Structural Design and Synthesis

of Elemental Doped MXenes

and MXenes-Based Composites

Javeria Shoukat, Anila, Aqsa Iqbal, Muhammad Saleem Ashiq,

Ataf Ali Altaf, and Samia Kausar

Abstract A rapidly developing two-dimensional materials belonging to the family

of transition metal carbides and nitrides are referred to as “MXenes” or “maxenes.“
MXenes are primarily made from their MAX or Mn + 1AXn predecessors in which
M is a member of the first transition metal family, A is a member of the A-group,
and together they form a huge class of multilayer hexagonal compounds (typically
from groups 13 and 14), X is C or N, and n is 1 to 3. This process involves selec-
tive etching and exfoliation over the course of two steps. Classifications of MXenes
that are frequently investigated include elementally doped MXenes (EDMs) and
MXene-based composites (MBCs). A number of applications, including batteries,
supercapacitors, catalysts, cocatalysts, contaminant removal, and sensors, have stim-
ulated interest in MXene and its doped components and composites. In this chapter,
the varieties of MXenes and their structural and synthetic characteristics, as well as
any prospective uses for them in electrochemistry and energy storage, will be briefly
discussed.

Keywords MXenes · MXenes composites · Elemental doped MXenes ·

Electrochemical · Energy

1 What Are MXenes?

Over the past 15 years, 2D materials have been the subject of intensive research, ever
since single-layer graphene’s special physical characteristics were discovered. Due to
this interest, numerous new 2D materials have been discovered in addition to a fresh
research surge-on 2D materials already known to exist, such as metal boron nitride
and dichalcogenides. While many of these materials continue to be studied only

J. Shoukat · Anila · A. Iqbal · M. S. Ashiq · A. A. Altaf (B)

Department of Chemistry, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
e-mail: atafali_altaf@uo.edu.pk
A. A. Altaf · S. Kausar
Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Gujrat 50700, Pakistan

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 29
K. Rizwan et al. (eds.), Handbook of Functionalized Nanostructured MXenes, Smart
Nanomaterials Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2038-9_3
30 J. Shoukat et al.

for academic purposes, others have gained attention because of appealing features
that have led to real-world applications (Rizwan et al. 2022a, b, c, d). These latter
include the swiftly expanding class of 2D materials known as MXenes (pronounced
“mxenes”), which consists of transition metal carbides and nitrides (Rasheed et al.
2021; Rizwan et al. 2022a, b, c, d).
The 2D MXene flake has layers of C or N interwoven with early transition metals
that have n + 1 (n = 13) layers (Gogotsi et al. 2019). Chemical delamination of
MAX phases, which are 3D ternary (or quaternary) compounds, typically results in
the formation of a wide variety of transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitride
compounds; these compounds are collectively referred to as “MXenes. However,
additional layered compounds like Zr3 Al3 C5 and Mo2 Ga2 C can also be used to
make MXenes. The general formula for MXenes is Mn + 1 Xn Tx (n = 1–3), where
M stands for a transition metal (such as Sc, Zr, Ti, Nb, and others), X is carbon
and/or nitrogen, and Tx is the oxygen, hydroxyl, or fluorine conclusions obtained
from the synthesis techniques. Nearly 30 molecules have already been synthesized
since the discovery of the Ti3 C2 Tx 2D complex in 2011 and many more have been
theoretically anticipated (Ronchi et al. 2019).
MXenes are available in a wide variety of compositions and topologies, upon
which a large and rapidly growing family of 2D materials has been created. MXenes,
their precursor MAX phases, and intercalated metallic ions in MXenes act as repre-
sentations of the vital chemical concepts (Gogotsi et al. 2019). The MAX phase is
the predecessor to MXenes, with the formula Mn + 1AXn, where n is one, two, or
three, and “M” is a transition metal from the d-block, “A” is an element, such as Si,
Ge, Al, or Sn, and “X” is either carbon, nitrogen, or both (Ronchi et al. 2019). The
MAX phases are layered hexagonal materials with X atoms located in the centers of
the octahedrons. These materials are joined by pure A layers and can be thought of
as transition metal carbide/nitride sheets of octahedral blocks (Naguib et al. 2021).
A variety of applications have been made possible by the unique amalgamation of
properties that MXenes possess, taking into account the mechanical characteristics
of transition metal carbides and nitrides, high electrical conductivity, surfaces with
functionalities that render MXenes hydrophilic, and capable of forming bond with
members of other species, high negative zeta-potential, which enables effective elec-
tromagnetic wave absorption and stable colloidal solutions in water (Gogotsi et al.
2019).
In this chapter, we shall discuss MXenes, their classes (elemental doped MXenes
and MXenes-based composites), their structure, properties, and applications.

