Foundation Phase

Mathematics Teaching

Only Study Guide for FMT3701

University of South Africa

Pretoria

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University of South Africa
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FMT3701/1/2021–2023

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 CONTENTS

 Page

INTRODUCTIONvii

Learning unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING

AND TEACHING THEORIES1
1.1 INTRODUCTION1
1.2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? 2
1.2.1 ‌Child centred and teacher directed approaches in
mathematics teaching 6
1.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND
MATHEMATICS TEACHING 7
1.3.1 ‌Cognitive Constructivist Theory Jean Piaget 7
1.3.2 ‌The Social Constructivist Theory of Vygotsky 9
1.3.3 ‌The Social Constructivist Theory of Bruner 10
1.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR MATHEMATICS TEACHING 13
1.4.1 ‌Planning your lesson 15
1.4.2 ‌General principles of instruction 16
1.4.3 ‌Inclusivity in the mathematics classroom 17
1.4.4 ‌Ethno mathematics 19
1.4.5 ‌Mathematics and language 20
1.5 CONCLUSION21

Learning unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER

SENSE22
2.1 INTRODUCTION22
2.2 DEFINING THE TERM NUMBER SENSE 23
2.3 DEVELOPING A NUMBER CONCEPT: COUNTING 24
2.3.1 ‌Counting Principles 25
2.3.2 ‌Counting Errors 26
2.3.3 ‌Strategies to develop meaningful counting 26
2.4 DEVELOPING A NUMBER CONCEPT: ORDER,
COMPARE AND DESCRIBE WHOLE NUMBERS 28
2.5 TEACHING THE FOUR BASIC OPERATIONS IN
MATHEMATICS THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING 30
2.5.1 Problem solving as a point of departure 30
2.5.2 The basic number operations 30
2.5.3 ‌Learner errors when using basic number operations 32
2.6 TEACHING PLACE VALUE, WHICH LEADS TO
THE COMPOSING AND DECOMPOSING OF
NUMBERS32
2.7 AUTOMATICITY IN CALCULATIONS 39
2.8 TEACHING FRACTIONS TO FOUNDATION
PHASE LEARNERS 40

FMT3701/1/2021–2023iii
 2.8.1 I‌ ntroduction to fraction concepts 40
2.8.2 Diagrams of fractions 43
2.8.3 ‌Word problems related to fractions 44
2.9 TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM:
NUMBERS, OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS 45
2.10 CONCLUSION45

Learning unit 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF PATTERNS

AND ALGEBRA47
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PATTERNS 47
3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF ALGEBRAIC THINKING
IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE CURRICULUM 47
3.3 DISCOVERING PATTERNS IN THE
FOUNDATION PHASE 48
3.3.1 ‌Repeating patterns 50
3.3.2 ‌Shrinking pattern\s and growing patterns 50
3.4 FUNCTIONS51
3.5 CONCLUSION52

Learning unit 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE

AND SHAPE53
4.1 INTRODUCTION53
4.2 DEFINING THE TERMS, SPACE AND SHAPE 54
4.2.1 What is space 54
4.2.2 ‌W hat is shape? 55
4.3 PROPERTIES OF 2D SHAPES AND 3D OBJECTS 55
4.3.1 ‌Fundamental facts about 2 dimensional shapes 55
4.3.2 ‌Fundamental facts about 3 Dimensional objects 56
4.3.3 Attributes of shapes 58
4.3.4 ‌Nets for building 3D objects 59
4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE AND SHAPE
CONCEPTS60
4.4.1 The Van Hiele Model 60
4.4.2 ‌Teaching and learning activities: Progression of concept 62
4.5 POSITION, ORIENTATION AND VIEWS 65
4.5.1 ‌Language of Position 65
4.5.2 ‌Describing Position 67
4.5.3 ‌Grids 67
4.5.4 ‌Location 68
4.5.5 ‌Simple sequences or patterns (can be 3-D or 2-D) 68
4.5.6 ‌Features of Shapes and Objects 68
4.6 SYMMETRY69
4.6.1 ‌W hat is symmetry 69
4.6.2 ‌Recognition of symmetry in own body 70
4.7 CONCLUSION71

Learning unit 5: MEASUREMENT72

5.1 INTRODUCTION72
5.2 DEFINING THE TERM, MEASUREMENT 73
5.3 DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
AND SKILLS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 73

iv
 5.4 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF
MEASUREMENT73
5.5 USING UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 74
5.6 TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM:
MEASUREMENT75
5.7 CONCLUSION75

Learning unit 6: DATA HANDLING76

6.1 INTRODUCTION76
6.2 DEFINING THE TERM, DATA HANDLING 77
6.3 THE DATA HANDLING CYCLE 77
6.3.1 ‌Step 1: Question generation and topics for graphs 78
6.3.2 ‌Step 2: Collect data 79
6.3.3 ‌Step 3: Organise data 79
6.3.4 ‌Step 4: Represent data 81
6.3.5 ‌Step 5: Analyse and interpret data 83
6.3.6 ‌Step 6: Report data 84
6.4 CONCLUSION85

Learning unit 7: ASSESSMENT86

7.1 INTRODUCTION86
7.2 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT? 87
7.2.1 ‌Assessment Types 87
7.2.2 ‌Forms of assessment 88
7.2.3 ‌Assessment tools 88
7.2.4 ‌Assessment methods 88
7.3 CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DESIGNING
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES 90
7.3.1 ‌Differentiation in assessment 90
7.3.2 Linking the specific focus, skills and learning outcomes
to assessments 91
7.3.3 ‌Generating measurable Learning outcomes 91
7.3.4 ‌Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to guide assessment planning 91
7.4 CONCLUSION92

APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS93

APPENDIX B: LIST OF ACRONYMS96

REFERENCES97

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vi
 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 WELCOME
It is our great pleasure to welcome you to this module; Foundation Phase Mathematics
Teaching (Module code FMT3701). To make sure that you share our enthusiasm about
this field of study, we urge you to read this overview thoroughly. Refer back to it as
often as you need to, since it will certainly make studying this module a lot easier.

Through the study of the theoretical concepts and material covered in this module,
you will be able to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills that form part of a basic
understanding of teaching mathematics in the foundation phase in grades 1 to 3. The
field of mathematics in the foundation phase is extremely dynamic and challenging.
The learning content and activities contained in this study guide and the prescribed
book will provide you with opportunities to explore the latest developments and
help you to discover the field of teaching mathematics in the foundation phase as
it is practiced today.

We trust that you will enjoy your studies and that this will inspire you to become a
passionate, creative and resourceful teacher, and be part of the noble profession of
teaching in the early grades.

1.2 GETTING STARTED

Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and find your
study material both in print and online. Go to the website at https://my.unisa.ac.za
and log in using your learner number and password. You will see [FMT37011-20-
Y1] in the row of modules displayed in the orange blocks at the top of the webpage.
Select the More tab if you cannot find the module you require in the blocks displayed.
Then click on the module you want to open.

We wish you much success in your studies.

1.3 OVERVIEW OF FMT3701

1.3.1 Purpose
This module builds on the module, Emergent Mathematics (EMA1501), as well as
your own foundation phase mathematics knowledge (refer to the module, MFP1501,
Mathematics for Foundation Phase Teachers). You will be able to apply this knowledge
in selecting, sequencing and pacing the foundation phase mathematics content in
accordance with both subject and learner needs. You must be knowledgeable about
mathematics teaching and be able to demonstrate specialized knowledge gained
in engaging with your study guide, the prescribed book, as well as being able to
use available resources appropriately. This is necessary in order to plan and design

FMT3701/1vii
INTRODUCTION

suitable foundation phase mathematics learning programmers in a foundation phase

learning environment.

The purpose of this module is to equip you with the knowledge, values,
attitudes, competencies and skills to teach mathematics in the foundation phase
curriculum. You will not only develop an understanding of the relevant concepts,
but also learn how to teach these concepts to grades 1–3 learners. Hence, the focus
of this module is on developing in the child an understanding of the concepts of
numbers, operations, functions, patterns, measurement, space and shape, and data
handling. You will notice that the content covered is similar to the areas covered
in Emergent Mathematics. The difference, however, lies in the teaching approach.
In grade R learners learn through a play-based approach, while in grades 1–3 the
approach becomes more formal.

1.3.2 Outcomes
Upon completion of this module, you should have achieved the following outcomes:

•• Specific outcome 1: Apply and evaluate key terms, concepts, rules terminologies
and theories of teaching related to foundation phase mathematics.
•• Specific outcome 2: Apply a range of methods and strategies to teach mathematical
concepts related to number operations, patterns, geometry, measurement and data
handling in a foundation phase classroom.
•• Specific outcome 3: Demonstrate integrated and detailed content and pedagogical
knowledge of foundation phase mathematics
•• Specific outcome 4: Identify, analyse and critically reflect on mathematical
problems in familiar and unfamiliar contexts through case studies
•• Specific outcome 5: Identify and explain different assessment methods to assess
learners’ understanding of mathematical concepts.

1.3.3 A diagramatic overview of the module

In order for you to achieve the module outcomes, you need to study both the study
guide as well as the prescribed book. You must study learning units 3, 4 and 5 of
this learning guide together with your prescribed textbook.

viii
 Introduction

FIGURE 1.1
A representation of the module overview

1.4 RESOURCES

1.4.1 Prescribed book

Naude M & Meier C., 2019. Teaching Mathematics in the Foundation Phase (UNISA
edition). Van Schaik publishers: Pretoria.

ISBN: 978-0-627-03778-8
eISBN: 978-0-627-03779-5

It is always recommended that you explore more information on the topics covered
in the study material. Remember it will be expected from you as a teacher to be a
lifelong learner exploring and finding extra material to enhance your teaching.

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INTRODUCTION

1.4.2 Joining myUnisa

The myUnisa learning management system is the university’s online campus, which
will help you communicate with your lecturers, with other students, and with the
administrative departments at UNISA. To go to the myUnisa website directly, go to
https://my.unisa.ac.za. Click on the Claim UNISA Login on the top of the screen
on the myUnisa website. You will then be prompted to give your student number
in order to claim your initial myUnisa details as well as your myLife e-mail login
details. For more information on myUnisa, consult the brochure, Study @ Unisa,
which you received with your study material: www.unisa.ac.za/brochures/studies.

1.4.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)

Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy: Mathematics
(Gr 1 – 3). Pretoria: Government Printer.

E-reserves can be downloaded from the Library catalogue. More information is

available at: http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request.

1.4.4 myUnisa Learning Management System

The main tool that we will use is the Lessons tool. This tool will provide the
content of, and the assessments for your module. At times you will be directed to
join discussions with fellow students and complete activities and assessments before
you can continue with the module.

It is very important that you log in to myUnisa regularly. We recommend that you
log in at least once a week to do the following:

•• Check for new announcements. You can also set your myLife e-mail account
so that you receive the announcement e-mails on your cell phone.
•• Do the Discussion Forum activities? When you do the activities for each
learning unit, we want you to share your answers with the other students in your
group. You can read the instructions and even prepare your answers offline, but
you will need to go online to post your messages. We have also provided a Social
Cafe where you can socialise with the other students in the module.
•• Do other online activities. For some of the learning unit activities you might
need to post something on the Blog tool, take a quiz, or complete a survey under
the Self-Assessment tool. Do not skip these activities because they will help
you complete the assignments and the activities for the module.

We hope that by giving you extra ways to study the material and practice all of the
activities, we will help you to succeed in the module. To get the most out of the module
you MUST go online regularly to complete the activities and assignments on time.

