 30 −24
𝐴𝐵 = [ ] 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
3 ∙ 1 + 5 ∙ 2 ± 2 ∙ −3 3 ∙ 3 + 5 ∙ 0 ± 6 ∙ 5 19 −1

2. 𝐵𝐴
1∙2+3∙3 1∙5+3∙5 1 ∙ −6 + 3 ∙ −2 11 20 −12
𝐵𝐴 = [ 2 ∙ 2 + 0 ∙ 3 2∙5+0∙5 2 ∙ −6 + 0 ∙ −2 ] 𝐵𝐴 = [ 4 10 −12]
−3 ∙ 2 + 5 ∙ 3 −3 ∙ 5 + 5 ∙ 5 −3 ∙ −6 + 5 ∙ −2 9 10 8

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

1. In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative.

𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
2. If the product AB = 0, it is not implied that A = 0 or B = 0.
Consider:
2 4 2 2
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ]
3 6 −1 −1

8
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

2 ∙ 2 + 4 ∙ −1 2 ∙ 2 + 4 ∙ −1 0 0
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
3 ∙ 2 + 6 ∙ −1 3 ∙ 2 + 6 ∙ −1 0 0
3. Matrix multiplication is distributive over addition.
Given three conformable matrices A, B and C
𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
(𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴
4. Matrix multiplication is associative.
Given three conformable matrices A, B and C
𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶
5. The transpose of the product AB is equal to the product of the corresponding
transposes taken in the reversed order.
(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
In general:
(𝐴1 𝐴2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛 )𝑇 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑇 ⋯ 𝐴2 𝑇 𝐴1 𝑇

Product by Partitioning Matrices

Given a matrix A of order m × p and a matrix B of order p × n, then the product AB

can also be obtained by partitioning the columns of A and rows of B in exactly the same
way.
Let:
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏14
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 𝑏24
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24 ] 𝐵=[ ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏34
𝑏41 𝑏42 𝑏43 𝑏44

Partitioning A and B

𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏14

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 𝑏24
𝐴𝐵 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24 ] [ ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏34
𝑏41 𝑏42 𝑏43 𝑏44

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑎13 𝑎14 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏13 𝑏14 𝑎13 𝑎14 𝑏33 𝑏34
[𝑎 𝑎22 ] [𝑏21 ] + [𝑎 𝑎24 ] [𝑏41 ] [𝑎 𝑎22 ] [𝑏23 ] + [𝑎 𝑎24 ] [𝑏43 ]
21 𝑏22 23 𝑏42 21 𝑏24 23 𝑏44
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
𝑎34 ] [𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑎32 ] [𝑏13 𝑏14 𝑎34 ] [𝑏33 𝑏34
[𝑎31 𝑎32 ] [𝑏11 𝑏12
] + [𝑎33 ] [𝑎31 ] + [𝑎33 ]
𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏41 𝑏42 𝑏23 𝑏24 𝑏43 𝑏44

9
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

DETERMINANTS

A determinant is a scalar-valued function whose domain is a set of square matrices.

A determinant function is denoted by ∣A∣ or detA. ∣A∣ is called the determinant of A.
If each element of a matrix A is expressed explicitly as
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

The determinant of A is expressed as

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
|𝐴| = | ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ |
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
The elements, rows, columns, principal diagonal and secondary diagonals of matrix
A will also be the corresponding elements, rows, columns, principal diagonals and
secondary diagonals of the determinant function.

MINORS

The minor Mij of an element aij of a determinant ∣A∣ of order n is a new determinant
of order n – 1 formed by deleting the ith row and the jth column of the original determinant
∣A∣.

If
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34 |
31
𝑎41 𝑎42 𝑎43 𝑎44
Then
𝑎21 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑀22 = |𝑎31 𝑎33 𝑎34 |
𝑎41 𝑎43 𝑎44

𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎23

𝑀12 = |𝑎31 𝑎33 𝑎34 |
𝑎41 𝑎43 𝑎44

Example:
4 6 9
𝐴 = [6 1 −2] find M23 and M11
5 −8 1
Solution:
4 6 1 −2
𝑀23 = | | and 𝑀11 = | |
5 −8 −8 1

COFACTOR

The cofactor Aij of an element aij of a determinant of order n is a new determinant of

order n – 1 given by

10
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

The cofactor is also called the signed minor.