2 Structural Design of MXenes

Layered ternary MAX phase serves as precursors in the top-down etching method
frequently used to create MXenes. Above 100 several kinds of metal carbides and
nitrides, which have the formula Mn+1 AXn , are collectively referred to as MAX
phase. 2D layered materials’ bonding and stacking create a 3D crystal structure.
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 31

Here, the “M” stands for early transition metals, the “A” stands for the primary
group elements (generally groups 13 and 14), the “X” can be either C or N, and
the “n” ranges from 1 to 4. The deformed octahedron [XM6] spreads laterally in
an edge-sharing configuration during the MAX phase to create the “M-X” layer
structure. The “A” layers have metal connections between the “A” and “M” atoms
and are situated on each side of the “M-X” structures. The 2D layered materials
known as MXenes, which are created by eliminating the “A” layers from the MAX
phase, have a structure that alternately consists of n + 1 layers of “M” and n layers
of “X” with numerous surface endings, such as –OH, –F, –O, or –Cl (represented
as Tx). Currently, effective synthetic attempts have been made with more than 30
distinct configurations, and more than 100 anticipated stoichiometric compositions
of MXenes have been made (Wei et al. 2021).

3 Types of MXenes

3.1 Elemental Doped MXenes (EDMs)

Recent research has demonstrated the efficacy of enhancing pure MXene’s char-
acteristics (like magnetic, electrical, optical, etc.) using basic doping methods. The
graphene’s elemental doping mechanism served as an inspiration for this technology.
By altering the surface or substituting a lattice on the original MXene, element doping
modifies the features of the material itself based on the atomic structure, greatly
enhancing device performance and stability (Wang et al. 2022).

3.1.1 Doping in EDMs

MXenes, due to their heteroatom doping, may be roughly categorized into different
three groups depending on where element atoms are added and how they operate
(Fig. 1) (Wang et al. 2022).
• Lattice substitution
• Functional substitution
• Surface adsorption.

Lattice Substitution

Due to the substitution of certain lattice structure locations or voids brought on by

element doping in situ or ex situ, the lattice structure (partial lattice mismatch) is
created, which significantly alters the electrical characteristics of the material (Lu
et al. 2020).
32 J. Shoukat et al.

Fig. 1 Mechanism of
doping

Functional Substitution

Functional substitution, also known as the replacement of specific functional groups

or chemical bonds on a material’s surface, is a doping substitution technique
that gives MXenes particular surface functionalities, substantially improving their
electrochemical performance (Liao et al. 2021).

Surface Adsorption

The 2D network structure of MXenes and its active sites are where surface adsorp-
tion takes place. By modifying the surface termination of MXenes, it is possible
to maximize the important physical and chemical properties based on electrostatic
interaction (Schultz et al. 2019).

3.1.2 Multidirectional Coordination

Additionally, based on the various compound doping techniques stated above, multi-
directional coordination helps to enhance the physiochemical characteristics of indi-
vidual MXenes. It is important to note that computer simulation indicated the signifi-
cant impact of heteroatom doping on the physicochemical characteristics of MXenes,
which encouraged the quick development of element-doped MXenes (Fatima et al.
2020; Gul et al. 2021).
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 33

Due to the practical approach, cheap preparation expense, and significant perfor-
mance enhancement, element doping as a strategy for increasing the performance of
MXenes has quickly emerged in current years (Fatima et al. 2020).

3.1.3 Preparation Methods of EDMs

A number of complementary doping strategies, such as solid-phase fusion, liquid-

phase fusion, and some cutting-edge techniques like ion beam bombardment, are
introduced in order to bring out the remarkable features of MXene in electrochem-
istry, magnetism, electrochemistry, and mechanics (Agnoli et al. 2016; Yu et al.
2019; Zheng et al. 2016). The shape, dispersion, and size of the particles are coupled
to various steerable doping techniques under specific experimental settings, which
directly affect the intriguing performance of MXene. Direct synthesis and post-
treatment are the two categories of doping in terms of the order. The former involves
carefully eliminating A layers after combining MAX phase with doped components,
while the latter refers to doping components being reasonably absorbed into ready
MXene (Rao et al. 2014).