1.5 NOTIONAL HOURS

Notional hours are defined in terms of the amount of time it takes the average learner
to achieve the learning outcomes. It is estimated that a learner takes, on average, 10
hours to complete 1 credit of learning. Since this is a 12-credit module, we estimate
that you should spend a minimum of 120 notional hours studying this module.

x
 Introduction

RECOMMENDED / ESTIMATED NOTIONAL HOURS TO BE SPENT

ON THIS MODULE

Learning unit Reference Notional hours

Unit 1: Introduction to learning and Learning guide 15 hours

teaching theories

Unit 2: The development of number Learning guide 30 hours

sense and textbook

Unit 3: The development of number Learning guide 15 hours

patterns and algebra and textbook
Unit 4: The development of space and Learning guide 15 hours
shape

Unit 5: Measurement Learning guide 15 hours

and textbook

Unit 6: Data handling Learning guide 15 hours

Unit 7: Assessment Learning guide 15 hours

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xii
 1 LEARNING UNIT 1
1 INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING AND
TEACHING THEORIES

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit we will learn about what is mathematics, the nature of mathematics
and how foundation phase learners learn mathematics. We will discuss the principles
underpinning relevant learning theories and its implications for foundation phase
mathematics teaching. You will also be introduced to a range of teaching strategies
to deal with diversity in the mathematics classroom, the role of ethno-mathematics
and language in the development of mathematics.

In your module, Emergent Mathematics, you were introduced to how small

children are introduced to and learn mathematics through play. You will also remember
the different strands or content areas, namely Number and Operations, Patterns and
Algebra, Space and Shape, Measurement and Data Handling. You discovered how
young children explore mathematical concepts through play. For example, when
we prepare food, we use measurement; we use time purposely; we plan our route
to work or to the shops; and we calculate our grocery bill. Young children have a
strong drive to explore the world around them. In this learning unit we are going to
discuss various theorists and their views of teaching and learning in mathematics.
This will help us understand how young learners learn mathematics, and the best
way we can guide that learning by providing opportunities for learners to acquire
mathematical skills, knowledge and familiarity.

1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Explain what mathematics is and the nature of mathematics

•• Identify and explain relevant child development theories and its applicability
in teaching and learning of mathematics
•• Compare child centred and teacher directed approach in teaching mathematics
•• Design a lesson plan by including the key components of a lesson plan as
suggested by relevant legislations and departmental guidelines
•• Explain what ethno mathematics is.
•• Discuss strategies to deal with diversity in the mathematics classroom.

KEY CONCEPTS
•• cognitive development is the development of thought processes such as
problem solving, memory recall, reasoning and decision making
•• constructivism emphasises that learners are creators of their own knowledge
•• socio-cultural theory the belief that knowledge is constructed based on the
interactions an individual has with others

FMT3701/11


•• zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area in which a learner can

develop further with the support from a more knowledgeable other
•• scaffolding refers to supporting a learner to achieve specific learning outcomes
•• learning styles refers to the different ways in which learners learn and acquire
information
•• cultural diversity refers to the presence of different cultures within the
classroom

1.2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

In this section we focus on what mathematics is and the nature of mathematics. Are
the following utterances familiar to you? “I do not like mathematics”; “Mathematics
is hard”? Haylock (2010) talks about the many primary school teachers who still
carry around “baggage”, and that many teachers feel panic and anxiety when facing
teaching mathematics. Teachers’ and parents’ anxieties may be passed onto their
learners, causing another generation to have a negative attitude, which inhibits their
performance. We hope to show in this module that mathematics can be fun and
that mathematics makes a lot of sense. It is therefore necessary that you establish a
positive attitude towards mathematics and the teaching of mathematics.

ACTIVITY 1.1
The pictures below illustrate some of the common attitudes experienced by many
learners towards mathematics. Answer the questions that follow and post your
responses on the discussion forum on myUnisa.

MATHS IS MENTAL ABUSE TO HUMANS

M – Mental
A – Abuse
T – To
H – Humans

FIGURE 1.2:
Negative attitude towards mathematics

•• Reflect on possible factors that can contribute to the above attitude towards
maths.
•• Suggest some strategies that foundation phase teachers can adopt to prevent
such negative attitudes and feelings towards mathematics?

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

FIGURE 1.3
Positive attitude towards mathematics

1 FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 1.1

Posting your responses on myUnisa will help you to compare your answers with
the responses of other peers in the group. You may also respond to postings of
the peers on myUnisa. Compare you answers to the following responses.

The following are some reasons that could contribute to negative attitudes towards
mathematics:

•• Boring lessons: No teaching resources. No opportunities for exploration

•• Maths is too abstract: Does not progress developmentally (concrete,
representational, abstract)
•• Maths is irrelevant, not contextualized
•• Inappropriate teaching strategies

Teachers can prevent such negative attitudes by:

•• Allowing learners to make mistakes

•• Developing concepts from concrete to representational to abstract
•• Using appropriate teaching strategies
•• Understanding how children develop cognitively
•• Accommodating for diverse needs
•• Using teaching resources effectively
This list is endless. You can add to this list.

If you feel positive about mathematics, you will find the discussions enriching and
will probably be able to relate to it. If, however, you have experienced any negativ-
ity towards mathematics, we urge you to see this module as a new beginning on
your road to a better understanding and love for the subject.

Next we focus on the nature of mathematics. The following definition of mathemat-

ics is extracted from the South African National curriculum policy referred to as
Curriculum and Assessment policy statement (CAPS) (DoE, 2011).

FMT3701/13


Mathematics is a language that makes use of symbols and notations for

describing numerical, geometric and graphical relationships. It is a hu-
man activity that involves observing, representing and investigating patterns
and qualitative relationships in physical and social phenomena and between
mathematical objects themselves. It helps to develop mental processes that
enhance logical and critical thinking, accuracy and problem-solving that will
contribute to decision-making (CAPS, 2011: 7).

ACTIVITY 1.2
Critically analyse the definition of mathematics from the South African Maths
Policy (CAPS). Post your responses on the discussion forum.

(1) Identify 5 key points that you consider to be important in the CAPS defini-
tion of mathematics?
(2) Evaluate the first sentence: To what extent do you agree with the first sen-
tence in the definition of mathematics for young children

2 FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 1.2

Have you considered the following points that defines mathematics?

•• It’s a language that uses symbols and notations

•• Describes numbers, geometry and graphical relationship through symbols
and notations.
•• Involves the act of observing, investigating and representing patterns and
quantitative relationships
•• Enhances mental processes: logical and critical thinking, problem solving,
reasoning

For the second part of the question, have you considered the following:

Consider to what extent is mathematics a language that makes use of symbols and
notations in the early grades. Do you think that mathematics is a language that
focuses only on symbols and notations What about the words and descriptions
as children engage in conversations and dialogues about concrete, pictorial
and symbolic representations? Language is based on communication using the
home language of the learners.

Van der Walle, Loving, Karp and Bay-Williams (2014) highlight another important
dimension of mathematics. They argue that mathematics is a science of pattern and
order. It is therefore important to understand the pattern and order so that one can
teach effectively. This is contrary to the definition that mathematics is a discipline
dominated by computation and rules without reason (Van der Walle, 2007). An
example of this is that when you multiply two odd numbers, the answer is always
an odd number, for example, 3 x 5 = 15 or 5 x 7 = 35. Understanding mathematics

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

leads to deep learning. The authors refer to relational understanding, which denotes
a collection of information, facts and ideas where the learner can think and act
flexibly with a topic.

The question of “Why do we teach mathematics?” is often asked. Mathematics

offers a way of understanding our world. It provides a stable network of symbols
through which we can model real world situations and solve problems (Luneta,
2013). Mathematics contributes to other subjects, for example, the pattern, principles
and procedures are useful in technology and science, in arts, history and geography
(Haylock, 2010).

Mathematics also contributes to the intellectual development of the learner, namely

in problem solving, and deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
means one systematically and logically reasons and comes to a conclusion. Inductive
reasoning means that one can – through creative thinking – come up with a possible
pattern or solution.

Next we turn our attention to the “big ideas” or concepts of a mathematics programme
which contributes to deep learning.

“Big Ideas” or key concepts in maths

Programmes that are organised around big ideas and focus on problem solving
provide cohesive learning opportunities that allow learners to explore concepts in
depth. Concentrating on developing this knowledge will enhance effective teaching.

Focusing on the big ideas provides teachers with a global view of the concepts
represented in the strand.

All learning, especially new learning, should be embedded in well-chosen contexts

for learning – that is, contexts that are broad enough to allow learners to investigate
initial understandings, identify and develop rel­evant supporting skills, and gain
experience with varied and interesting applications of the new knowledge. Such
rich contexts for learning open the door for learners to see the “big ideas”, or key
principles, of mathe­matics, such as pattern or relationship. This understanding of
key prin­ciples will enable and encourage learners to use mathematical reasoning
throughout their lives. (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005: 25).

Learners are better able to see the connections in mathematics and thus to learn
mathematics when it is organized in big, coherent “chunks”. In organizing a
mathematics programme, teachers should concentrate on the big ideas in mathe­
matics and view the expectations in the curriculum policy documents for Grades 1
to 3 as being clustered around those big ideas. Teachers will find that investigating
and discussing effective teaching strategies for a big idea is much more valuable
than trying to determine specific strategies and approaches to help learners achieve
individual expectations. In fact, using big ideas as a focus helps teachers to see that the
concepts represented in the curric­u lum expectations should not be taught as isolated
bits of information but rather as a connected network of interrelated concepts. In
building a programme, teachers need a sound understanding of the key mathematical
concepts for their learners’ grade levels, as well as an understanding of how those
concepts connect with learners’ prior and future learning (Ma, 1999). Such knowledge
includes the “conceptual structure and basic attitudes of mathematics inherent in
the elementary curriculum” and how best to teach the concepts to children.

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The big ideas also act as a lens for:

•• making instructional decisions (e.g., deciding on an emphasis for a lesson or set

of lessons);
•• identifying prior learning;
•• looking at learners’ thinking and understanding in relation to the mathematical
concepts addressed in the curriculum (e.g., making note of the strategies a child
uses to count a set);
•• collecting observations and making anecdotal records;
•• providing feedback to learners;
•• determining next steps;
•• communicating concepts and providing feedback on learners’ achievement to

Next let us look at the two approaches to mathematics teaching.

1.2.1 ‌ hild centred and teacher directed approaches in mathematics

C
teaching
Child centred approach

•• Learning is underpinned by the constructivist theory

•• Child is the active constructor of knowledge
•• The teacher facilitates learning by encouraging active exploration, peer interactions,
decision making

Teacher directed approach

•• Holds the view that skills and knowledge is acquired through direct teaching/
instruction
•• Teacher provides information
•• Teaches in small groups or whole class
•• Deliberate teaching of skills/ rules using small steps
•• Does not emphasise social skills and peer interaction

ACTIVITY 1.3
Visit the internet and search for related articles on child centred verses teacher
directed approach to learning. The following link is an example that can assist
you https://peda.net/jyu/okl/ryhmat/multilete/ha/lvo:file/download/91723489672a
3e167c32bdfc748d6b38cbc81b43/Lerkkanen_ym._Teaching_practices_2016.pdf.

Compare the two approaches mentioned above with reference to knowledge

construction, role of the teacher, role of learner, assessment and key emphasis.
In your view, which of these approaches are preferred in foundation phase
mathematics teaching and provide reasons for your answer.