Example:
4 6 9
𝐴 = [6 1 −2] find A23 and A11
5 −8 1
Solution:
4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6
𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = (−1)5 | | = (−1) | | = −| |
5 −8 5 −8 5 −8 5 −8

1 −2 1 −2 1 −2
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = (−1)2 | |=| |
−8 1 −8 1 −8 1

VALUE OF DETERMINANT FUNCTIONS

1. Of order 1
The value of a determinant of order 1 is the element: ∣A∣ = ∣a∣ = a
2. Of order 2
𝑎 𝑎
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎12 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
21 22

3. Of order 3
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |is found by rewriting the first two columns adjacent to the last
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
column of the original determinant and then performing the diagonal operation indicated.
(−) (−) (−)

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12

|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
(+) (+) (+)

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12
4. Of order n ≥ 2
The value of a determinant of order n ≥ 2 can be solved using the Laplace Expansion
Formula. Consider the determinant A
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
|𝐴| = | ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ |
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
The value is solved by
𝑛 𝑛

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑖𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘𝑗 𝐴𝑘𝑗

𝑘=1 𝑘=1

Examples:
Find the value of the following determinants
1. |𝐴| = |−43|
2. |𝐵| = |26|
1 −2
3. |𝐶| = | |
6 3

11
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

3 −2 4
4. |𝐷| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9
Solutions:
1. |𝐴| = |−43|
|𝐴| = |−43| = −43
2. |𝐵| = |26|
|𝐵| = |26| = 26
1 −2
3. |𝐶| = | |
6 3
|𝐶| = |1 −2| = 1 ∙ 3 − 6 ∙ −2 = 15
6 3
3 −2 4
4. |𝐷| =| 5 6 1|
−1 3 9
3 −2 4
|𝐷| = | 5 6 1| |𝐷|
−1 3 9
= 3 ∙ 6 ∙ 9 ± 2 ∙ 1 ∙ −1 + 4 ∙ 5 ∙ 3 − −1 ∙ 6 ∙ 4 − 3 ∙ 1 ∙ 3 − 9 ∙ 5 ∙ −2|𝐷| = 329

Using Laplace Expansion, n = 3

3 −2 4
|𝐷| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9
Choosing Row 1, i = 1
3

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎1𝑘 𝐴1𝑘

𝑘=1

6 1 5 1 5 6
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 51 ; 𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −46 ; 𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 | | = 21
3 9 −1 9 −1 3

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝐴11 + 𝑎12 𝐴12 + 𝑎13 𝐴13 = 3 ∙ 51 + −2 ∙ 46 + 4 ∙ 21 = 329

Choosing Row 2, i = 2
3

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎2𝑘 𝐴2𝑘

𝑘=1
−2 4 3 4 3 −2
𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 | | = 30; 𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 | | = 31;𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −7
3 9 −1 9 −1 3

|𝐴| = 𝑎21 𝐴21 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + 𝑎23 𝐴23 = 5 ∙ 30 + 6 ∙ 31 + 1 ∙ −7 = 329

Choosing Row 3, i = 3
3

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎3𝑘 𝐴3𝑘

𝑘=1
−2 4 3 4 3 −2
𝐴31 = (−1)3+1 | | = −26 ; 𝐴32 = (−1)3+2 | | = 17;𝐴33 = (−1)3+3 | | = 28
6 1 5 1 5 6

|𝐴| = 𝑎31 𝐴31 + 𝑎32 𝐴32 + 𝑎33 𝐴33 = −1 ∙ −26 + 3 ∙ 17 + 9 ∙ 28 = 329

Choosing Column 1, j = 1

12
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑘1 𝐴𝑘1

𝑘=1
6 1 −2 4 −2 4
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 51 ; 𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 | | = 30;𝐴31 = (−1)3+1 | | = −26
3 9 3 9 6 1

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝐴11 + 𝑎21 𝐴21 + 𝑎31 𝐴31 = 3 ∙ 51 + 5 ∙ 30 + −1 ∙ −26 = 329