Solid-Phase Synthesis

a. Thermal Sintering Treatment

Atoms of doping and MXene undergo a substitution process during thermal sintering
(Sun 2020). For instance, a novel molecularly-imprinted (MIP) quartz crystal
microbalance (QCM) sensor used for chlorpyrifos recognition is produced at 1700 °C
in Selcen et al. studies which also involved the synthesis of S-doped Ti3 AlC2 . Direct
synthesis techniques use a greater sintering temperature than post-treatment. While
the successive stages of removing A layers also have an impact on morphology and
structure. Vacuum freeze-drying will fold the nanosheet to increase the surface area
and expand the dopant layer gap (Kadirsoy et al. 2020).
b. Thermal Annealing Treatment
Internal tension and functional groups are both eliminated concurrently by thermal
annealing (Iqbal et al. 2020). For instance, Mo2 CTx combined with phosphorus is
annealed at 500 °C in a tube furnace with P substituted -F functional groups. Keeping
the advantages of MXene’s intrinsic structure in consideration, this technique
increases the activity of the material’s surface (Qu et al. 2018).
34 J. Shoukat et al.

Liquid-Phase Synthesis

a. Solvothermal and Hydrothermal Approach

Due to their straightforward operation and accommodating synthesis conditions,

solvothermal and hydrothermal methods are now useful tools for producing nano-
materials (Tan et al. 2017). They are thus used with materials that have unique
morphologies and surface functionalization. Due to the low-temperature environ-
ment, the solvothermal pretreatment is more protective and prevents structural frame
deterioration (Yan et al. 2017). Yang et al., for instance, used solvothermal treatment
in their innovative research of ex situ doping. Using methanol as an adjuvant and
diethanolamine as a nitrogen supply, they hypothesized that solvothermal treatment
would result in more defects in MXene film because of high internal pressure. Then,
the auxiliary agent helps to widen the nitrogen source’s molecular channel, resulting
in quicker charge transfer and tighter structure formation (Yang et al. 2019).
b. Coprecipitation Method
Comparing the coprecipitation approach to solid-phase synthesis, this has better
ideal dispersion and homogeneity. The majority of the nanomaterials created with
this technique have tiny particle sizes (Wang et al. 2012). As an illustration of the
role that rare earth elements have played in the development of magnetic elec-
tronic devices, lanthanum, another rare earth element, is coprecipitated into Ti3 C2 .
Peng et al. hypothesized that because of this, Ru3+ prefers to make contact with
the surface of MXene before being restored by Mo vacancy in the combination of
SA Ru-Mo2 CTX . Effective activation promotion and a rise in ammonia yield in the
electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction are achieved (Peng et al. 2020).
c. Strong Electrostatic Adsorption
Strong electrostatic adsorption occurs when negative-charged MXene and the proto-
nated dopant precursor interact electrostatically, resulting in the production of prod-
ucts with a narrow size distribution (Ng et al. 2017). For instance, Amiri et al.
ammonium chloride may be used in place of nitrogen supply, and the electrostatic
force causes the MXene nanosheets to fold rather than piled on top of one another.
The system functions for seawater desalination and capacitor deionization (Amiri
et al. 2020).

Emerging Technology

Additionally, there are numerous cutting-edge doping techniques, including ion

implantation, plasma doping, and the potential cycling method (Sun et al. 2021;
Xia et al. 2021; Yu et al. 2019). Pazniak et al. performed an ion establishment
procedure beneath the probe current, proper room voltage, and voltage in order
to produce a faulty surface. MXene’s surface is oxidized as a result of abrasive sput-
tering between atoms, which significantly changes the electrical structure. The most
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 35

notable feature is that ion beam implantation’s disorder contributes to improving the
surface functionalization of atoms and functional groups (Pazniak et al. 2021).

