MEASURE THE AMOUNT OF ACETIC ACID

IN VINEGAR
PROJECT REPORT
IN
CHEMISTRY
2024-25
Submitted in partial fulfillment
Of the requirement of class XII (CBSE)

SAWSAN AFRAH .M
[Reg No: ]
Under the guidance of
K.Kavitha
M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil.
PGT Chemistry
Mahatma Montessori School (CBSE)
Madurai
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify the project entitled “MEASURE THE
AMOUNT OF ACETIC ACID IN VINEGAR"is done
by Sawsan Afrah .M of class XII of Mahatma BABA
(CBSE),Surveyor colony, Madurai, has completed
his/her project as a part of the paper of CHEMISTRY
under my supervision. She has taken proper care and
shown at most sincerity in the completion of this
project.

I certify that this project is upto my expectation as per

the guidelines issued by CBSE.

Principal

Submitted for the viva-voce conducted on ,

at Mahatma BABA (CBSE) Madurai.

Internal examiner External examiner

2|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To begin with, I would like to take this opportunity of
expressing my sincere thanks to the Almighty for keeping me
in good health all through this grueling project work.
I would like to express my special thanks to worthy principle
and to my teacher guide Ms.K.Kavitha who provided
motivation and valuable guidance to compute this project.
I got ample opportunity to do research which enriched my
knowledge and widened my thoughts in this arena. I am
indebted to them.
I would also like to thank my parents and friends who always
inspired and helped me to complete this project

Sawsan Afrah .M

3|Page
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project titled “MEASURE THE
AMOUNT OF ACETIC ACID IN VINEGAR” was submitted to
Mahatma Montessori School (CBSE), Madurai for the subject
Chemistry under the guidance of Ms.K.Kavitha
I further declare that this project or any part of this has not
been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose.

DATE: SIGNATURE:

4|Page
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. CLASSIFICATION OF 7
DYES

3. DYEING 10

4. PROCEDURE 11

5. FLUORESCENT DYES 13

6. OBSERVATION 14

7. HISTORY OF DYES 14

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 16

5|Page
INTRODUCTION:
Dyes are coloured compounds used for imparting colour to the textiles,
silk, wool, food stuffs, etc. A dye is an organic compound which can
absorb some band of the light falling on it. The rest of the light is
reflected. The reflected light will eventually have colour complementary
to that of the absorbed. A dye may absorb all visible light except one
band that may be reflected. The dye will then have colour of the
reflected band
Necessary Conditions To be a Dye:
Dye is a natural or synthetic colouring matter which is used in solution
to stain materials especially fabrics. All the coloured substances are not
dyes. A coloured substance is termed as a dye if it fulfils the following
conditions,
o It must have a suitable colour.
o It can be fixed on the fabric either directly or with the help of
mordant.
o When fixed it must be fast to light and washing, i.e. it must be
resistant to the action of water, acids and alkalis, particularly to
alkalis as washing soda and soap have alkaline nature.
Different dyes work differently on different fibres, and the dyeing
mechanism and colour fastness also vary. For example, some dyes work
better on plant-based fibres, while others work better on animal-based
fibres.
The disperse dyes, for example, have excellent affinity for the commonly
dyed synthetic fibres like nylon, polyester and acrylic but none for the
cellulose or protein fibres. Similarly, azoic and vat dyes are applicable
only to the cellulose fibres but not to the other common fibres.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DYES:
Dye stuff is classified on different bases:
1. Physical form
2. Application form
3. Chemical form
Classification of Dyes Based on Physical form
1) Powder form:
❖ Grain form

❖ Fine powder form

❖ Micro or ultrafine powder form

2) Lump form

3) Solution form
4) Paste form
Classification of Dyes Based on Application:
1. ACID DYES:
Acid media is required for application of this dye. It is used for silk,
nylon, and protein fibres. The substantivity of this dye is greatest to
wool and least to cellulosic fibre. The acid causes adverse effect on
silk in terms of appearance. The dye has good fastness to light. These
dyes, which are sodium salts of organic acids just as sulphuric acid,
have poor washing fastness property. These contain acid groups,
such as –COOH and –SO3H which form attractions to the slightly
basic –NH groups in the amide links of wool, silk and nylon.