Choosing Column 2, j = 2
3

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑘2 𝐴𝑘2

𝑘=1
5 1 3 4 3 4
𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −46 ; 𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 | | = 31; 𝐴32 = (−1)3+2 | | = 17
−1 9 −1 9 5 1

|𝐴| = 𝑎12 𝐴12 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + 𝑎32 𝐴32 = −2 ∙ −46 + 6 ∙ 31 + 3 ∙ 17 = 329

Choosing Column 3, j = 3
3

|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑘3 𝐴𝑘3

𝑘=1
5 6 3 −2 3 −2
𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 | | = 21 ; 𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −7;𝐴33 = (−1)3+3 | | = 28
−1 3 −1 3 5 6

|𝐴| = 𝑎13 𝐴13 + 𝑎23 𝐴23 + 𝑎33 𝐴33 = 4 ∙ 21 + 1 ∙ −7 + 9 ∙ 28 = 329

Properties of Determinants

1. The number of terms in the expansion of a determinant of order n is equal to n!

Example:
𝑎 𝑎
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎12 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12; order 2, 2 terms = 2!
21 22
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |; order 3, 6 terms = 3!
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12
2. Interchanging the corresponding row or column of a determinant does not change
its value.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑏
| 1 𝑏 2 𝑏3 | = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
3. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged, then its sign will be
changed.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
𝑏
| 1 𝑏2 𝑏 𝑏
3| = − | 3 𝑏2 𝑏1 | = − |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝑐2 𝑐1 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
4. If all the elements of any row or column of a determinant is zero, then its value is
zero.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
|0 0 0|=0
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

13
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝑎1 𝑎2 0
|𝑏1 𝑏2 0| = 0
𝑐1 𝑐2 0
5. If the elements of a certain row or column of a determinant are proportional or
identical to the elements of another row or column, then its value is zero.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
| 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 0
𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑎2 𝑘𝑎3
𝑎1 𝑘𝑎1 𝑏1
|𝑎2 𝑘𝑎2 𝑏2 | = 0
𝑎3 𝑘𝑏3 𝑏3
6. If the elements of a certain row or column of a determinant are multiplied by a
scalar k then added to the corresponding elements of another row or column, then
its value is unchanged.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑘𝑎1 𝑎3
|𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = |𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑘𝑏1 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 + 𝑘𝑎𝑐1 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
|𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = |𝑏1 + 𝑘𝑎1 𝑏2 + 𝑘𝑎2 𝑏3 + 𝑘𝑎3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
7. If each element of any row or column of a determinant is multiplied by a scalar k,
then its value is multiplied by k.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑘𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑘𝑏
| 1 𝑘𝑏 2 𝑘𝑏 3 | = | 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑘𝑏3 | = 𝑘 |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑘𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
8. The sum of the products formed by multiplying each element of any row or column
of a determinant by the cofactor of another row or column is zero.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

Let |𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |,
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
then𝑎11 𝐴21 + 𝑎12 𝐴22 + 𝑎13 𝐴23 = 0 or 𝑎11 𝐴12 + 𝑎21 𝐴22 + 𝑎31 𝐴32 = 0
9. The value of a triangular or diagonal determinant is the product of its diagonals.

Example: Evaluate the determinant using the properties of determinants.

3 −2 4
|𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9
Solution: Transform the determinant into a triangular determinant
3 −2 4 3 −2 4
|𝐴| = | 5 6 1| 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 − (5⁄3)𝑅1 |𝐴| = |0 28⁄3 − 17⁄3| |𝐴|
′ ′
−1 3 9 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 + (1⁄3)𝑅1 0 7⁄3 31⁄3 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 − (1⁄4)𝑅2
3 −2 4 28 47
= |0 28⁄3 − 17⁄3| |𝐴| = 3 ∙ ∙ = 329
3 4
0 0 47⁄4

PIVOTAL METHOD OF EVALUATING DETERMINANTS

Procedure
1. If a determinant of order n has an element unity (=1) use this as the pivotal
element. Otherwise use a convenient element say aij and divide the row or column

14
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

containing this element and then balance the determinant by multiplying its value
by aij.
2. Cross out the row and column containing aij.
3. From each element of the resulting determinant of order n – 1 subtract the product
of the elements common to the intersection of the row and column containing a ij
with the row and column containing that element.
4. To find the determinant multiply the resulting determinant by (−1)i+j.