3.2 MXenes-Based Composites (MBCs)

MXenes’ flexible chemistries enable them to have a wide range of intriguing mechan-
ical, electrical, magnetic, and electrochemical properties. It is predominantly facile
for the MXenes to make composites with different substances because of their
extreme elasticity, 2-dimensional morphology, and layered structures. As a result,
MXenes and its composites have gained significant scientific attention and hold great
promise for a range of applications. High conductivity and remarkable electrochem-
ical activity make MXenes and MXene-based composites ideal for use as electrode
materials in energy storage devices such as supercapacitors, lithium-sulfur batteries,
and sodium-ion batteries (Zhao et al. 2016). It is incredible that they have recently
gained more notoriety in fields related to the environment (Sun 2020).

3.2.1 Synthetic Methods for MBCs

A desirable method for creating sturdy and adaptable materials in recent years is
the fabrication of composites. MXenes are regarded as ideal prospects because of
2D shape, layered structures, and exceptional flexibility (Fig. 2) (Zhan et al. 2020).
In recent years, making composites has become a popular technique for developing
resilient and multipurpose materials. MXenes have so far been used to make various
distinctive composites by combining them with a number of substances, including
metal oxides, polymers, and carbon nanotubes. It is possible to anticipate MXene
composites with much-enhanced capacity for charge storage by incorporating more
inorganic nanostructures (Zhang et al. 2020).

Calcination

The calcination temperature has an impact on the MXene crystal morphologies and
structures. The thermodynamically metastable MXene can be calcined at a particular
temperature and can be transformed into densified transition metal oxide composites
that are more stable. For example, a Ti3 C2 /TiO2 /CuO ternary nanocomposite might
be produced by giving heat to the cupric nitrate on the surface of Ti3 C2 at 500 °C in
an atmosphere of Ar (Zhang et al. 2018).
36 J. Shoukat et al.

Fig. 2 Synthetic methods of

MXene composite

Selective Etching

Single or small atomic layers are frequently separated to create 2D materials in

layered compounds when the connections between the layers are noticeably weaker
than those between the individual layers. In order to create MXenes, one or more
atomic layers can be removed from a layered material with a comparatively solid
interlayer link. In general, the most frequent ancestors of MXenes are huge ternary
nitride phases known as the MAX phases, which contain a variety of various carbides
and topologies. Many scientists have claimed that the etching of single layers, mainly
Al layers, produces MXenes.

Solvothermal Technique

In the development of highly crystalline composite MXene-inorganic nanostruc-

tures, the (hydro-)solvothermal technique is equally as effective as thermal annealing.
Pan et al. created a sandwich-like Ti3 C2 /CuS composite by reacting thioacetamide
(TAA), Cu (NO3 )2 ·3H2 O, and Ti3 C2 precipitates in an ethylene glycol solution at
150 °C for 9 h. After solvothermal treatment, the positively charged Cu2+ ions
are homogeneously attracted to the negatively charged Ti3 C2 surface due to the
electrostatic interaction, creating a homogenous composite (Zhang et al. 2020).
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 37

Exfoliation

Hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals forces keep the Mn+1 XnTz multilayers (MLs)
together, which are the building blocks of the material. Terminations of various types
are used to replace the atomic layers that have been selectively removed by etching.
Therefore, it is feasible to exfoliate or distort single layers to produce colloidal
aqueous phase suspensions. In this case, methods like intercalation with cations,
intercalation with large organic molecules, sonication, or shaking are used, which
are frequently used to generate other two-dimensional materials. The exfoliation
method to be utilized is determined by the etching circumstances (Coleman et al.
2011).

3.2.2 Different Types of MBCs

MXenes-Polymer Composites (MPCs)

When used to create composites, MXenes have the potential to enhance the poly-
mers’ mechanical and thermal properties by having excellent mechanical prop-
erties, metallic conductivity, and hydrophilic surfaces. Multi-layered MXenes are
less compatible with polymers and have lower accessible surface hydrophilicity
than single-layer MXenes. MXenes are therefore often delaminated before being
combined with polymers (Zhan et al. 2020). Some MXenes-polymer composites are
described below:
a. Ti3 C2 Tx–UHMWPE composite
According to reports, UHMWPE (ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene) can
combine with Ti3 C2 Tx to create composite materials. The enhanced surface Ti3 C2 Tx
powders must be manufactured prior to the fabrication of the Ti3 C2 Tx-UHMWPE
composite, and the adapted surface can enhance the dispersion stability and compat-
ibility of Ti3 C2 Tx in UHMWPE (H. Zhang et al. 2016a, b). The fabricated Ti3 C2 Tx-
UHMWPE composites with various Ti3 C2 Tx weights are stronger than UHMWPE
(Zhang et al. 2016a, b).
b. Other MXenes-Polymer Composites
In addition to the aforementioned polymer, composites containing MXenes can
also be made from poly (acrylic acid), poly (ethylene oxide), polyvinylpyrroli-
done (PVP), and alginate/PEO. In general, MXene-polymer composites outperform
isolated MXenes and polymers in terms of mechanical performance. They also
exhibit strong electric conductivity, making several of them are capable of use in
wearable electronic devices (Mayerberger et al. 2017).
38 J. Shoukat et al.