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

3 FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 1.3

To compare the two approaches, you should identify common principles such
as knowledge construction, role of the teacher, the role of the learner, role of
assessment

TABLE 1.1
Comparison of teacher–centered and child centred approaches

Elements Teacher centred Child centred

Knowledge Transmitted from teacher Constructed by learners
construction

Role of the Leader/ authority Facilitator/ guides the

teacher learning process

Learner Learners are passive Learners are active

participation

Role of Limited assessments. Assessment is continuous,

assessment Only for progression/ Ongoing feedback during
promotion the learning process.
Assessment is mainly Assessment takes many
through written forms : Observation, oral,
written
Emphasis Learning correct answers Emphasises deeper
learning

Next we turn our attention to relevant child development theories and its implica-
tions for mathematics teaching.

1.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND MATHEMATICS TEACHING

In this learning unit we are going to focus on just three important development
theorists and their influence on the teaching and learning of mathematics. The
theories give us an understanding of the milestones children achieve at certain ages,
which in turn will assist us to understand how mathematics is learnt at the different
ages or stages.

We will now look at the cognitive theories of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome
Bruner.

1.3.1 ‌Cognitive Constructivist Theory Jean Piaget

Piaget maintained that a child’s learning is a continuous process of constructing
knowledge. He believed that children acquire information by interacting with objects,
ideas and other people. According to Piaget, children construct knowledge through
two processes of adaptation, namely, assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation
happens when children add new information to their existing thought structures
– in other words, the new information or experience fits in with what they already

FMT3701/17


know. Accommodation takes place when children make changes to their existing
thought structures so that new information from the environment can fit in better.

Piaget (1936) proposed a series of stages through which intellectual maturity moves.
Piaget claimed that these stages are fixed and followed each other but accepted that
there was no fixed time for each stage.

Piaget suggested that children proceed through stages of development and that these
stages are the same for all children according to their ages.

FIGURE 1.4
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

•• Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2 years). During this stage, babies learn by exploring
their world through their senses (sensory-) – touch, taste, smell, sight and sound
– as they move around (motor). Their knowledge of the world is limited because
it is based on physical interactions.
•• Preoperational stage (2–7 years). During this stage, children start to reason and
develop concepts. Piaget maintained that children in this stage of development
have not yet developed logical ways of thinking and reasoning and cannot master
conservation. Only when they have developed these skills do they to move on
to the next stage. During this stage, children use symbols to represent other
objects, for example, a block is used as a telephone, and their language, memory
and imagination are developed.
•• Concrete operational stage (7–11 years). During this stage, children gain the
ability to think logically and systematically to organise the information they are
learning and to solve problems, but they still need experiences with concrete
objects and hands-on activities. They have not yet developed the ability to think
abstractly and to work things out in their heads. Children at this stage can classify
objects according to size, colour and mass.
•• Formal operational stage (11–15 years). During this stage, children no longer
need concrete objects and develop the capacity to think in abstract ways. They
develop logical thinking, problem-solving and planning

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

1.3.2 ‌The Social Constructivist Theory of Vygotsky

Vygotsky focused on the importance of language in learning. According to him,
children make sense of their world through shared experiences and learning occurs
in the zone of proximal development. The ZPD encompasses the difference
between what a child knows and what a child can learn with the assistance of a more
knowledgeable other (a peer or an adult). In this social interaction, the child learns
significantly more and learns deeper concepts than she/he would on her/his own.
Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher adds supports for learners in order
for them to learn and master tasks. The teacher builds on the learners’ experiences
and knowledge as they are learning new skills.

Implications of Vygotsky’s theory for pedagogy

We will now turn to the implications of this theory for teaching and learning in
relation to the role of learners, the role of teachers and the learning environment.

The role of learners

•• Learning is actively constructed, and learners come to learning situations with

already formulated knowledge, ideas and understandings.
•• Learners’ previous knowledge forms the basis for the new knowledge they will
create.
•• Learning, which is designed as mediation in the ZPD, can lead to cognitive
development. Therefore, teachers must expect more of learners than they are
currently able to do alone.
•• A learner creates new understanding for him-/herself. A teacher provides
structured mediation to guide a learner in his/her ZPD.
•• Learning is collaborative. Learners learn about learning not only from themselves
but also from their peers. They can pick up strategies and methods from one
another.

The role of teachers

•• A teacher is not a “guide on the side”; rather, a teacher is instrumental in developing

a child through the process of mediation. Mediation refers to active guidance
and structured intervention in problem-solving tasks. A teacher must determine
the ZPD of every child in his/her class.
•• A teacher must provide structured guidance to learners to enable them to
accomplish with assistance something they cannot accomplish on their own.
The teacher can do this by means of, for example, questioning, scaffolding and
the sparking (stimulation) of intentionality.
•• Tasks should be set outside children’s actual developmental level to determine
their potential to learn.
•• Teachers must identify what concepts and skills learners already know (prior
knowledge) and plan appropriate activities to extend that knowledge.

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Understanding the learning environment

•• Every child has a unique cultural/historical background that affects how he/she
learns. Teachers need to be aware of learners’ background and make provision
for it in their teaching.
•• The environment must allow for collaborative learning. Children should be seated
in a manner that allows them to engage with one another.
•• The learning environment must be set up to provoke cognitive challenge, that
is, to encourage children to go beyond what they can currently do on their own.

1.3.3 ‌The Social Constructivist Theory of Bruner

Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) believed that children learn by actively engaging with
their environments but they require guided assistance, called scaffolding, to enable
them to learn optimally. According to Bruner (1978), learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current and/or past
knowledge. A learner selects and transforms information, constructs concepts and
makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure (schema) to do so. The following
principles that underpin Bruner’s theory have implications for the teaching and
learning of mathematics:

•• Learning is an active process

Learners select and transform information. They use prior experiences to fit knew
information into pre-existing structures. Good teaching relies on scaffolding to
achieve optimal learning. Scaffolding is the process through which able peers or
adults offer support for learning. This assistance gradually becomes less frequent as
it becomes unnecessary.

•• The stages of intellectual development

Bruner identified three stages of development, namely, the enactive stage, which
refers to learning through actions, the iconic stage, which refers to learners’ use of
pictures or models, and the symbolic stage, which refers to the development of the
ability to think in abstract terms. Bruner advocated the notion of a spiral curriculum,
which is that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until learners
have grasped the full concept. Bruner’s learning theory has direct implications for
teaching practice.

Bruner’s theory focuses on levels of knowing and operates on three levels, namely
enactive, iconic and symbolic knowledge (Clements, DH & Sarama, J. 2014.

•• Enactive knowledge is derived from the physical manipulation of objects and the
child’s own movement. This involves all that the young child is doing, for example,
sorting or counting objects. Examples of enactive learning are moving around
in the classroom to touch something that has the same shape as, say, a box, or
children using their fingers to count.
•• Iconic knowledge involves mental operations where the child uses representations
of concrete objects, for example, using pictures thereof. The emphasis here is on
visual and perceptual information (Schultz, Colarusso & Strawderman, 1989). An
example of this kind of knowledge is when children are provided with a picture
of three butterflies and are asked to draw a flower for each butterfly

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

•• Symbolic knowledge refers to the ability to use abstract symbols. The goal in
mathematics is to reach the highest level of symbolic knowledge. This means
that the child will start off by counting 2 real apples (enactive), then be able to
count 2 pictures of apples (iconic), and then eventually use number symbols to
represent 1 + 1 = 2.

Implications of Bruner’s theory for pedagogy

We will now turn to the implications of this theory in relation to:

•• teaching and the role of teachers

•• the role of learners
•• the learning environment
The role of teachers

•• According to Bruner’s theory, teaching must be appropriate to the level of the

learners. For example, being aware of learners’ learning modes (enactive, iconic
or symbolic) will help teachers to plan and prepare appropriate materials for
teaching according to the difficulty that matches learners’ level.
•• Material must be presented in a sequence that gives learners the opportunity to
acquire and construct knowledge and to transform and transfer their learning.
•• Teachers must help learners to categorise new information in order to be able to
see similarities and difference between items/things.
•• Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should
fade away as it becomes unnecessary.
•• Teachers should provide feedback that is directed towards intrinsic motivation.

The role of learners

•• Learners bring prior experiences to bear on the learning space in the classroom.
Teachers must therefore be aware of what children know and what they need to
be taught, ensuring they devise scaffolding tasks that help learners to move from
not knowing to knowing.
•• Learners are active and need to interact with the environment in order to develop
cognitively.

Understanding the learning environment

•• Since learners construct knowledge from the learning environment, this

environment must be set up in a way that enables them to engage with it actively.
•• Activities must be structured in such a way that they provide support that learners
can use to solve specific problems. When the support is no longer necessary, it
can be withdrawn gradually.

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TABLE 1.2
Comparison of learning theories

Piaget Vygotsky Bruner

Socio cultural Little emphasis on so- Strong emphasises Strong emphasises

context cial and cultural factors on the social cultural on the social cultural
context context

Constructivism Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist Social constructivist

Stages of child Universal stages: No universal stages of Enactive, iconic and

development Sensori-motor, pre- development symbolic
operational, concrete
Child does not have Notion of scaffolding
operational, formal
to wait Much depends
operational
on social and cultural
Child has to go through stimuli
various stages before
Zone of proximal
development occurs
development

Key processes Development drives Emphasises social Emphasises social

learning nature of learning and nature of learning
interactions
Learning is learner
centred Learning drives
development
The learner actively
manipulates objects to Emphasises the role of
construct knowledge the adult
The teachers’ role is to Interacts with peers,
encourage children to adults and the cultural
explore and to discover environment to solve
problems
Teachers’ role is to
engage children in
socially organised ac-
tivities and to scaffold
learning
Role of language Thought drives Language drives
language thought

This progress is important for mathematics teaching and learning. The children
are experiencing mathematical concepts through play activities and can revisit the
concepts on a regular basis. One sees this when children are building puzzles. The
concept of the spatial fitting of puzzle pieces is learnt using fewer pieces. This concept
is then expanded at regular intervals, with more difficult puzzles. In the process, the
concept of space is learnt and applied. It is therefore important for parents/teachers
to be aware of the fact that children first need to learn by doing (concretely), then
move on to representation, and finally proceed to abstract symbols.

It is crucial that you understand the process of by which mathematics is learnt. The
stages below draw on the work of Bruner:

•• Concrete level of understanding–the child learns through “doing” and using real objects.
•• Semi-concrete level of understanding–the child uses pictures to represent numbers.
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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

•• Abstract level of understanding–the child understands and uses the written symbols
for numbers.

You will notice that during the period from birth to 6 years, most learning takes place
on a concrete level. The children need to touch and play with objects in order to learn.

ACTIVITY 1.4
Compare the key characteristics of each theory and the contributions of the three
theorists discussed in section 1.4 above.

4 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1.4

In order to make a comparison, you first have to identify the key characteristics
of each theory. For example, some of the key characteristics of Vygotsky’s theory
are: ZPD, peer learning and scaffolding. Once you have identified the key charac-
teristics of each theory, you can try to find the similarities and differences.

1.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR MATHEMATICS TEACHING

In this section we will focus on teaching in the classroom: what your responsibilities
and focus should be. There are several different factors influencing the actual final
practice in the classroom. These factors include, for example, the learner (how they
learn and who they are), the teacher (the what, why and how to teach), curriculum,
classroom and media.