Example: Evaluate the determinant

3 −2 4
|𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9

Solution: There is a unity element thus it will be the pivotal element, i = 2, j = 3

3 −2 4
|𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9

|𝐴| = (−1)2+3 | 3 − 5 ∙ 4 −2 − 6 ∙ 4| = − |−17 −26| = 329

−1 − 5 ∙ 9 3 − 6 ∙ 9 −46 −51

Alternate Solution: Use element a31 = −1

3 −2 4
|𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9

3 −2 4
|𝐴| = (−1) |5 6 1|
1 −3 −9

|𝐴| = (−1)3+1 (−1) |−2 − 3 ∙ −3 4 − 3 ∙ −9| = − | 7 31| = 329

6 − 5 ∙ −3 1 − 5 ∙ −9 21 46

SUBMATRIX

A submatrix of a matrix A is a matrix of smaller size obtained by omitting row/s or

column/s.

Example: List all the submatrices of

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Solution:
3 × 2 submatrices
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
[𝑑 𝑒 ], [𝑑 𝑓 ], [𝑒 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑔 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖
3 × 1 submatrices
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑑
[ ], [ 𝑒 ], [𝑓 ]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
2 × 3 submatrices

15
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
[ ], [ ], [ ]
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
2 × 2 submatrices
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑑 𝑓 𝑒 𝑓
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]
𝑑 𝑒 𝑔 ℎ 𝑑 𝑓 𝑔 𝑖 𝑒 𝑓 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑔 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖
2 × 1 submatrices
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
[ ], [𝑔], [ ], [ ], [𝑓 ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]
𝑑 𝑒 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
1 × 3 submatrices
[𝑎 𝑏 𝑐], [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓], [𝑔 ℎ 𝑖]
1 × 2 submatrices
[𝑎 𝑏], [𝑎 𝑐], [𝑏 𝑐], [𝑑 𝑒], [𝑑 𝑓], [𝑒 𝑓], [𝑔 ℎ], [𝑔 𝑖], [ℎ 𝑖 ]
1 × 1 submatrices
[𝑎], [𝑏], [𝑐], [𝑑], [𝑒], [𝑓], [𝑔], [ℎ], [𝑖]

RANK OF MATRIX

The rank of a matrix is the highest number r if there exists an r × r submatrix whose
determinant is not equal to zero.
The determinant of a square matrix of order r + 1 is equal to zero.
The highest rank of an m × n matrix is the smaller of the numbers m and n, and can
be less.
For a square matrix A of order n, if the rank r = n, then matrix A is called non-
singular.
For a square matrix A of order n, if the rank r ≠ n, then the determinant of A is zero.
Then matrix A is called singular.

Example:
Determine the rank of matrix
3 −2 1 4
[ ]
−6 4 −2 −8
Solution:
2 × 2 submatrices
3 −2 3 1 3 4 −2 1 −2 4 1 4
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]
−6 4 −6 −2 −6 −8 −4 −2 −6 −8 −2 −8
Their determinants
3 −2 3 1 3 4 −2 1 −2 4 1 4
| | = 0, | | = 0, | | = 0, | | = 0, | | = 0, | |=0
−6 4 −6 −2 −6 −8 −4 −2 −6 −8 −2 −8
Since the determinants of all the 2 × 2 submatrices are zero, therefore the rank is one.

Exercises:

Write the transpose of the following matrices.