MXene Oxide Composites

a. Nb2 O5 –Nb4 C3 Tx composite

According to Zhang et al., oxidizing Nb4 C3 Tx powders in streaming CO2 at 850 °C

for 0.5 h can easily produce a coated orthorhombic Nb2 O5 -Nb4 C3 Tx hierarchical
composite. The ion diffusion routes are successfully shortened in the Nb2 O5 -
Nb4 C3 Tx composite due to the homogeneous distribution of Nb2 O5 at the Nb4 C3 Tx
sheets’ edges and interlayers. The composite’s overall electronic conductivity is
supported by the interior, unoxidized Nb4 C3 Tx. The high electrochemical and cycling
capabilities of the Nb2 O5 -Nb4 C3 Tx composite are caused by the two aforementioned
aspects (Zheng et al. 2016).
b. Li4 Ti5 O12 –Ti3 C2 Tx composite
Wang et al. provide a straightforward method to produce a composite made of
Li4 Ti5 O12 and Ti3 C2 Tx. A potential anode substance for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs),
the synthesized Li4 Ti5 O12 -Ti3 C2 Tx composite also possesses remarkable electro-
chemical characteristics. The migration routes of lithium ions are significantly short-
ened when the Li4 Ti5 O12 -Ti3 C2 Tx electrode is submerged in the electrolyte because
Li4 Ti5 O12 with low lithium-ion dispersion fences develops on the exterior of the
MXene. Additionally, Ti3 C2 Tx’s excellent electrical conductivity guarantees quick
electron transport from the electrolyte to the electrode. Due to the quick electrical
and ionic diffusion of the Li4 Ti5 O12 -Ti3 C2 Tx electrode, the performance of lithium
storage has improved (Wang et al. 2018).

MXene-Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Composites

a. Ti3 C2 Tx–CNT Composites

Ti3 C2 Tx-CNT composites are created by Zhao et al. and used in electrochemical
capacitors. Up till there are 6–10 layers in total, the CNT layers and Ti3 C2 Tx Each
layer is placed alternately on top of the one below it which is a schematic of how the
Ti3C2Tx-CNT composite is made. The microscopic microstructure of the artificial
Ti3 C2 Tx-CNT composite reveals the sandwich-like superposition of the MXene and
CNT layers. Comparing isolated MXene to the Ti3 C2 Tx-CNT, which serves as the
supercapacitor’s electrode, reveals much greater volumetric capacitance and rate
performance (Zhao et al. 2015).

MXene-Graphene Composites

a. Ti3 C2 Tx/ rGO Composite

Recently, Chen et al. created the 3D macroscopic hydrogel using a self-assembly

mechanism facilitated by graphene oxide (GO). It has been discovered that GO can
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 39

be reduced using the reduction capacity of Ti3 C2 Tx and that removing some of the
surface oxygen-containing hydrophilic groups will help to create a balance between
hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups. Through the interaction of hydrogen bonds,
Van der Waals forces, and electrostatic interactions between interfaces, Ti3 C2 Tx is
incorporated into the 3D rGO framework. These studies offer a solid foundation for
the further design and development of flexible 3D materials based on MXenes to
enhance their rate performance and volume capacitance (Liu et al. 2020).