7|Page
2. BASIC DYES:
Basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are salts of organic
bases and have a positive charge. These dyes are the salts of the
coloured basic groups containing amino group (--NH2 or - NR2).
Modified nylon and polyesters can be dyed with these dyes.
E.g. Aniline Yellow and Malachite Green.

3. DIRECT DYES:
These are the Dyes which can be applied directly to the fabrics from
an aqueous solution. These are most useful for fabrics which can
form hydrogen bonds with the Dyeing of Fabrics. Thus they are used
for dyeing cotton, wool, silk, rayon, nylon. These bond to fabrics by
hydrogen bonding and so are particularly attracted to cellulose
fibres, such as cotton and rayon, which have many –OH groups.
Hydrogen bonds are weak compared to covalent bonds and so the
dyes are only fast if the molecules are long and straight; they must be
able to line up with the cellulose fibres and form several hydrogen
bonds.
Eg: Congo red and maritius yellow

8|Page
4. INSOLUBLE DYES:
These are Insoluble Dyeing of Fabrics compounds produced in site
on the surface of the fabric i.e. why they are also called as ingrain
Dyeing of Fabrics. The reaction involves the coupling between
napthal absorbed on the surface of the fabric with the diazonium salt.
As there is only surface absorption, the colour is not very fast. This
Dyeing of Fabrics is generally used for dyeing cotton, silk, nylon,
polyester etc.
E.g. Orange – 1
5. DISPERSE DYES:
Disperse dyes are water-insoluble. Their dyes are finely grinding
and are available as a paste or a powder that gets dispersed in water.
These particles are dissolved in the fibres and impart colour to them.
These dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose
acetate but now they are used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate and
acrylic fibres too.

6. MODRANT DYES:
This Dyeing of Fabrics does not dye the fabric directly but require a
binding agent known as mordant. The mordant acts as a binding
agent between the fibre and the dye. These are used to dye wool.
E.g. Alizarin (Turkey red).

9|Page
7. AZO DYES:
Azo dyes are synthetic organic compounds that contain an azo bond
(-N=N-) and are made up of two aromatic amines. They are a
commercially important class of dyes that are used in many
industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, and
leather. Azo dyes are responsible for more than half of the world's
annual dye production.

DYEING:

Dyeing is the process of adding colour to textile products like fibres,

yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution
containing dyes and particular chemical material. After dyeing, dye
molecules have uncut chemical bond with fibres molecules. The
temperature and time controlling are two key factors in dyeing
.There are mainly two classes of dye, natural and man-made. The
primary source of dye, historically, has generally been nature, with
the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. Different classes of
dyes are used for different types of fibre and at different stages of the
textile production process, from loose fibres’ through yarn and cloth
to completed garments. Acrylic fibres’ are dyed with basic dyes,
while nylon and protein fibres such as wool and silk are dyed with
acid dyes ,and polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is
dyed with a range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern
synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

10 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
Formation of the diazonium salt

1) In a 50-mL Erlenmeyer flask dissolve (with boiling if necessary)

1.2g of sulfanilic acid in 12.5 mL. of 2.5% sodium carbonate solution.

2) Cool the solution under tap water, add 0.47g of sodium nitrite,
and stir until it is dissolved. . Pour the solution into a flask containing
about 7.5g of ice and 1.3mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid. In a
minute or two a powdery white precipitate of the diazonium salt
should separate and the material is then ready for use. The product is
not collected but is used in the preparation of Orange II or Methyl
Orange dye while in suspension. It is more stable than most
diazonium salts and will keep for a few hours.

Methyl Orange synthesis:

1) In a test tube, thoroughly mix 0.8mL of N, Dimethylaniline and

0.63mL of glacial acetic acid.

2) To the suspension of diazotized sulfanilic acid contained in a

250mL beaker, add (with stirring) the solution of dimethylaniline
acetate. Rinse the test tube with a small quantity of water and add it
to the beaker

3) Stir and mix thoroughly and within a few minutes the red, acid-
stable form of the dye should separate. A stiff paste should result in
5-10min and 9mL of 3M sodium hydroxide solution is then added to
produce the orange sodium salt.