In the previous section we looked at the different development and learning theories
related to the foundation phase learner. It is clear that the focus was on the stages
of development and the kinds of learning that will be best for the learners to
conceptualise mathematics concepts and acquire the necessary skills (knowledge
of numbers – counting and operations, spatial awareness (laterality, directionality,
etc.), patterning, measuring (informal and formal measurement skills) and data use).

It was also explained that the learners need to be actively involved in the construction
of their knowledge. Learners learn new concepts and assimilate (add onto their
existing) knowledge. Learners are naturally inclined to explore new concepts,
especially in real life mathematical concepts, for example, comparing their heights
(who is the tallest, shortest etc.)

We also focused on the attitude of teachers and parents or other caregivers of

leaners. A positive attitude means that the teacher creates a warm inviting classroom
atmosphere where learners feel safe and welcome to explore and experiment. In
a classroom where learners feel safe, they are not afraid of making mistakes or
intimidated by peers regarding pace or making fun of them.

So the question is, how does a teacher create a positive classroom atmosphere? The
answer lies in the teacher’s knowledge and competence in mathematics, as well as
how to organise the classroom. Learners need to be challenged with worthwhile
activities that make sense and stretch their minds to think, and to use and apply

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previously gathered knowledge and skills to new situations or mathematical problems

(Numeracy Handbook).

The classroom practice may include individual work, but also group work. Some
concepts or teaching aspects require learners to work individually on tasks to
conceptualise, for example, emphasising concepts such as number bonds (the number
5 can be written as 1 + 4, or 2 + 3, 3 + 2, 4 + 1).

Group work is often done on the carpet as part of a group activity guided by the
teacher, but where all learners are involved. Group work can also mean an activity
between two learners at a time where they work together on an activity (problem).
They help each other, but the teacher needs to keep their attention focused on the
activity and assert discipline. Discipline in the classroom means that children are
kept focused on the task at hand, taking responsibility for their own learning. They
should not wander around aimlessly in the classroom disturbing others, so they need
well-defined boundaries. The teacher will attend to groups individually to listen to
the learners’ arguments or questions and should not be disturbed by the other groups
while busy with a certain group.

The role of the teacher during group work is to pose a good problem or activity
and to facilitate the processes. Facilitation in the mathematics classroom means that
the teacher will decide on a concept(s) to be explored and provide a well-thought
through problem inviting the learners to work on solving the problem. It therefore
emphasises the fact that a teacher needs to plan ahead and decide on the how and what
to teach, and when. The concepts should be found in the mathematics curriculum
prescribed by government.

Another aspect of importance in the teaching of mathematics is the incorporation

of manipulatives and media in the classroom. This material is often referred to as
learning and teaching support material (LTSM). When referring to the material to
utilise we are often confronted by the argument that “I work in a poor area/school
where I do not have expensive material and therefore cannot teach with these
materials.” The response is that not all materials need to be bought, but can be found
everywhere around us. I will now refer to some of these:

•• ‌Numbers and operations – to do counting, addition, subtraction, bonds and such, you
can use counters such as bottle tops, or make your own flard cards for exploring
place value (e.g. building numbers)
•• ‌Patterns, functions and algebra – beads and string to put the beads on, or items such
as beans, peg boards and cards for pattern expansion, and, for example, pictures
of shape (bought or self-made).
•• ‌Space and shape – build shapes, for example, with sticks or toothpicks, building
blocks (which can be acquired from building sites etc.), Unifix blocks, worksheets,
and puzzles (self-made puzzles from magazines etc.).
•• Measurement – measurement utensils such as buckets, bottles, tins buckets and
other household containers, sand, water, ropes and rulers. For teaching time,
you can make, for example, your own birthday chart, seasons of the year, or your
own clocks from paper plates
•• ‌Data handling – for example, objects to be sorted and recorded, outside activities
to gather different seeds, leaves, watch different transport, and paper to create
recording the data.

You will probably be asking by now whether there is a need for written work in
mathematics. The answer is most definitely yes. Learners need to record their

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

knowledge and thought processes. By writing or drawing, leaners have the opportunity
to show their reasoning and methods used to do calculations. Direct leaners draw
their thinking and representations clearly and logically so that other people can
understand their thinking.

Next we turn our attention to lesson planning.

1.4.1 ‌Planning your lesson

Much has been written about lesson planning. Van der Walle et al. (2014) highlights
the three phase lesson planning as illustrated in figure 1.5.

FIGURE 1.5
Van der Walle , Karp and Bay – Williams (2013: 49)

ACTIVITY 1.5
(1) Design a lesson on any topic using the Van der Walle et al. (2013) three
phase lesson planning. You can refer to the curriculum policy relevant to
your own context. If your context is South Africa, I suggest you use the
South African curriculum policy (CAPS).
(2) Download the document titled Mathematics: Teacher Toolkit: CAPS Aligned
Lesson Plans by clicking on the link:

https://nect.org.za/materials/maths/term-4/lesson-plans/gr-3-term-4-2019-
maths-lesson-plan.pdf.

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Study the section titled lesson plan outline. (page 5 to 7). Each lesson plan
has several components. Information about each is given on these pages. This
information tells you how to use each of the components of the lesson plans and
how they fit together to create a well-paced and properly scaffolded. Mathematics
lesson each day. You need to read this outline as you prepare each lesson until
you are fully familiar with the general lesson plan components, pace and structure.

Answer the following questions.

•• Five parts are identified in the lesson plan. Identify these five parts of a lesson
plan
•• Briefly explain your understanding of prior knowledge with regard to the lesson
concept. Use an example to explain its applicability
•• Distinguish between enrichment and remediation
•• Choose a topic from the content area “number operations and relationships”
and plan a lesson using these components listed in the lesson plan for Grade 3.
•• What is your view about giving foundation phase learners homework? Under
what conditions do you think homework can have benefits.

5 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1.5

Your lesson should basically include an introduction, concept development and
consolidation. Refer to the examples that follow in the same document on how
to develop a lesson plan. But remember to use your own ideas and resources.

Now that you understand the components of a lesson plan how to plan a lesson,
let us turn our attention to instructional strategies.

1.4.2 ‌General principles of instruction

In this section we introduce you to specific instructional strategies relevant to
mathematics teaching. It is essential that teachers incorporate these principles into
their teaching. Some of the most important of these principles are as follows:

•• Learner talk is important across all grade levels. Learners need to talk about
and talk through mathematical concepts, with one another and with the teacher.
•• Representations of concepts promote understanding and communica­
tion. Representations of concepts can take a variety of forms (e.g., manipu­
latives, pictures, diagrams, gestures, or symbols). Children who use manip­ulatives
or pictorial materials to represent a mathematical concept are more likely to
understand the concept. Children’s attitudes towards mathematics are improved
when teachers effectively use manipulatives to teach difficult concepts (Sowell,
1989; Thomson & Lambdin, 1994). However, learners need to be guided in
their experiences with concrete and visual representations so that they make
the appropriate links between the mathematical concept and the symbols and
language with which it is represented.
•• Problem solving should be the basis for most mathematical learning.
Problem-solving situations provide learners with interesting contexts for learning
mathematics and give learners an understanding of the relevancy of mathematics.
Even very young children benefit from learning in problem-solving contexts.
Learning basic facts through a problem-solving format, in relevant and meaningful
contexts, is much more significant to children than memorizing facts without
purpose.

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

•• Learners need frequent experiences using a variety of resources and

learning strategies (e.g., number lines, hundreds charts or carpets, base
ten blocks, interlocking cubes, ten frames, math games, math songs,
physical movement, math stories). Some strategies (e.g., using math songs, using
movement) may not overtly involve children in problem solving; nevertheless,
they should be used in instruction because they address the learning styles of
many children.
•• As learners confront increasingly more complex concepts, they need to
be encouraged to use their reasoning skills. It is important for learners to
realize that math “makes sense” and that they have the skills to navigate through
mathematical problems and computations. Learners should be encouraged to use
reasoning skills such as looking for patterns and making estimates:

–– looking for patterns. Learners benefit from experiences in which they are
helped to recognize that the base ten number system and the actions placed
upon numbers (the operations) are pattern based.
–– making estimates. Learners who learn to make estimates can determine
whether their responses are reasonable. In learning to make estimates, learners
benefit from experiences with using benchmarks, or known quantities, as
points of reference (e.g., “This is what a jar of 10 cubes and a jar of 50 cubes
look like. How many cubes do you think are in this jar?”).

1.4.3 ‌Inclusivity in the mathematics classroom

In all classrooms, but especially in the South African context, teachers are met with
many different challenges. The realities of the foundation phase teaching situation in
South African schools are inter alia overcrowded classrooms, learners from diverse
backgrounds (rich and poor), and cultural and language backgrounds. There are also
learners with barriers to learning such as being hard of hearing, having limited sight/
blind, learning problems, and gifted learners. If these learners attend mainstream
schools, special attention should be that they be placed as near to the teacher and
board as possible. Special equipment may be introduced, for example, concrete media
to feel and count for limited sighted learners as well as the use of bigger fonts. The
policy in South Africa is that no child should be left behind and that classrooms
need to be inclusive. You have completed modules on Inclusive Education during
your studies. It is now time to refer to the policies as well as the strategies to cope
with and include these learners in your classroom practice with the focus on how
to implement them in the mathematics classroom.
In this section we will briefly spend some time on how to teach in a diverse context.
We have already touched on the affective (attitude) aspect in the mathematics
classroom and how important it is that learners feel safe, that they belong and
can achieve. The same applies to learners with diverse needs. They need to be
accommodated and feel that they belong by including indigenous knowledge into
your story sums or resources that reflect their background, for example, beadwork
that reflects their culture when learning about patterning. These learners may
become passive whereby they do not participate or rely on the teacher too much.
It is here that the mathematics classroom should be inviting and provided with
numerous media and manipulatives to guide and enhance learners’ understanding
and conceptualisation of mathematics concepts.
Luneta et al. (2013) distinguish between the following aspects or challenges that
teachers may find in their mathematics classroom:

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•• ‌Different learning styles – every person has his/her preferred way of learning
through hearing, touching, movement or seeing. It is therefore important to
develop lessons that could address all these different learning styles. In the
mathematics classroom it may mean that you will include some explanation,
discussion of the concept, explore meaning through manipulatives such as blocks,
pebbles and sticks, touching and seeing the answer.
•• ‌Gender differences – in these modern times it is unthinkable that there is still
often a perception that mathematics is more for boys than girls. The opposite
has also been argued in research that some adolescent boys struggle more than
their girl counterparts. In recent times the emphasis is on equality and equal
opportunities for both genders.
•• ‌Talented/gifted learners – these learners may often be perceived as non- attentive,
naughty or even dumb. However, they may be exceptional in areas such as reasoning,
exceptional memory, and solving problems in different ways. It is necessary to
also provide opportunities for creative thinking and divergent approaches to
solving problems.
•• ‌Hearing, vision or other sensory impairments – learners with any of these limitations
have to be accommodated in the mathematics classroom, for example, by explicitly
teaching concepts (not relying only on incidental learning). Mathematics often
relies on visualisation and this may become a problem for the visually impaired
learner.
•• ‌Learning difficulties – in recent years the focus has turned away from fixing
problems, but rather concentrating on how to adapt the curriculum to be more
accommodating to all learners as well as methods/strategies to ensure that learners
will make meaning of the mathematics concepts. This implies that the teacher
must be vigilant in identifying difficulties and adopt and plan for different ways
of teaching concepts.
I again refer you to the modules on Inclusive Education, but specifically Inclusive
Education in the Foundation Phase for more characteristics, assistance with
identification of learners with diverse needs, and strategies to address these needs.
Apply them to the mathematics classroom.