1. 𝐴 = [6 −5 2 4 0]
9 −1 6 7
2. 𝐵 = [ ]
−5 3 0 4
2 8
3. 𝐶 = [−6 0 ]
7 −1

16
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

1 −3 4
4. 𝐷 = [−3 0 2]
4 2 5
For the matrices A and B, verify directly that (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
1 0
−6 2 0 3
5. 𝐴 = [ ] 𝐵 = [ 4 −3 ]
0 4 5 −1 −3 0
2 −2
8 2
−1 2 0 −3
6. 𝐴 = [10 3] 𝐵=[ ]
5 −6 4 6
5 2
List all the submatrices and determine the rank of the matrix
10 0 −3 7 0
7. 𝐴 = [ 0 −1 2 8 6]
17 6 −5 6 4
−1 −2 1 −9 5
For the matrices A and B, verify directly that (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
1 2 3 0 4 6
8. 𝐴 = [ ] 𝐵=[ ]
−5 3 0 7 −2 1
1 9 3 6
9. 𝐴 = [ ] 𝐵=[ ]
−8 3 7 1
Find the transpose, conjugate and tranjugate of the following matrices
5 −𝑗 3 𝑗6
10. 𝐴 = [−2 2 − 𝑗3 4 −1]
0 𝑗4 1 + 𝑗 𝑗3
0 0 𝑗4 3
11. 𝐵 = [6 − 𝑗5 −1 −𝑗 7]
5 + 𝑗6 𝑗8 𝑗2 0
8 7 1 −4 𝑗2
12. 𝐶 = [𝑗2 −𝑗 −3 1 − 𝑗 𝑗6]
𝑗3 −2 2 + 𝑗 5 𝑗
1 2 3 1 1 2 𝑥1 𝑥2
If 𝐴 = [ ], 𝐵 = [ ], 𝐶 = [ ] and 𝑋 = [𝑥 𝑥 ], solve each of the following
3 4 1 0 2 4 3 4
equations
13. 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 − 𝐼
14. 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐶𝐼
15. 𝐶𝑋 = 𝐴
16. (𝐵 − 𝐼)𝑋 = 𝐴
17. (𝐵 − 𝐼)𝑋 = 𝐼𝐶
Evaluate the matrix polynomial 𝑋 3 − 4𝑋 2 − 𝑋 + 4𝐼 for each of the following matrices
1 −1
18. 𝑋 = [ ]
2 0
1 1 2
19. 𝑋 = [1 2 1]
2 1 1
0 1 1
20. 𝑋 = [−1 0 1]
−1 −1 0
3 2 1
21. 𝑋 = [4 5 6]
1 1 4
Classify each of the following matrices according as it is real, symmetric, skew-symmetric,
hermitian or skew-hermitian

17
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

𝑗2 −6 − 𝑗9 13
22. 𝐴 = [6 − 𝑗9 0 𝑗4 ]
−13 𝑗4 𝑗3
0 1 2
23. 𝐵 = [−1 0 −3]
−2 3 0
1 0 −𝑗
24. 𝐶 = [0 −2 4 − 𝑗]
𝑗 4+𝑗 3
7 0 4
25. 𝐷 = [0 −2 10]
4 10 5
Find the value of the following determinant
1 2
26. |𝐴| = | |
3 4
8 2
27. |𝐵| = | |
−2 1
1 3 7
28. |𝐶| = |−1 0 −4|
3 6 8
−72 53 7
29. |𝐶| = |−19 20 −4|
3 56 28
Find the value of the following determinant using Laplace Expansion
1 2 3 4
30. |𝐴| = |2 1 4 3|
3 4 2 1
4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4
31. |𝐵| = |4 3 2 1|
2 1 4 3
3 4 1 2
0 1 2 3
32. |𝐶| = |−1 0 1 2|
−2 −1 0 3
−3 −2 3 0
8 9 2 4
33. |𝐷| = |−7 6 −1 3|
3 4 0 0
1 −2 0 0
6 4 −6 −4
34. |𝐸| = | 0 7 0 4|
8 −3 5 −7
9 0 0 8
0 4 8 0
35. |𝐹| = | 23 13 17 31|
−6 11 7 9
0 3 6 0
Find the value of the following determinant using Pivotal Method
1 2 3 4
36. |𝐴| = |2 1 4 3|
3 4 2 1
4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4
37. |𝐵| = |4 3 2 1|
2 1 4 3
3 4 1 2