3.3 Applications of MXenes

As Pseudo Capacitors
Pseudo-capacitors are able to store energy by a reversible Faradaic-type charge
transfer on the thin surface layer of electrode materials. Pseudo-capacitors have
received increasing attention recently due to their advantages over electrical double-
layer capacitors (EDLCs), such as their better energy density and higher power
density. However, because of their poor surface-to-volume ratio and low elec-
trical conductivity, most pseudo-capacitor electrodes have low-rate capability and
poor cycle stability. Because of their redox-active surface locations and electrically
conductive metal carbides and nitrides cores, MXenes have high capacitance. For
instance, Ti3 C2 O0.84(6)(OH)0.06(2)F0.25(8) has a heat capacity of 615 C g1, but it
can also satisfactorily answer the aforementioned issues, making it one of the most
promising pseudo-capacitor electrode types (Bu et al. 2020).
Lithium/sodium-ion Batteries
On account of their potential for high-rate performance, batteries that store lithium
and sodium ions in pseudocapacitive state mechanisms have drawn a lot of atten-
tion. In this instance, research has focused on ultrathin 2D layered materials which
may respond to Li/Na, such as metal dichalcogenides, covalent organic frameworks,
and black phosphorus. But such materials’ weak electric conductivity has signifi-
cantly diminished their electrochemical qualities. MXenes have become one type of
distinctive anode constituent for lithium/sodium-ion batteries by taking advantage
of the enhanced electrical conductivity in redox-active metal carbides and nitrides.
MXenes have a high theoretical capacity, according to even theoretical calculations.
For instance, MXenes contain light transition metals (Sc, Ti, V, and Cr) with nonfunc-
tionalized or O-terminated surfaces that have gravimetric capacities > 400 mAh/g.
However, their electrodes currently only exhibit low-rate consummation, inferior
capacity, and poor cycling steadiness. The fundamental reason for this behavior is
the restacking of MXenes; as a result, permeable structures have been developed to
enhance their electrochemical characteristics. This way, the electrochemical char-
acteristics of MXenes can be significantly enhanced since ion transportation can be
effectively encouraged, and active areas can be completely exposed (Bu et al. 2020).
40 J. Shoukat et al.

Piezoresistive sensors
Piezoresistive sensors have garnered a lot of interest since they can be produced
cheaply, collected signals easily, and have many essential uses. Some of them include
skin-inspired electronic gadgets, a smart display, and portable healthcare moni-
toring. These sensors convert pressure from outside sources into a resistance signal
by altering the contact of conductive fillers. Excellent-performance piezoresistive
sensors based on MXenes have been proposed owing to the material’s high conduc-
tivity and processability. Pure MXenes, however, find it challenging to achieve high
sensitivity due to thick MXene nanosheet stacking. In order to enhance their contact
and subsequently conductivity, it is crucial to introduce MXenes into a variety of
porous substrates (Bu et al. 2020).
Cleaning the Planet
One of MXenes’ promising qualities, water remediation, will be the main emphasis of
this section. Because water resources are becoming more scarce worries about water
contamination are growing. As a result, scientists are experimenting with various
technologies to eliminate contaminants from water, such as radioactive chemicals,
heavy metal ions (HMI), medicines, colors, and bacterial materials. From the aquatic
setting and revive this valuable resource. In addition to the aforementioned water
pollutants, electromagnetic waves are another type of contamination. Due to the
presence of activated metallic hydroxide sites, MXenes have multiple active sites, a
high surface area, and are hydrophilic and environmentally benign. Although these
valuable materials have drawbacks like a propensity for aggregation and oxidation,
by combining them with other materials and creating a composite, it is possible to
increase the synergistic effect, lessen aggregation and increase stability, and ulti-
mately improve the final properties. They are prone to pollutant remediation due
to these characteristics. There are numerous methods for cleaning up contaminants,
including adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, membrane separation, and others
(Bilal et al. 2021; Mallakpour et al. 2021; Qamar et al. 2022; Rasheed, Rizwan,
Shafi, & Bilal 2022; Rizwan, Bilal, et al. 2022a, b, c, d; Rizwan et al. 2022a, b, c, d;
Shakeel, Rizwan et al. 2022).
Supercapacitors
In contrast to batteries, supercapacitors offer alternate energy storage with a fast
power density but a lower energy density. So, the main focus of research has been on
increasing their volumetric capacity, or energy density per volume. Supercapacitors
are categorized as pseudocapacitors or electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs)
based on their charge–discharge operations. The latter relies on quick and reversible
surface redox reactions while maintaining rectangular-shaped CV curves. The earlier
method is predicated on the reversible electrolyte ion accumulation at electrode–elec-
trolyte interactions in the absence of redox processes. In general, pseudo capacitors
have weaker cycle stability and greater volumetric capacitances. MXenes show them-
selves as interesting electrode materials for supercapacitors due to their 2D properties,
huge surface areas, and well-defined shape (Mallakpour et al. 2021).
Structural Design and Synthesis of Elemental Doped MXenes … 41