11 | P a g e
4) Stir well and heat the mixture to the boiling point, when a large
part of the dye should dissolve

5) Place the beaker in a pan of ice and water and allow the solution to
cool undisturbed. When cooled thoroughly, collect the product on a
Buchner funnel, using saturated sodium chloride solution rather than
water to rinse the flask and to wash the dark mother liquor from the
filter cake.

6) The crude product need not be dried but can be crystallized from
water after making preliminary solubility tests to determine the
proper conditions. The yield is about 1.25-1.5g. Dyeing Test fabric
strips

For the direct dyes, Methyl Orange and Orange II, the dye bath is
prepared from 50mg of Orange II or Methyl Orange, 0.5mL of 3M
sodium sulphate solution, 15mL of water, and 5 drops of 3M
sulphuric acid in a 30mL beaker. Place a piece of test fabric (without
mordant) in the bath for 5 min at a temperature near the boiling
point. Remove the fabric from the dye bath, allow it to cool, and then
wash it thoroughly with soap under running water before drying it.

OBSERVATION: A complete colour range is available for cotton,

rayon, nylon. Other fabrics like wool, satin, Textron, tricot cannot be
dyed with azo dyes.

SAFETY INFO: Avoid skin contact with diazonium salts. Some

diazonium salts are explosive when dry, so always use in solution.
Acids and bases should always be dispensed carefully in the hood.

12 | P a g e
CLEANUP: The organic crystallization filtrate should be placed in
the organic solvents container. The filtrate from the reaction should
be poured into an aqueous inorganic waste container in the hood.
Dye stains on glassware can be removed with a few millilitres of 6M
HCl then washing with water. Neutralize the acid washings with
sodium carbonate before pouring them down the sink or pouring
them into the container for aqueous inorganic waste. Remove dye
stains on the beaker, if necessary.

FEATURES OF FLUORESCENT DYES:

Fluorescent Dyes are acknowledged for their unique and productive

features that include: Highly detectable (some even below 1 part per
trillion)

• Water solubility

• Extremely low toxicity ratings

• Fair stability in a normal water environment

• Excellent fastness properties

• Displays good stability

• High colour strength

DYEING PROCEDURES

Wool and nylon 6 fabrics were dyed using fluorescence dye. The dye
bath was prepared at pH 4 using acetic acid. Dyeing was started at
40°C and then the temperature raised to 100°C over 45 min. Also, we
can dye Wool and nylon 6 by the same prepared dye in microwave

13 | P a g e
and we can compare between two methods in dyeing time, liquor
ratio and temperature. Dye exhaustion on wool and nylon 6 fabrics
were evaluated spectrophotometrically. After dyeing, all dyed
samples were rinsed with water and air dried. Dye exhaustion on
wool and nylon 6 fabrics were evaluated spectrophotometrically.

OBSERVATION:

This dye was used for dyeing wool and nylon 6 in microwave.
Application of fluorescein on tetron & net fabric, degrade them. Satin,
cotton, tricot, chicken type of fabric cannot be dyed by this type of
dye

HISTORY OF DYES:

Archaeologists have even found evidence of textile dyeing going

back to the Neolithic period, otherwise known as the New Stone Age,
which began around 10,200 BC. In China, there is evidence that dyes
were created from insects, barks, and plants, beginning about 5,000
years ago.

These dyes, while effective, were rudimentary and simplistic, often

depicting ruddy colors (e.g., reds, browns, and oranges) that faded
with use. The more luxurious dyestuffs (substances that produce a
dye) which produced brilliant and permanent colors, such as the

14 | P a g e
natural invertebrate dyes, didn’t gain major popularity until the
medieval era.

Around that same period, plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo,

saffron, and madder became important trade goods throughout Asia
and Europe. Spanish treasure fleets then introduced cochineal and
logwood to Europe, thus expanding the amount of available dye
colors.

When Europe carried colonists to America, the dyes came with them.
These natural dyes continued to dominate the global textile market,
until William Perkin created mauveine (a rich synthetic purple) in
1856.