18
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

0 1 2 3
38. |𝐶| = | −1 0 1 2|
−2 −1 0 3
−3 −2 3 0
8 9 2 4
39. |𝐷| = |−7 6 −1 3|
3 4 0 0
1 −2 0 0
6 4 −6 −4
40. |𝐸| = | 0 7 0 4|
8 −3 5 −7
9 0 0 8
0 4 8 0
41. |𝐹| = | 23 13 17 31|
−6 11 7 9
0 3 6 0
Find the value of the following determinant by transforming it into a triangular
determinant
1 2 3 4
42. |𝐴| = |2 1 4 3|
3 4 2 1
4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4
43. |𝐵| = |4 3 2 1|
2 1 4 3
3 4 1 2
0 1 2 3
44. |𝐶| = | −1 0 1 2|
−2 −1 0 3
−3 −2 3 0
8 9 2 4
45. |𝐷| = |−7 6 −1 3|
3 4 0 0
1 −2 0 0
6 4 −6 −4
46. |𝐸| = | 0 7 0 4|
8 −3 5 −7
9 0 0 8
0 4 8 0
47. |𝐹| = | 23 13 17 31|
−6 11 7 9
0 3 6 0
Find all values of k which satisfy each of the following equations:
𝑘 3 + 𝑘 −10
48. |1 − 𝑘 2 − 𝑘 5 | = 48
2 4 + 𝑘 −𝑘
−1 3 𝑘
49. |2𝑘 − 3 1 − 𝑘 3𝑘 + 1| = 9𝑘 − 28
2 𝑘 −2
1 𝑘 𝑘 + 2 𝑘 − 2 100
0 𝑘 𝑘 − 2 𝑘 + 2 100
50. |0 0 𝑘 + 2 𝑘 − 2 100 || = 0
|
0 0 0 𝑘−2 𝑘+2
0 0 0 0 100

ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

19
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

The adjoint of a square matrix A of order n denoted by adj A is the transpose of a

cofactor matrix. A cofactor matrix denoted by C is another matrix of order n in which all its
elements in matrix A are replaced by their respective cofactor.

Say, matrix A
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
Then,
𝐴11 𝐴12 ⋯ 𝐴1𝑛
𝐴 𝐴22 ⋯ 𝐴2𝑛
𝐶 = [ 21 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

𝐴11 𝐴21 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛1

𝐴 𝐴22 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛2
adj 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑇 = [ 12 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴1𝑛 𝐴2𝑛 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

Example: Find the adjoint of the matrix

3 6 2
𝐴 = [4 −5 3 ]
2 3 −6
Solution:
−5 3 4 3 4 −5
| | −| | | |
3 −6 2 −6 2 3 21 30 22
| 6 2 3 2 3 6|
𝐶 = −| | | | −| | = |42 −22 3 |
| 3 −6 2 −6 2 3|
28 −1 −39
6 2 3 2 3 6
| | −| | | |
−5 3 4 3 4 −5

21 42 28
adj 𝐴 = |30 −22 −1 |
22 3 −39

INVERSE OF A MATRIX

The inverse or reciprocal of a matrix A denoted by A−1 satisfies the equation 𝐴𝐴−1 =
𝐼, where I is and identity matrix with the same order as A.

The inverse of a matrix A is given by the equation

adj 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|

Note: Only square non-singular or non-zero matrices have inverse!

Example: Find the inverse of the matrix

1 2 4
𝐴 = [−1 0 3 ]
3 1 −2
Solution:

20
Advanced Engineering Mathematics

1 2 4
|𝐴| = |−1 0 3 |=7
3 1 −2

0 3 −1 3 −1 0
| | −| | | |
1 −2 3 −2 3 1 −3 7 −1
2 4 1 4 1 2
𝐶 = −| | | | −| | = | 8 −14 5|
1 −2 3 −2 3 1
2 4 1 4 1 2 6 −7 2
[ |0 3
| −|
−1 3
| |
−1 0
|]

−3 8 6
adj 𝐴 = | 7 −14 −7|
−1 5 2

−3 8 6
| 7 −14 −7|
−3 8 6
𝐴−1 = −1 5 2 = 1 | 7 −14 −7|
7 7
−1 5 2

MATRIX DIVISION

The quotient of two matrices A/B can be expressed as a product of matrix A and the
inverse of B, provided that they will be conformable for multiplication.
𝐴
= 𝐴𝐵 −1
𝐵

Example: Solve for A/B

1 2 7 3
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ]
4 3 2 1
Solution:
1 −3
1 −3 [ ] 1 −3
|𝐵| = |7 3| = 7 ∙ 1 − 2 ∙ 3 = 1 adj 𝐵 = [ ] 𝐵 −1
= −2 7
=[ ]
2 1 −2 7 1 −2 7

𝐴 1 2 1 −3 −3 11
= 𝐴𝐵 −1 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
𝐵 4 3 −2 7 −2 9

21