DETERMINANTS

To every square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] of order n, we can associate a number (real or

complex) called determinant of the matrix A, written as det A or |𝑨|, where 𝑎𝑖𝑗
is the (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ element of A.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑖𝑒. If 𝐴 = [ ], then determinant of 𝐴 is written as
𝑐 𝑑

|𝐴| = |𝑎 𝑏
| = det 𝐴.
𝑐 𝑑
➢ Only square matrices have determinants.

Determinant of a matrix of order one

Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to
be equal to a.
Determinant of a matrix of order two
𝑎 𝑏
ie., if 𝐴 = [ ] be a matrix of order two. Then the determinant of 𝐴 is
𝑐 𝑑
defined as
𝑎 𝑏
det 𝐴 = |𝐴| = | | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑑
Determinant of a matrix of order 3
Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in
terms of second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a
determinant along a row (or a column).
There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order 3. Corresponding to
each of three rows (𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 ) and three columns (𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 ) and each
way gives the same value.
Consider the determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]3×3 , i.e.,
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Expansion along first Row (𝑹𝟏 )
Step 1
Multiply first element 𝑎11 of 𝑅1 by (– 1)1+1 [(– 1)sum of suffixes in 𝑎11 ] and with
the second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (𝑅1 )
and first column (𝐶1 ) of | A | as 𝑎11 lies in 𝑅1 and 𝐶1
𝑎22 𝑎23
i.e., (−1)1+1 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 |
32

Step 2
Multiply 2nd element 𝑎12 of 𝑅1 by (– 1)1+2 [(– 1)sum of suffixes in 𝑎12 ] and with
the second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (𝑅1 )
and first column (𝐶2 ) of | A | as 𝑎12 lies in 𝑅1 and 𝐶2
𝑎21 𝑎23
i.e., (−1)1+2 𝑎12 |𝑎 𝑎33 |
31

Step 3
Multiply 3rd element 𝑎13 of 𝑅1 by (– 1)1+3 [(– 1)sum of suffixes in 𝑎13 ] and with
the second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (𝑅1 )
and first column (𝐶3 ) of | A | as 𝑎13 lies in 𝑅1 and 𝐶3
𝑎21 𝑎22
i.e., (−1)1+3 𝑎13 |𝑎 𝑎32 |
31

Step 4
Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
|𝐴| = (−1)1+1 𝑎11 |𝑎22 𝑎23 | + (−1)1+2 𝑎12 |𝑎21 𝑎23 |
32 33 31 33
𝑎21 𝑎 22
+ (−1)1+3 𝑎13 |𝑎 |
31 𝑎32

MINORS AND COFACTORS

Minor of an element
To each element of a square matrix, a number called its minor is associated.
The minor of an element is the value of the determinant obtained by deleting the
row and column containing the element.
 Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a square matrix is the determinant obtained by
deleting its 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and𝑗𝑡ℎ column in which element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 lies.
Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

Remark Minor of an element of a square matrix of order n(n ≥ 2) is a

determinant of order n – 1.

Cofactor of an element
The cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in a square matrix is the minor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 multiplied
by (−1)𝑖+𝑗
It is usually denoted by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 ,
Thus,
Cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗
Note:-
➢ The sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors is always equal to its Determinant value
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Now, 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
(−1)1+1 𝑎11 |𝑎22 𝑎33 | + (−1)1+2
𝑎 |
12 𝑎 𝑎33 | + (−1)1+3
𝑎 |
13 𝑎 𝑎32 |
32 31 31
= |𝐴|
➢ If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero.
Properties of Determinants
For any square matrix A, |A| satisfies the following properties.
|𝐴′| = |𝐴|, where 𝐴′ = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴.
If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of the
determinant changes.
If any two rows or any two columns in a determinant are identical (or
proportional), then the value of the determinant is zero.
 Multiplying a determinant by k means multiplying the elements of only
one row (or one column) by k.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑘 |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓| = |𝑘𝑑 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑘𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
If elements of a row (or a column) in a determinant can be expressed as
the sum of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be
expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
𝑎+𝑝 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑝 𝑏 𝑐
|𝑑 + 𝑞 𝑒 𝑓 | = |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 | + |𝑞 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔+𝑟 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑟 ℎ 𝑖
• If to each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant the equi
multiples of corresponding elements of other rows (columns) are added,
then value of determinant remains same.
i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 → 𝐶𝑖 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑗 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏 𝑏 𝑐
|𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 | = | 𝑑 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 + 𝑘ℎ ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏 𝑏 𝑐
|𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 | = | 𝑑 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 + 𝑘ℎ ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑘𝑏 𝑏 𝑐
= |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓| + |𝑘𝑒 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑘ℎ ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐
= |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓| + 𝑘 |𝑒 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 ℎ ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓| + 𝑘 × 0
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
• If all the elements of a row (or column) are zeros, then the value of the
determinant is zero.
• If all the elements of a determinant above or below the main diagonal
consists of zeros, then the value of the determinant is equal to the product
of diagonal elements.
• Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices of same order, then
|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
• If 𝐴 is square matrix of order n and 𝑘 be a scalar, then
|𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐴|
Application of Determinants
Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose
vertices are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ), is given by the expression
1
[𝑥1 (𝑦2 – 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 – 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 – 𝑦2 )].
2
Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
1 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
𝛥 = |𝑥2 𝑦2 1|
2 𝑥 𝑦 1
3 3
Condition of collinearity of three points :
Let 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) be three points then 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are
collinear if area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 0
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
𝑖𝑒. , |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0.
2
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
⇒ |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0.
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
Equation of a line passing through the given two points
Equation of line joining two points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )& 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by

𝑥 𝑦 1
|𝑥1 𝑦1 1| = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 1
Singular Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be singular if its determinant is zero, ie.
|𝐴| = 0, otherwise we say that 𝐴 is non-singular.

ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

 Adjoint of a given matrix is the transpose of the matrix whose elements
are the cofactors of the elements of the given matrix. It is denoted by
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
• Adjoint of a Square matrix of Order 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏
If 𝐴 = [ ], then 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎

• Adjoint of a Square matrix of Order 2

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑖𝑒, 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑇
𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13
Then 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 ]
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33
𝐶11 𝐶21 𝐶31
𝑖𝑒, 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [𝐶12 𝐶22 𝐶32 ].
𝐶13 𝐶23 𝐶33
Theorem:
If A be any given square matrix of order n, then
𝑨(𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨) = (𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨) 𝑨 = |𝑨|𝑰 ,
where I is the identity matrix of order n

INVERSE OF A MATRIX
For a given matrix A, if there exists a matrix B such that
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 = 𝑰
then 𝐵 is called the multiplicative inverse of 𝐴.
We write this as 𝐵 = 𝐴−1 .

Properties of Inverse

➢ We know that 𝑨. (𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨) = (𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨). 𝑨 = |𝑨|𝑰

𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
⇒ 𝐴. |𝐴|
= |𝐴|
.𝐴 =
𝐼, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛 ,
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
Hence 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
, provided |𝐴| ≠ 0

Hence a square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non-singular.

➢ Every invertible matrices possess a unique inverse

➢ If 𝐴 is invertible, then (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
➢ Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be square matrices of same order, if 𝐴 is an invertible matrix,
then
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶
𝐵𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶.
➢ Reversal Law: If 𝐴 & 𝐵 are invertible matrices of same order, then
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 .
➢ If A is an invertible matrix , then
(𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑇
➢ Let 𝐴 be a non-singular matrix order n, then
|𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1