Then, in 1869, the red dye found in madder was the first natural
pigment to be synthetically duplicated, which began the steady
decline of dyes produced from natural sources.

15 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v5i10/ART20162256.pdf
https://www.allaboutchemistry.net/isc-chemistry-project/
https://www.sarthaks.com/702432/classify-dyes-on-the-basis-of-
applications
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK385442/

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 INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING
CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT WASHING
SOAP
PROJECT REPORT
IN
CHEMISTRY
2024-25
Submitted in partial fulfillment
Of the requirement of class XII (CBSE)

HIBA ZAITHOON S
[Reg No: ]
Under the guidance of
K.Kavitha
M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil.
PGT Chemistry
Mahatma Montessori School (CBSE)
Madurai
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify the project entitled “INVESTIGATION

OF FOAMING CAPACITY OFDIFFERENT WASHING
SOAP" is done by Hiba Zaithoon S of class XII of
Mahatma BABA (CBSE),Surveyor colony, Madurai, has
completed his/her project as a part of the paper of
CHEMISTRY under my supervision. She has taken
proper care and shown at most sincerity in the
completion of this project.

I certify that this project is upto my expectation as per

the guidelines issued by CBSE.

Principal

Submitted for the viva-voce conducted on ,

at Mahatma BABA (CBSE) Madurai.

Internal examiner External examiner

2|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To begin with, I would like to take this opportunity of
expressing my sincere thanks to the Almighty for keeping me
in good health all through this grueling project work.
I would like to express my special thanks to worthy principle
and to my teacher guide Ms.K.Kavitha who provided
motivation and valuable guidance to compute this project.
I got ample opportunity to do research which enriched my
knowledge and widened my thoughts in this arena. I am
indebted to them.
I would also like to thank my parents and friends who always
inspired and helped me to complete this project

Hiba Zaithoon S

3|Page
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project titled “INVESTIGATION

OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT WASHING
SOAP” was submitted toMahatma Montessori School
(CBSE), Madurai for the subjectChemistry under the
guidance of Ms.K.Kavitha

I further declare that this project or any part of this has not
been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose.

DATE: SIGNATURE:

4|Page
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. MATERIALS REQUIRED 6

3. THEORY 6

4. TYPES OF SOAP 8

5. DESCRIPTION 8

6. OBJECTIVE 10

7. PROCEDURE 11

8. OBSERVATION 13

FACTORS AFFECTING
9. FOAMING CAPACITY OF 13
SOAP

10. CONCLUSION 15

11. BIBILOGRAPHY 16

5|Page
INTRODUCTION
Vinegar is a solution made from the fermentation of ethanol (CH3CH2OH), which
in turn was previously fermented from sugar. The fermentation of ethanol results in
the production of acetic acid (CH3COOH).

There are many different types of vinegar, each starting from a different original
sugar source (e.g., rice, wine, malt, etc.). The amount of acetic acid in vinegar can
vary, typically between 4 to 6% for table vinegar,

In this project, we will determine the amount of acid in different vinegars using
titration, a common technique in chemistry

Titration is a way to measure the unknown amount of a chemical in a solution (the

titrant) by adding a measured amount of a chemical with a known concentration (the
titrating solution). The titrating solution reacts with the titrant, and the endpoint of the
reaction is monitoredin some way

1
OBJECTIVES

 The primary objective of measuring acetic acid in vinegar is to conduct a

quantitativeanalysis to determine the concentration of acetic acid present in a given
sample
 This serves the purpose of quality control, ensuring that the vinegar meets
regulatorystandards and consumer expectations for acidity, taste, and overall
quality.
 By accurately assessing the acidity level of vinegar, producers can maintain
consistency in product formulation and optimize production processes to deliver
vinegar of consistent quality to consumers.

 Another objective is to compare the acidity levels of different types of vinegar, such
aswhite vinegar, apple cider vinegar, and balsamic vinegar.
 Understanding variations in acidity among different vinegar types provides
valuableinsights into their flavor profiles, culinary applications, and potential
health benefits.

2
THEORY
Acetic acid, the primary component of vinegar, is commonly quantified through acid-
base titration, a widely used analytical technique in chemistry.