ACTIVITY 1.6
Think of learners who stood out due to positive or negative behaviour in the
classroom, which you encountered during your teaching practice periods in the
past. Reflect on whether any of these learners may be identified as belonging to
any of the above categories.

(1) What behaviour did the learner display?

(2) Did it effect their learning and understanding?
(3) In which of the abovementioned categories does the learner fit?
(4) How will you adapt your mathematics lesson to accommodate this learner?

6 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1.6

Refer to the behaviour of the learner and identify the problem. Then explain what
teaching strategy the teacher followed and what you would do differently to ad-
dress the situation.

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

1.4.4 ‌Ethno mathematics

Ethno mathematics has emerged as a field of study that examines the relationship
between culture and mathematics (Smith, 2000). However, due to the varied definitions
of both culture and mathematics, there exist some difficulties in its definition.
Mathematics is adapted and given a place as ‘scholarly practical’ mathematics which
we will call, from now on, ‘academic mathematics’, i.e., the mathematics which is
taught and learned in the schools. In contrast to this we will call ethno mathematics
the mathematics which is practiced among identifiable cultural groups. Its identity
depends largely on focuses of interest, on motivation, and on certain codes and
jargons which do not belong to the realm of academic mathematics. In this view
ethno mathematics is a dynamic and evolving system of knowledge by itself. The
values and language of the particular culture determine its identity.

Ascher (1991:188) takes a slightly different approach in defining ethno mathematics

as “the study and presentation of the mathematical ideas of traditional peoples”.
This view presents it as a mathematical window on other cultures. Even though they
differ in perspective, both of these definitions broaden the scope of mathematics
to include marginalized everyday practices not traditionally included in “academic
mathematics.”

Ethno mathematics presents implications for classroom teachers in that they

must reexamine their beliefs about what counts as legitimate mathematics, how
mathematical concepts are taught, and how to assess children’s knowledge of
mathematics. With these constructs in mind, teachers should also be aware of
diverse cultures represented in their classrooms and incorporate culturally responsive
practices into their instruction.

ACTIVITY 1.7
To deepen your understanding of ethno- mathematics, visit the website by clicking
on the link below.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280865220_Ethnomathematics_The_
role_of_culture_in_the_teaching_and_learning_of_mathematics.

Read the article titled: “Ethno mathematics: The role of culture in the teaching
and learning of mathematics” In this article, the role of culture in teaching and
learning of maths is explored. Zaslavsky (1996) argues that cultural influences
have a great impact on the development of mathematical thought for individual
learners and for society in general. Hence, mathematics, as understood by any
particular individual or society, is a cultural product.

•• After reading the definition of ethno mathematics on page 53 of the article, write
a summary in not more than 150 words on your understanding of this concept.
•• Read the section titled” Expanding mathematical competence”. Distinguish
between traditional notions of mathematics competence from a cultural
perspective.
•• Discuss what can the teacher do to bridge the ‘in school mathematics with the
maths the children bring from out of school.
•• Explain how you would accommodate differences and provide support to help
all children learn mathematics.
•• Identify examples of ethno mathematics from within your own culture and from
another culture.

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7 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1.7

•• According to the South African National mathematics curriculum policy, all
children need to hear and learn to speak in their mother tongue. If they have a
solid foundation in their mother tongue, they will find it easier to learn another
language as they will have already found out how language is structured and
how to communicate with others.
•• The policy emphasizes the need to include indigenous, local and traditional
knowledge, skills and behaviors which enhance children’s development and
learning, and which enhance the inclusion of families in the programme.

1.4.5 ‌Mathematics and language

Language plays an essential part in the formulation and expression of mathematical
ideas (Cockcroft, 1982). Mathematics is a language of words, symbols, diagrams and
graphs. It, however, is not a language that can be understood without the native
language of the person who is learning the concepts and constructs of mathematics.
It is therefore through language (our home language) that we are first introduced to
mathematics concepts. Ideally, all learners should learn through their home language
in the foundation phase, but the reality of many South African classrooms is far
from this ideal.

In many mathematics classrooms, but especially in the South African context, teachers
may find learners who speak different language(s) from the language of teaching
and learning (LoLT). It is often found that learners in the foundation phase may
have limited or no knowledge of the LoLT. With such learners a teacher will not
only focus on the mathematics concepts to be taught, but at the same time broaden
learners’ vocabulary and language use.

It is therefore important for the teacher to be aware of the language situation in

the mathematics classroom. Teaching and learning mathematics rely heavily on
good communication.

Van der Walle (2007) provides a number of strategies for teachers in the mathematics
classroom where they have to provide for learners who do not speak the language of
teaching and learning. It is important that learners know the bigger picture of what
is going to be discussed (but do not introduce the topic as such). Try to link the new
material to prior knowledge. Encourage the use of their home language to make the
connections. You need to be understood properly. It means that you will change the
sentence structures so that learners can understand and follow. It does not mean
that you lower the standard of the concepts to be achieved. Provide enough time to
English second language speakers to make sense of what is said. Include pictures,
objects and diagrams to enhance understanding and building of vocabulary. It may
be conducive to use cooperative groups. Try to have a bilingual speaker in a group
in order to assist the other non-English speakers.

20
 LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to learning and teaching theories

ACTIVITY 1.8
Click the link below to watch the video on the importance of maths talk in developing
mathematical learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLmm3U0eYX4.

Observe the mathematical activities and the language and vocabulary used by both
the teachers and the children as they strive to develop mathematical understanding.
Take note of the following points:

(1) How does the teacher communicate with the children? Do questions or
instructions predominate? What sort of questions are asked? For how long
does the teacher wait for the child to answer the questions?
(2) How do the children communicate with the teacher?
(3) How do children communicate with each other? What does the teacher do
while this is happening?
(4) How are mathematical ideas expressed within these communications? Is
natural language used. What do you think will happen to the non-English
speakers?

1.5 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you learnt about the nature of mathematics, relevant teaching
and learning theories, planning for diversity in the mathematics classroom, the
influence of culture and language on mathematics understanding. In the units
that follow, we focus on the different streams in the mathematics curriculum as
defined and captured in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement of South
Africa; numbers operations and relationships, number patterns, space and shape,
measurement, data handling and assessment.

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2 LEARNING UNIT 2
2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER SENSE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Study this learning unit together with Chapter 1: How Foundation Phase Learners
Develop a Number Concept, in your prescribed book, Teaching Mathematics in the
Foundation Phase (Naudé & Meier,2020: 1-74). This learning unit deals with the
concepts; counting; ordering, comparing and describing whole numbers; teaching
basic operations in mathematics through problem solving; teaching place value;
automaticity in calculations; and teaching fractions to young learners, and thus
should be read in conjunction with the relevant chapter.

The following unit will be set out similar to your prescribed textbook for ease of
reference. Reliance on only this unit in this module guide, will not be sufficient to
gain a comprehensive understanding of the concepts being discussed and it is in
your best interest, as a lifelong learner, to read the corresponding chapter fully and
critically in order to achieve the learning outcomes listed below.

2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Explain the concept “number sense” and its development.

•• Analyse the different ways that foundation phase learners count
•• Explain the difference between in-context and context-free mathematical
problems
•• Discuss the importance of problem solving in mathematics
•• Analyse the different structures of mathematical problems that foundation
phase learners need to explore.
•• Plan problem based mathematical experiences for foundation phase learners
•• Describe different strategies and models that can be deployed by learners in
grouping ones into tens and tens into hundreds
•• Discuss how learners make sense of fractions
•• Plan activities that will support foundation phase learners’ understanding of
fractions.

KEY CONCEPTS
•• number sense: the ability to use and understand numbers
•• estimating: the ability to make a calculated guess of the value of something
•• one-to-one correspondence: the ability to match the correct amount of object
to a number symbol, showing understanding that the symbol represents a value
•• subitising: is the ability to see the total number of objects instantly
•• ordinal counting: deals with what place an object is holding within a given list
•• place value: refers to the value a numeral/symbol has based upon its position
in a number

22
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• automaticity: when calculating sums, it refers to the ability that learners are
proficient in adding and subtracting

2.2 DEFINING THE TERM NUMBER SENSE

In understanding what number sense is, we will refer to the explanation provided
by the Ontario Ministry of Education (2015: 8) which is comprehensive.

Number sense refers to a general understanding of number as well as operations

and the ability to apply this understanding in flexible ways to make mathemati-
cal judgements and to develop useful strategies for solving problems. In this
strand, students develop their under­standing of number by learning about
different ways of representing numbers and about the relationships among
numbers. They learn how to count in various ways, developing a sense of
magnitude. They also develop a solid understanding of the four basic opera-
tions and learn to compute fluently, using a variety of tools and strategies. A
well-developed understanding of number includes a grasp of more-and-less
relationships, part-whole relationships, the role of special numbers such as five
and ten, connections between numbers and real quantities and measures in
the environment, and much more. (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005: 8).

In Cunnighams’ article (2018), he further outlines the skills learners will be able
to demonstrate once number sense has been accomplished to include the abilities
to “understand quantities, grasp concepts like more and less, or larger and smaller,
recognize relationships between single items and groups of items, understand symbols
that represent quantities, make number comparisons, and understand the order of
numbers in a list”.

According to CAPS (DBE, 2011:18-23), the concept of number sense is divided

into the following categories, which we will touch on simultaneously while working
through chapter 1 of your prescribed book for the remainder of the unit in terms
of discussing the “big ideas’.

The big ideas or major concepts in Number Sense are the following:

•• counting
•• operational sense
•• quantity – place value
•• relationships
•• problem solving
These big ideas are conceptually interdependent, equally significant, and overlapping.
For example, meaningful counting includes an understanding that there is a quantity
represented by the numbers in the count. Being able to link this knowledge with the
relationships that permeate the base ten number system gives learners a strong basis
for their developing number sense. And all three of these ideas – counting, quantity,
relationships – have an impact on operational sense, which incorporates the actions
of mathematics. Present in all four big ideas are the representations that are used in
mathematics, namely, the symbols for numbers, the algorithms, and other notation,
such as the notation used for fractions.

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2.3 DEVELOPING A NUMBER CONCEPT: COUNTING

Hearing a child “count” from 1 to 10 is a proud moment for any foundation phase
teacher or parent and is a big accomplishment for the child. However, this cannot
be associated with an understanding of number sense, and could quite possibly be
a reciting of words and a good display of auditory memory recall. As with learning
to read, learners need constant exposure and practice through varied opportunities
in order to become fluent with counting. In chapter 1, Naudé and Meier (2020)
refer to this “as the starting point of developing number sense”. As with teaching
reading, we would like learners to count with understanding. Two main strategies
are mentioned in Naudé and Meier (2020) in which to approach counting activities:
object (concrete) and verbal (abstract) counting.

ACTIVITY 2.1
After reading the descriptions of the two types of counting in your prescribed book
(Naudé & Meier, 2020:1-5) distinguish between the object and verbal counting.

Then plan activities to develop verbal and object counting.

8 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.1

Compare your responses to the following points

FIGURE 2.1
Types of counting

24
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

2.3.1 ‌Counting Principles

Clements and Sarama (2009: 57-58) in Naude and Meier (2019) identified the following
six principles of counting as illustrated in figure 2.2 below.