Photocatalysts
One of the most effective catalysts for the development of hydrogen is platinum.
However, because of its high price and limited supply, platinum use is restricted.
Because MXenes can function as effective catalysts or photocatalysts for HER, they
have recently received a lot of attention from both theoretical and experimental
researchers. Experimental measurements of the HER activities of Ti2 CTx, Ti3 C2 Tx,
and Mo2 CTx (T: mixture of O and OH) have been made. When producing hydrogen
from water, Mo2 CTx outperforms Ti2 CTx in terms of HER activity, but Ti3 C2 Tx can
improve catalytic activity when producing hydrogen from ammonia borane (Khazaei
et al. 2017).
Thermoelectric Devices
MXenes’ intrinsic ceramic nature makes them potentially attractive as thermoelec-
tric materials for energy conversion applications at high temperatures. The dimen-
sionless character of merit ZT, which has the formula S 2 T/K, is used to measure
the performance of thermoelectric materials. σ, S, T, and K (= kl + ke) represent
electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, temperature, and thermal conductivity,
respectively, with contributions from both the lattice and the electronic worlds. As
an illustration, metallic MXenes for Nb2CF2 to have low power factor due to strong
electrical conductivity but low Seebeck coefficient. The semiconducting MXenes,
on the other hand, have great Seebeck coefficient despite having very poor electric
conductivity, which leads to a reasonably strong power factor (Khazaei et al. 2017).
As Biosensors
The following components make up the majority of biosensing, which is mostly used
to specifically identify particular compounds in the human body.
(i) A sensing component, such as a biomolecule immobilized, that recognizes its
corresponding analytic.
(ii) A transducer that can convert biological signals into electrical signals and other
signals like optical signals.
(iii) A unit for data interpretation. By reason of their expansive surface areas, great
electrical properties, amazing hydrophilicity, 2D layered atomic structures,
extraordinary optical properties, and an abundance of surface functional groups,
MXenes have gained popularity as a material for biosensors (Huang, Li, Mao, &
Li, 2021).

Bioimaging
Diagnostic imaging is made possible by the numerous physicochemical characteris-
tics of 2D nanosheets, including element-enhanced contrast, intrinsic photothermal
performance, quantum size effects, and active loading of functional contrast agents
(CAs). This suggests that MXenes have the potential to enhance the diagnostic-
imaging performance. Diagnostic imaging, which includes photoacoustic imaging
(PAI), X-ray computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and
42 J. Shoukat et al.

luminescence imaging, can identify the location of the tumor and direct PTT. Multi-
mode imaging is occasionally used in conjunction with photothermal therapy (Huang
et al. 2021).

4 Conclusion

MXenes, also referred to as “MXenes,” are a new category of 2D material formed

of transition metal carbides and nitrides. Through a two-step process that includes
selective etching and exfoliation, MXenes are primarily created from their MAX
originators. MXenes that have been thoroughly studied include those that have been
doped with elements and those that are MXene-based composites. Interest in MXene
and its doped components and composites has been sparked by applications in elec-
tromagnetic interference shielding, energy storage, biomedicine, sensors, superca-
pacitors, electrocatalyst, photocatalyst, electromagnetic shielding, seawater desali-
nation, field-effect transistor, and in other domains. Other areas offer a wider range
of possible applications due to their highly variable surface functional groups and
metallic compositions. MXenes can be used to store energy electrochemically. In
recent years, creating composites has become a popular method for creating resilient
and adaptable materials. Due to their outstanding flexibility, layered structure, and
two-dimensional morphologies, MXenes are regarded as a potential material for the
creation of multifunctional composites. This has sparked an increase in research into
MXene-based composites. MXenes have thus far been combined with a wide range of
other materials, for instance, metal oxides, polymers, and carbon nanotubes, to create
a variety of unique composites. MXenes have a wide range of fascinating mechan-
ical, electrical, magnetic, and electrochemical properties thanks to their adaptable
chemistries. MXenes and their composites are utilized in storing the energy, first
as highly efficient electrode materials for sodium-ion, Li–S, and supercapacitor
batteries. However, there is further progress needed in the development of more
versatile MXene composites for use in electrochemical energy-storing devices.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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