In this method, a solutionof known concentration of a strong base, such as sodium

hydroxide (NaOH), is slowly added to a sample of vinegar until the equivalence point is
reached

. At the equivalence point, the number of moles of acid present in the vinegar is
stoichiometrically equivalentto the number of moles of base added.

3
The setup for the titration involves precisely measuring a volume of vinegar and adding
a few drops of the indicator. Phenolphthalein is particularly suitable due to its distinct
color change from colorless to pink in the pH range of about 8.2 to 10.0, coinciding with
the endpoint of the acetic acid titration.

During the titration process, the NaOH solution is added incrementally to the vinegar
sample while stirring continuously. Initially, the vinegar solution is acidic due to the
presence of acetic acid, which reacts with the base to form water and a salt (sodium
acetate in this case).

The volume of NaOH solution required to reach the endpoint, along with its known
concentration, is used to calculate the amount of acetic acid present in the vinegar. The
stoichiometry of the reaction between acetic acid and sodium hydroxide allows for the
determination of the concentration of acetic acid in the vinegar sample. of stoichiometry,
ensuring accurate measurement of acetic acid

4
AIM
The aim of the measurement of acetic acid in vinegar is to determine its concentration
accurately. This is crucial for various reasons, including quality control in food
production, ensuring compliance with regulatory standards, and assessing the vinegar's
suitability for specific culinary or industrial applications.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Vinegar Samples : Various samples of vinegar to be tested.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) :

A standardized solution of sodium hydroxide with a known concentration.

Phenolphthalein Indicator : A few drops of phenolphthalein solution, which serves as the

acid-base indicator..

Burette: A precise volumetric instrument used to deliver the NaOH solution drop by
drop during the titration process..

Erlenmeyer Flask: Glass flasks of suitable size to hold the vinegar samples during the
titration.

Pipettes : To accurately measure the volume of vinegar samples and indicator solution.

Distilled Water : Used for dilution purposes, cleaning equipment, and rinsing glassware
to prevent contamination.

Stirring Rod : A glass rod used to mix the solutions during titration to ensure
homogeneity

Analytical Balance : To accurately weigh the substances needed for preparation of

solution

5
Calculator and Notebook : For recording data, performing calculations, and keeping a
detailed record of the experiment.

Ensure that all glassware is clean and dry before use, and follow standard laboratory
safety protocols throughout the experiment. Additionally, it may be necessary to have
access to a fume hood or well-ventilated area due to the use of chemicals.

Maintaining thorough documentation of experimental procedures, observations, and

results in a lab notebook is essential for ensuring traceability and reproducibility.
Researchers should also prioritize safety by ensuring the availability of safety equipment,
such as a safety shower and eyewash station, in case of accidental chemical exposure.

6
PROCEDURE
Step-by-step procedure for measuring acetic acid in vinegar using acid-base titration:

Preparation of Solutions :
Ensure all glassware and equipment are clean and dry before use.
Prepare a standardized solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with a known concentration.
If necessary, prepare a standardized solution of acetic acid to validate the titration method or
calibrate the NaOH solution.

Setup:
Label the vinegar samples and prepare them for testing.
Set up the burette on a burette stand and fill it with the NaOH solution.
Place an Erlenmeyer flask beneath the burette to collect the titrant during titration.
Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the vinegar sample in the flask.

Titration :

Slowly add the NaOH solution from the burette to the vinegar sample while swirling the flask
continuously.
Continue adding the NaOH solution drop by drop until the vinegar solution changes color
permanently. The color change indicates the endpoint of the titration, signaling that all the acetic
acid has been neutralized.

Endpoint Determination :

Monitor the color change of the solution. Phenolphthalein typically changes from colorless to pale
pink at the endpoint, indicating the completion of the reaction.
Record the volume of NaOH solution used to reach the endpoint.

Calculation :
Use the volume and concentration of the NaOH solution, along with the balanced chemical equation
for the reaction between acetic acid and NaOH, to calculate the amount of acetic acid in the vinegar
sample.
Convert the amount of acetic acid to its concentration in the vinegar sample, typically expressed in
units such as molarity (M) or percentage (%).