FIGURE 2.2
Principles of counting

Chapter 1 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:4) describes six principles that need to be developed
to enable learners to count with understanding. Fill in your own definition of each
after reading the descriptions in your textbook.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Study the section titled Counting principles in your prescribed book. Briefly explain
each of these principles.

•• Stable order principle

•• One-to-one correspondence
•• Cardinality
•• Order irrelevance
•• Movement is magnitude
•• Abstraction

9 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.2

Post your responses on the discussion tool on myUnisa. In your response, include
relevant examples. Please read the postings of your colleagues for new ideas/

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examples. It is not necessary for learners to know the names of these concepts.
The names are provided as background information for teachers.

2.3.2 ‌Counting Errors

The principles defined above will help guide you in identifying and describing errors
learners might make when counting. Furthermore, they will aid in implementing
appropriate correction strategies and enrichment activities.

ACTIVITY 2.3
Study the section titled Counting errors in your prescribed book. Then provide
examples to illustrate different counting errors and describe the errors in the
examples you provide.

10 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.3

You should have mentioned 6 counting errors made by young children. You can
draw either counters or objects and show how children match/do not match the
object to the name.

Next we focus on the strategies learners need to acquire in counting.

2.3.3 ‌Strategies to develop meaningful counting

Please refer to the prescribed book for a detailed explanation of the following
counting strategies.

•• ‌Counting all
Counting all is a strategy that deals with counting each item in a set, using one-
to-one correspondence and the stable order principle, in order to get to a total
number; that is, counting all the chairs in the class or all the pencils in heir pencil
bags. At a foundation phase level, learners should begin practicing counting all
at a concrete level (objects) before moving onto a semi-concrete level (pictures/
images).

•• ‌Counting on
Counting on is a strategy that is closely linked to addition as it deals with learners
being able to continue the counting process from a given amount/quantity. For
instance, on a verbal (abstract) level, a teacher may begin counting and then stop
at number 4, then ask a random learner to carry on – the learner should be able
to count on by saying “5, 6, 7, 8, 9 etc.”. This process can be carried on with the
teacher merely instructing one learner to stop counting and the next to continue.

26
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• ‌Counting backwards
Counting backwards is a strategy that is highly linked to subtraction as it deals
with learners being able to count down from the largest number given, down to
the smallest. Typically, what appeals to the younger children is the age-old rocket
countdown: “10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 Blast Off!”.

•• ‌Counting in multiples
Counting in multiples is a strategy that is highly linked to grouping and working
with money as it deals with learners being able to form mental images of groups
of objects and their quantity, and then to count these groups in order to get to
a total number. For instance, allow 3 learners to stand up in front of the class,
hold their hands wide open and ask, “How many fingers can you see?” At an
age-appropriate level, learners will be able to count in multiples of 5 (the amount
of fingers per hand) in order to give the answer, 30.

•• ‌Counting imagined items

Counting imagined items can begin as young as grade R and is linked to count-
ing on as it deals with allowing learners to mentally form images in order to ask
how many more items are needed to make up a certain amount. Usually learners
can compute this quite easily when a sort of treat is handed out to the class, for
example, one learner gets 3 stickers and the other 1 – this learner will notice
they have less, and will be a good teaching moment to ask them how many more
stickers you should give them in order for it to be the same as their friend.

•• ‌Subitising
Subitising is the ability to see the total number of objects instantly without hav-
ing to utilise counting all or counting on strategies. Great examples that most of
you would relate to is when you are throwing dice – you can instantly tell what
number it landed on, or when someone holds up a certain number of fingers.
Perceptual and conceptual subitising are a means to develop abstract number
and calculation strategies. Refer to page 15 (Naudé & Meier, 2020) to define the
terms below:

•• ‌Ordinal counting
Ordinal counting deals with what place an object is holding within a given list.
Foundation phase learners grasp this concept fairly quickly in terms of who is
first and who is last in a line. However, just because they understand the concept
of first and last, most will not be able to answer questions pertaining to who is
second, third, fourth etc., and practicing activities where this language is used
is vital in order for learners to fully comprehend the concept.

•• ‌Estimation
Estimation deals with being able to make an educated guess about how many
or how much without actually engaging in physically or mentally counting and
measuring the exact quantity/amount.

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ACTIVITY 2.4
(1) Identify the 12 counting strategies presented in the prescribed book.
(2) Explain each strategy and provide own example of activities to illustrate
each counting strategy.

TABLE 2.1
Counting strategies

Concrete Semi-Concrete Semi-Abstract Abstract

Counting all

Counting on

Counting
backwards

Counting
in multiples

Counting im-
agined items

Subitising

Ordinal
counting

Estimation

2.4 DEVELOPING A NUMBER CONCEPT: ORDER, COMPARE AND

DESCRIBE WHOLE NUMBERS
Read through chapter 1, section B, 1.14 and 1.15 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:18-21). You
will notice that they discuss the relationship between a number name (two), number
symbol (2) and a quantity and continue this with how children learn to recognise,
read and write numbers.

•• Reflect on what influences your learners in terms of their ideas of writing numerical
symbols.
•• Now list what factors may affect learners’ abilities to write number symbols

28
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

You should have made the connection by now that these influences are very similar
in terms of teaching learners how to write letters and words. The paragraph that
follows describes how social knowledge and conceptual knowledge should be taught
to young learners, emphasising the fact that this should be approached as a gradual
process.

ACTIVITY 2.5
Read the principles in teaching learners to write numerals (0–9) (Naudé & Meier,
2020:20-21) and make a mind map of the key points mentioned.

11 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.5

Read all the points thoroughly first; read them a second time highlighting the most
important points of each fact. See if any of the principles mentioned can be linked
together to organise the information in a more concise manner. Start your mind map.

Let’s take the points 5, 6 and 9 where it states “all the learners must be seat-
ed comfortably”; “attend to the correct seating position” (feet neatly together,
sitting up straight, no slumping); and “learners must face the front of the class or
the direction of the board when numerals are modelled by the teacher. Learners
cannot keep turning around to see the numerals they are trying to form” (Naudé
& Meier, 2020:21). These all fall under how the learner is seated. Therefore, the
main point would be seating, and on your mind map you branch off from that to
include comfortable, correct seating position and facing the board. As you cre-
ate your mind map, try think of practical examples, where possible, of how these
could be implemented in a classroom, for example, point 11 speaks about how
to encourage learners to use every opportunity to write symbols. Here you could
branch off and give ideas of how this can be applied. For example, writing on the
chalkboard.

Extending the concept of numbers

Sections 1.16 and 1.17 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:21-28) discusses relationships
between numbers and quantity. The following relationships are dealt with in your
textbook and are an intricate part in developing number sense, and thus should
be read thoroughly:

•• The relationships of more, less and equal

•• Relationship of double
•• Part-part-whole relationship
•• The special relationship between the numbers 5 and 10

While reading, pay special attention to the teaching strategies mentioned, which
you could employ, in order to develop learners who are competent with mathemati-
cal calculations. Also be aware of the order in which the above concepts need to
be taught, for instance, learners will not be able to order quantities if they do not
understand the relationships of more, less and equal.

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2.5 TEACHING THE FOUR BASIC OPERATIONS IN MATHEMATICS

THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING
The four basic number operations comprise addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Your textbook addresses these in terms of teaching and learning activities by
means of using problem solving as a stepping stone to develop concepts, knowledge
and skills in number operations. Read chapter 1, section C, 1.19 before logging onto
myUnisa: Discussion Forum to discuss your thoughts, views and understanding of the
concepts and skills needed to be developed and accommodated for learners when
teaching basic number operations.

2.5.1 Problem solving as a point of departure

Let us start by defining problem solving.

Problem solving is where one participates in finding answers or solutions to a difficult

question or issue. Naudé and Meier (2020:31) define it as “a process that is followed
to overcome unknown situations, obstacles or barriers, where a direct solution or
method is not immediately clear”. Now that we understand the term, problem solving,
you should brainstorm the benefits of incorporating problem- solving activities in
the teaching and learning process for your learners. Read section C, 1.20 to assess
your answer. Charlesworth and Lind (2007:37) highlight the importance of teacher-
as well as child-initiated investigations along with the benefits of “children working
independently and in groups”. Take note of what the Department of Basic Education
states about why problem solving should be utilised as well as how problems are
distinguished into three types; problems that involve (1) adding and subtracting, (2)
repeated addition, and (3) grouping and sharing.

Further reading of 1.20 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:32-33) will highlight how the three
types of problems should be explored in two ways in the classroom; in- context
(real world) mathematical problems and context-free (using appropriate algorithms)
mathematical problems.

2.5.2 The basic number operations

Learners need to understand the concepts and procedures involved in operations on
numbers. Research (Ma, 1999) on instructional practices related to the op­erations
indicates that most children are taught only the surface aspects of the procedures
involved in the operations and that little attention is given to the un­derlying concepts
(e.g., the composing and decomposing of numbers, especially the understanding of
how the numerals in a number increase by a rate of 10 as they move to the left and
decrease by a rate of 10 as they move to the right) or to the connections between
various operations, such as inverse relationships.

When teachers give attention to key pieces of knowledge that surround the op­
erations, they help learners to develop a sense of how numbers and operations work
together. Learners who have this sense gain a deeper understanding of the basic
principles of the entire number system and are better able to make connections with
more abstract concepts (e.g., rational numbers) when those concepts are introduced.
To develop these key pieces of knowledge, learners need multiple opportunities to
model solutions to problems with manipulatives and pictures; to develop their own
algorithms; and to estimate answers to addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division questions before using and memo­rizing a formal algorithm.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• Learners’ effectiveness in using operations depends on the counting strategies

they have available, on their ability to combine and partition numbers, and on
their sense of place value.
•• Learners learn the patterns of the basic operations by learning effective counting
strategies, working with patterns on number lines and in hun­dreds charts, making
pictorial representations, and using manipulatives.
•• The operations are related to one another in various ways (e.g., addi­tion and
subtraction are inverse operations). Learners can explore these relationships to
help with learning the basic facts and to help in problem solving.
•• Learners gain a conceptual understanding of the operations when they can work
flexibly with algorithms, including those of their own devising, in real contexts
and problem-solving situations

In order to help you understand the content that makes up section 1.21 of chapter
1, section C (Naudé & Meier, 2020), you should read through the relevant sections
on addition, subtraction, multiplication and division problems. You would have
noticed that each is discussed under two topics; the interpretations and properties
of each operation.

ACTIVITY 2.6
Discuss the importance of problem solving. To deepen your understanding of the
importance of problem solving read the following article “Mathematical problem
solving in the early years” Liz Woodham and Jennie Pennant (2014). Write down
5 points on the importance of problem solving in early mathematics.

https://nrich.maths.org/11113.

Identify and explain the different types of problems in:

•• Addition
•• Subtraction
•• Multiplication
•• Division

12 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.6

Please post your responses on the discussion tool on myUnisa. You should have
identified and discussed the following types of problems related to the different
number operations.

FIGURE 2.3
Types of problems related to the four number operations

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Remember that you will also need to identify the type of problems in given sce-
narios. This implies that you need to have a thorough understanding of these
problem types.

2.5.3 ‌Learner errors when using basic number operations

As with any skill being developed in learners, there will be factors that influence their
ability to perform them proficiently. Read section 1.22 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:41-42)
to get a more detailed description of the factors that influence errors as well as how
some errors manifest themselves within each number operation.