7
 Validation and Quality Control :

If using a standardized solution of acetic acid, perform a titration with it to validate

the accuracy of the titration method and ensure consistency of results.
Perform multiple titrations with different vinegar samples to ensure reproducibility
and accuracy.

Cleanup :

Dispose of waste solutions properly according to laboratory protocols.

Clean and dry all glassware and equipment for future use.

Documentation:

Record all experimental procedures, observations, and results in a laboratory

notebook.
Include details such as sample identification, volumes of solutions used, and
calculated concentrations of acetic acid.

By following this procedure meticulously, researchers can accurately measure the

concentration of acetic acid in vinegar using acid-base titration, providing valuable data for
various applications in food production, research, and industry.

8
OBSERVATIONS (ACETIC ACID IN HOUSEHOLD VINEGAR)

 Endpoint Observation: The endpoint was identified by the first permanent

color change to faint pink, indicating the completion of the reaction. This
change was observed consistently across multiple trials, ensuring the
reliability of the titrationmethod.

 Repeatability and Consistency: The volumes of NaOH used in each trial were
similar, demonstrating the precision of the titration process. The acetic acid
concentration in household vinegar samples was found to be within the
typicalrange of 4% to 6% by volume, consistent with the product
specifications.

9
CALCULATIONS

Where:
1.MCH3COOH is the molarity of acetic acid in vinegar.
2.MNaOH is the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution.
3. VNaOHis the volume of the sodium hydroxide solution used (in liters).
4. VCH3COOH is the volume of the acetic acid (vinegar)

10
RESULT

 The concentration of acetic acid in the vinegar sample, as calculated through

titration, is 0.675 mol/L.
 Converting this molarity to grams per liter, the strength of the acetic acid is
determined to be 40.5 g/L
 This value represents the amount of acetic acid present in one liter of the vinegar
solution, which is a crucial parameter for quality control and standardization in
vinegar production.

11
CONCLUSION
Based on the experimental data and calculations, the concentration of acetic acid in the
vinegar sample was determined to be within the expected range for commercially available
vinegar products..

Factors such as variations in the precision of measurements, incomplete reaction at the

endpoint, and impurities in the reagents could have contributed to discrepancies between
the calculated and theoretical values.

Despite these limitations, the overall success of the experiment demonstrates the
effectiveness of titration analysis for measuring acidity in vinegar. production and ensures
consistency in culinary applications.

In conclusion, this experiment has provided valuable insights into the acidity of vinegar and
the practical application of titration techniques in analytical chemistry

12
PRECAUTIONS
When conducting a measurement of acidity in vinegar through titration, several precautions should
be taken to ensure accurate results and maintain safety. Here are some key precautions to consider:

1.Proper Handling of Chemicals: Vinegar is relatively safe, but sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
used in the titration is caustic. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment such as
gloves and safety goggles when handling chemicals to prevent skin and eye contact.

2.Standardization of Solutions : Ensure that both the vinegar sample and the sodium
hydroxide solution are properly standardized and prepared before conducting the
experiment. This helps in achieving accurate and reliable results.

3. Clean Glassware: Thoroughly clean and dry all glassware used in the experiment to
prevent contamination, which could affect the accuracy of the measurements.

4. Accurate Measurements: Use precise measuring instruments such as pipettes and

burettes to accurately measure volumes of liquids. Inaccurate measurements can lead to
errors in the calculation of acidity.

5. Stirring: Stir the solutions gently and consistently during titration to ensure uniform
mixing and reaction. Avoid vigorous stirring, as it may introduce errors by causing
splashing or incomplete mixing sample

13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/eprints/publication_3_11901_250.pdf

https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Laboratory_Experiments/Wet_Lab_Exper
iments/General_Chemistry_Labs/Online_Chemistry_Lab_Manual/Chem_10_Experiments
/11%3A_Titration_of_Vinegar_(Experiment)

https://www.academia.edu/29054223/CHEMISTRY_INVESTIGATORY_PROJECT_Amount_of_Acetic_Aci
d_Present_in_Vinegar_AIM

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11725621.pdf

https://nailib.com/ia-sample/ib-chemistry-sl/64d5eff73e0b97f891fd6570

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vinegar

14