Specific Factors that Influence Errors in Mathematics:

•• Impaired readiness for mathematics

•• Impaired prior knowledge
•• Deficits in teaching
Just as we have done before in section 2.4.2 with counting error correction strategies,
think of interventions or enrichment activities that you could put in place for each
of the errors listed in table 1.4 in your prescribed textbook in order to scaffold the
learner to achieve the learning outcome.

2.6 TEACHING PLACE VALUE, WHICH LEADS TO THE COMPOSING

AND DECOMPOSING OF NUMBERS
Once the numbers below ten are established, the next goal is to look at the numbers
from ten to twenty. We want learners to see the importance of ten and as a result,
many of the activities they do in the early years of school are focused on building
from ten and using ten as a countable unit. By the time they come to school they may
know 30, 40 or 60 from speed limit signs. Learners often begin using manipulatives
that can help illustrate the importance of ten at this point. We want them to come
to think of these numbers as ten and one, ten and two, ten and three and so on.
Learners begin to record the numbers with some understanding of the ‘ten’ and the
‘more than’ in place‑value columns. So 13 is written as follows:

Teaching numbers eleven, twelve, thirteen

The English words for 11, 12 and 13 appear to be unrelated to the numbers that
follow, but the etymology tells us that this was not always so. In each case, the base
word is a version of ten or means ‘ten more than’. The word eleven originated from
the Germanic meaning “one left” (after ten is taken). The word twelve then comes
from twalif, meaning that two is left after ten is taken. Only the remaining first two

32
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

letters of twelve tell us that it is connected to the number two. Thirteen originates
from the Old English (from reo meaning ‘three’ and tene which translates as ‘ten
more than’).

To ensure that learners develop the concepts related to ‘ten more than’ we encourage
them to practice modelling numbers using materials such as icy‑pole sticks and
counters.

FIGURE 2.4
Grouping using icy-pole sticks

Tens‑frames give learners the sense of ten and “more than”

FIGURE 2.5
Ten frames

Teaching the teen numbers

Once we get past the number thirteen, there is a pattern in the number words that
helps us understand the place value of the collection we are counting. This is more
difficult in English than in some other languages.

Counting in mandarin: Here are some interesting facts.

I am sure that you are going to find this short section on counting in mandarin very
exciting. In Mandarin, there is a unique symbol for each of the numbers to ten, then
these are combined to make the numbers to 99.

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FIGURE 2.6
Counting in mandarin

The number 13 is shi san (ten and three), 14 is shi si (ten and four), and so on. When
you get to 20, you say er shi (two tens), and then 21 is er shi yi, (two tens and one),
22 is er shi er (two tens and two). So 87 is ba si qi.

ACTIVITY 2.7
Using the information above, practice saying the name and writing the symbol in
mandarin for the following numbers

Numbers Number name in mandarin Number symbol in mandarin

15 Eg shi wu

(Symbols of 10 and 5)
18
25
27
83
82

Place value: Two tens and beyond

Learners should experience counting using manipulatives such as icy‑pole sticks and
counters with numbers that are large enough for them to see the need to make and
use ‘tens’. We want them to become accustomed to organising the items they are
counting into ‘tens’ as an efficient means of finding the total of the count.

So, a collection such as this is organized in tens for easy counting.

34
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

FIGURE 2.7
Grouping ones in tens

The tens are counted first: “Ten, twenty, thirty, thirty‑one, thirty‑two, thirty‑three,
thirty-four.” There are thirty‑four counters.

This can also be demonstrated as follows:

•• Using base‑ten arithmetic blocks

FIGURE 2.8
Grouping using base tens

•• Using a number line

FIGURE 2.9
Counting in tens using a number line

•• Using a ten frame

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The place‑value columns reinforce the idea of ‘how many tens’ and ‘how many ones’.
So 34 is recorded in place‑value columns as follows:

tens ones
3 4

When the children are comfortable with the numbers beyond ten, we can extend
some of the activities for developing number sense that were used earlier. This is
a good teaching strategy, as the children are already comfortable with the activity
with smaller numbers

•• Block patterns
–– Provide blocks or counters and ask children to arrange the same number of
counters in different ways.

For example:

•• Sticky notes
Prepare overlapping sticky notes or place‑value cards to reveal the place value of
digits in numbers. This shows that 34 =30 +4.

What is one hundred?

The number 100 is an important one for children to understand. It is the next place
in the place value system after ‘tens’, as with the number 834 shown below

36
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• One hundred has some interesting properties. W

‌ e can count to 100 by tens. So
a child would say 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100. ‌100 can be ripped apart
in many different ways. 1‌ 00 can be arranged into a square array made from ten
rows of ten.

•• Rip apart 100

Give children a zip‑lock bag and a number of counters, icy‑pole sticks or coloured
match sticks. Ask them to count out 100. Use the counters to show how 100 can be
ripped apart in many different ways. Ask the children to make statements about the
different ways they have ‘ripped part’ the number 100. For example, 87 + 13 = 100

•• Extending place value

As the numbers that learners can cope with expands, so naming of numbers and
the structure of the place‑value system expands to accommodate larger and larger
numbers.

Each digit in a number has a place value depending on its position. These positions
can be thought of as columns labelled by powers of ten, with the powers increasing
from right to left as illustrated in the following table.

When reading Hindu‑Arabic numerals, the digit with the largest place value is read
first. Thus the number 7352 is read as “seven thousand, three hundred and fifty‑two”,
and we think of it in columns as illustrated in the following table.

•• Sticky notes/ flard cards

The sticky notes/ flard card activity can be extended to any number of places. Prepare
overlapping sticky notes or flard cards to reveal the place value of digits in numbers.

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This shows that 7352 = 7000 + 300 + 50 + 2

This section focused on grouping and counting in tens as preparation for understanding
of place value (the understanding that the placement of a numeral in a number can
change its value), exploring place value through base ten concepts through physical
knowledge and social knowledge constructs, grasping numeration of place value,
using “real” money as a baseline for teaching place value, and using flard cards
to compose and decompose number values. Important concepts, such as regrouping
and decomposing which are related to place value are introduced in this section.

When studying this section, take note of the relevant learning and teaching support
material used in example activities that are pertinent for the teaching of place value
concepts such as money, Unifix cubes, flard cards and ten frames. Alternative
resources are depicted below:

FIGURE 2.10
Resources to group in tens

ACTIVITY 2.8
Explain the following concepts:

•• Regrouping
•• Decomposition

Use the strategies of decomposition, grouping and regrouping to calculate the

following. Explain how you would use base ten blocks in your calculations.

•• 38 + 9 =
•• 68 + 56 =
•• 72 – 8 =

38
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• 72 -44 =
•• 234 – 153 =
•• 34 x 5 =

13 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.8

Refer to section on composing and decomposing numbers (section 1.27.6 pages
48 to 53) on examples to calculate using composing and decomposing strategies.

2.7 AUTOMATICITY IN CALCULATIONS

To have automaticity when calculating sums refers to the ability that learners are
proficient in adding and subtracting, within 20. for foundation phase standards.
Read how to facilitate the mastery of learning the basic facts behind automaticity in
calculations through two main approaches; drilling and practicing as well as models
and games.

Relationships to the anchors of 5 and 10

Children discover relationships between numbers, beginning with their first

experiences of counting their fingers. This finger counting helps them to see the
relationship of the numbers 1–4 to 5, and understanding that relationship (of 1–4
to 5) helps them to recognize that a five frame with counters in all but one square
represents the number 4. This understanding of the relationship of 1–4 to 5 is later
extended to an understanding of the relationship between all the numbers from 0 to
10 and, particularly, the relationship of the numbers from 0 to 10 with the anchors
of 5 and 10. This understanding is an important foun­dation for an understanding
of the larger numbers. If learners have worked with combinations of 10, they have a
better understanding of problems that involve operations with larger numbers. For
example, in adding 27 and 35, if they know that 7 is 3 away from 10, they can take the
3 from 35, add it to 27 to make 30, add on the 30, and then add the 2 that remains.
This understanding of the 10 relationships can be extended to an understanding
of 100’s, and the patterns for 1 to 9 provide a useful guidepost for learning how to
count by 100’s and then by 1000’s.

Understanding the relationships of other numbers to these anchor numbers of 5

and 10 helps learners later to understand place value (see also “Representa­tions”
for a discussion of place value). The relationships between 1’s and 10’s, 10’s and
100’s, 100’s and 1000’s, and so on, are important in understanding number and the
operations on number. Using base ten materials or other proportional manipulatives
helps learners see the relationships between these quantities. The base ten materials
consist of single units (ones), rods (tens), flats (hundreds), and cubes (thousands).
Ten of the ones units are put together to form 1 tens rod, 10 rods are put together
to form 1 hundreds flat, and 10 flats of hundreds form a thousand cube.

The relationships in place value (as the digits move to the left, numbers go up by a
factor of 10; as digits move to the right, numbers decrease by a factor of 10) helps
learners work efficiently and effectively with numbers. It is important to note that,
although proportional manipulatives help learners develop their con­cept of place
value, the concept is not inherent in the manipulatives. Learners must develop the
concept through interaction with the materials, using the materials as tools for

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building up the concept. Showing learners models of a concept – for example, two-
digit addition – using base ten materials without allowing learners to develop the
concept of two-digit addition themselves is as ineffective as making them memorize
a rote procedure without any understanding.

ACTIVITY 2.9
Look at section E of your prescribed book titled “Subtraction Rules to Remember”
and design an anchor chart to help your learners develop automaticity in subtraction.

14 FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 2.9

Highlight the key words/concepts pertaining to each rule – make sure you under-
stand these in order to communicate them properly on your anchor chart. Research
other rules for subtraction for foundation phase learners.

An anchor chart is a poster learner can refer to in order to help them complete their
work independently. It will often contain graphics, colour and text (depending on
the age group of the class). As with all posters in the class, it needs to be bold and
clear, paying special attention to not overcrowd the page with too much informa-
tion. Remember: if it is difficult to read for your learners, it defeats the purpose.

In terms of guidance in developing automaticity in subtraction, your chart may

contain items such as what subtraction looks like, words used to mean subtract,
the symbol used, and different methods to use (jump, split). After reading section
E (Naudé & Meier, 2020), create your own game that supports automaticity in
calculations and explain.

2.8 TEACHING FRACTIONS TO FOUNDATION PHASE LEARNERS

2.8.1 ‌Introduction to fraction concepts

Before reading this section, you should think of where you use fractions in your
everyday life and the importance other concepts play in understanding this concept.
Read section F in chapter 1, point 1.35 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:65), taking note of why
learners may struggle with fractions when introduced to them in the foundation phase.

The following models are discussed in terms of teaching fractions. It is important to

note their characteristics and how each model could appeal to the different learners
in your class, as well as provide for variety when planning fraction activities.

•• ‌Regional or area model

•• ‌Length models
•• ‌Set models
ACTIVITY 2.10
(1) Explain the concept equivalent fractions and discuss how you would teach
this concept to learners using practical examples.
(2) Explain the following three models for teaching fractions:

40
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

•• Regional or area models

•• Length models
•• Set models

Another aspect to teaching fractions that needs to be considered and applied correctly
is fractional language and fraction symbols – read the relevant sections to understand
their importance. Lastly, find and read about the three-step approach to the effective
teaching of fractions in the classroom. After reading these three sections you will
notice that fraction symbols have not yet been introduced to foundation phase learners
and more hands-on activities with manipulatives are provided for learners in order
to allow them to explore and discover the characteristics of fractions.

According to the South African National curriculum policy (CAPS) learners are
expected to learn the following knowledge and skills on fraction in the respective
grades as indicated in the table below:

TABLE 2.2
Assessment criteria on fractions (Adapted from DoE, 2011)

Grade R Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

We know this when We know this when We know this when We know this when
the learner: the learner: the learner: the learner:

Orders, describes Orders, describes

and compares the fol- and compares the fol-
lowing numbers: lowing numbers:

•• whole numbers •• whole numbers

to at least 2- digit to at least 3- digit
numbers common number common
fractions including fractions including
halves and halves, quarters
quarters and thirds

Solves and explains Solves and explains

solutions to practical solutions to practical
problems that involve problems that involve
equal sharing and equal sharing and
grouping and that grouping and that
lead to solutions that lead to solutions that
also include unitary also include unitary
fractions (e.g. ¼) and non-unitary frac-
tions (e.g. ¼, ¾)

In the foundation phase, it is advised that the use of the fraction notation be delayed.
Children should first be taught to write the fraction in words e.g. one third and one
fifth. Fractions are best introduced through (as the curriculum suggests) sharing
problems that lead to solutions that also include fractions.

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ACTIVITY 2.11
Analyse the two problems as well as the responses of some learners and answer
the questions that follow:

(1) Two friends want to share three chocolate bars between the two of them so
that they each get exactly the same amount of chocolate and no chocolate
is left over. How can they do this?

(2) Three friends want to share four chocolate bars among themselves so that
they each get exactly the same amount of chocolate and no chocolate is
left over. How can they do this?

FIGURE 2.11
Children’s drawing on sharing

(a) Comment on the number of children in relation to the number of ob-

jects to be shared?
(b) How best do you think children can solve these problems?
(c) Using these examples, how would you introduce children to the frac-
tional parts and fractional names.
(d) Evaluate Caspers’ drawing and Jason’s drawing? How do they differ?
Which one is correct and why?
(e) In the second problem, evaluate Lizzy’s drawing and comment on how
you would use this drawing as feedback to your learners

15 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.11

Notice the following with the two problems:

(1) There are more objects (chocolate bars) than children. It is easier for chil-
dren to share more than one object than to share a single object between
a number of children.

42
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

(2) The second problem immediately introduces thirds. This is to prevent chil-
dren from getting stuck on halves and quarters. In this context (cutting up
real things) children find thirds and fifths no more difficult than halves and
quarters.
(3) Allow children to make sense of the problems and to draw the solutions.
Do not show them the fraction symbols. You should start using the fraction
names only after the third or fourth similar problem.
(4) Discuss the different plans that children make with the group. Children may
respond in many different ways, some with more potential for development
than others. You should discuss the flaws in some plans with the group.

Remember that only onice a child is comfortable with the idea of fractional parts of
equal size, and knows how to name them, it is time to pose problems that involve
the dividing up collections of objects into parts. Reflect on why this approach is
important?

1. Benny has 10 sweets. He gives half of his sweets to Sandy. How many
sweets does he give to Sandy?
2. Sandy’s book has 12 pages. She has read 4 pages. She says: “I have read
a third of my book.” Is this true?

2.8.2 Diagrams of fractions

When children understand what a fraction is and know how to name them, it is time
to use a variety of diagrams to build further understanding. It is also important that
children are exposed to other examples as well.

FIGURE 2. 12
Representations of fractions

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2.8.3 ‌Word problems related to fractions

In the Foundation Phase we do not expect children to do any formal calculations
with fractions. However, by Grade 3, problems such as the ones alongside can also
be used.

ACTIVITY 2.12
(1) Compare problem A with problem B. Which type of problem would you
introduce learners to first and provide a reason

Problem A: Two friends want to share seven cupcakes between them-

selves so that they each get exactly the same amount of cupcakes and
no cup cake is left over. How can they do this?
Problem B: There are 14 netball players. The teacher wants to give each
player half an orange. How many oranges does she need? (Repeated
addition.)

(2) Analyse and evaluate the two approaches used by different learners to
solve the following problem:

Anna makes porridge for breakfast. For each bowl of porridge, she uses
⅓ of a litre of milk. She has 5 litres of milk. How many bowls of porridge
can she prepare?

FIGURE 2.13
Representing a problem

16 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.12

(1) Consider which of the problems (A/ B) introduces the children to fractional
parts/ names. Then only can we provide problems that includes the fractional
names for learners to solve.
(2) Zanele and Dumisani solve the problem at different levels.

44
 LEARNING UNIT 2: The development of number sense

2.9 TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM: NUMBERS, OPERATIONS

AND RELATIONS
Refer to the relevant section under the same title and make a point of referring to
the prescribed websites to assist you in implementing technology into your lesson
presentations. Remember, we want to design activities that speak to each and every
one of our learners and that includes using technology for our auditory and visual
learners as well as connecting with those who are growing up in a technologically-
driven environment.

ACTIVITY 2.13
Choose any topic related to this section and explain how you would use technology
to develop the concept. Identify the type of technology used and discuss how the
technology enhanced learners’ understanding of the concept. Also mention what
were some of the limitations (if any)

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Plan an activity that shows the difference between the commutative and as-
sociative properties of addition.
2. Discuss the concept of anchor 5 and anchor 10.
3. Being able to count in tens is a pre-requisite for place value calculations. Evalu-
ate this statement.
4. Explain the following terms?

•• Problem solving
•• Place value
•• Automaticity
•• Regrouping
•• Decompose

5. Compare in context and context free problems and explain why both are impor-
tant for teaching and learning number operations.
6. Discuss the importance of problem solving for number operations.
7. Explain how learners will calculate the following with the use of base ten blocks:

52÷ 3 =
64 ÷ 4 =
38 + 47 =
62 – 47 =

8. Discuss the properties of multiplication.

2.10 CONCLUSION
If you went through your prescribed book and completed all the activities in
this unit, you should have a solid understanding of what the following entail and
how to implement them in a foundation phase classroom confidently: counting;

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ordering, comparing and describing whole numbers; teaching basic operations

in mathematics through problem solving; teaching place value; automaticity in
calculations; and teaching fractions to young learners. Proper teaching thereof will set
firm foundations for learners to succeed in other areas of the mathematics curriculum.

46
 3 LEARNING UNIT 3
3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PATTERNS AND
ALGEBRA

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PATTERNS

Study this section together with chapter 2 of your prescribed book. However, we
will guide you through the chapter in this unit. “Patterns and algebra” is one of the
mathematics streams that you need to know and must know how to teach in the
foundation phase. When we hear the word, algebra, one is immediately taken aback
that this applies to the foundation phase because we were introduced to algebra
only in higher grades. It is, however, very important to build on the spontaneous
relationship that learners form with patterns in their preschool years. Learners are
naturally curious about patterns and relationships between patterns. It is therefore
important to build on this knowledge from an early stage.

Learners will be introduced to basic patterns in shapes and pictures, which will then
develop into number patterns. They need to create patterns, identify patterns and
extend these patterns.

3 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Explain the importance of patterns as foundational to the development of

algebraic concepts and thinking
•• Describe the key ideas / concepts in the content area of patterns, functions
and algebra
•• Plan developmentally appropriate experiences to stimulate algebraic thinking
and reasoning in the foundation phase

3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF ALGEBRAIC THINKING IN THE FOUNDATION

PHASE CURRICULUM
In your prescribed text this section deals with the importance of studying patterns
as an introduction to algebraic reasoning and thinking.

Here is an example of an important concept, namely algebraic equation. Learners

in the foundation phase will begin with concrete media and then proceed to more
abstract manipulation of numbers and symbols.

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FIGURE 3.1
Example of an algebraic equation

ACTIVITY 3.1
After studying the section titled “the development of algebraic thinking in the
foundation phase curriculum” identify some concepts which young children acquire
relating to patterns, functions and algebra. Also explain how these concepts are
developed before children enter school.

17 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 3.1

Compare your responses to the following:

•• Some of the concepts they develop include comparison, reasoning, generalization,

functional relationships on quantities, etc. Children learn repetitive songs,
rhythmic chants, predictive poems based on repeating and growing patterns.

3.3 DISCOVERING PATTERNS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

In this section attention is paid to the development of patterns and that learners’
progress is more or less in a specific manner/stages. We know as adults that patterns
are everywhere. Read this section in your textbook and focus on the different types
or categories of patterns, from nature to number patterns. One has to be able to read
a pattern, describe a pattern, copy a pattern and extend a pattern.

Growing patterns are often difficult for learners as well as adults to identify and extend.
Make sure that you understand clearly what the pattern is and what the extension
is. Practice this carefully. According to the South African mathematics policy, the
assessment standards of Patterns, Functions and Algebra all belong to single cluster
referred to as: recognising and describing patterns as shown in the Table 3.1 below.

48
 LEARNING UNIT 3: The development of patterns and algebra

TABLE 3.1
Assessment standards of Patterns,
Functions and Algebra (Adapted from CAPS, 2011)

The learner is able to recognise, describe and represent patterns and relationships, and solves
problems using algebraic language and skills.

Grade R Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

We know this when We know this when We know this when We know this when
the learner: the learner: the learner: the learner:

Copies and extends Copies and extends Copies and extends Copies and extends
simple patterns us- simple patterns us- simple patterns us- simple patterns us-
ing physical objects ing physical objects ing physical objects ing physical objects
and drawings e.g. and drawings e.g. and drawings and drawings
using colours and using colours and
Copies and extends Copies and extends
shapes. shapes
simple number se-
simple number se-
Creates their own Copies and extends quences to at least
quences to at least
patterns simple number se- 200
1000
quences to at least
Creates their own
Recognising and describing patterns

100 Creates their own

patterns
patterns
Creates their own
patterns

Describes observed Describes observed Describes observed

patterns patterns patterns

Identifies, describes Identifies, describes Identifies, describes

and copies geo- and copies geo- and copies geo-
metric patterns in metric patterns in metric patterns in
natural and cultural natural and cultural natural and cultural
artefacts of different artefacts of different artefacts of different
cultures and times cultures and times cultures and times

Although pattern appears in the NCS curriculum as a separate Learning Outcome,

it is important to remember that patterns

•• Underpin the development of number in particular, a strong sense of number;

underpin the ability to calculate (operate) with numbers; and
•• Underpin the ability to recognise and describe relationships between numbers
is central to being able to sort geometric shapes and objects and to the study of
their properties.
•• IS central to what we are looking for when we study data (LO5). Data handling
is nothing
•• Is more than looking for trends (patterns) in existing data in order to be able to
make predictions about the future.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Discuss the progression of the concept patterns from Grade R to Grade 3. In your
response, comment on similarities and differences.

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18 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 3.2

Look at the similarities and differences across the grades. You should have also
considered how the knowledge and skills progresses from grade R to grade 3.
Also consider the number ranges.

3.3.1 ‌Repeating patterns

Study the section on repeating patterns in your prescribed book and answer the
questions that follow.

ACTIVITY 3.3
(1) Create a repeating pattern and identify/ explain the following concepts in
the pattern you created:

•• Elements in the pattern

•• Determine the rule
•• The core/ basic unit
•• Structure of the pattern
•• Predictions

(2) Plan activities related to patterns that can be represented according to the
following modes:

•• visual using concrete shapes, objects

•• auditory using rhymes, songs, claps
•• kinaesthetically using actions, movements, and
•• symbolically using letters, number symbol

(3) Distinguish between repeating patterns and growing patterns. Create an

example of a growing pattern

19 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 3.3

For an explanation and application of these concepts refer to your prescribed book.
These explanations will provide a clear understanding of what each concept entails.

3.3.2 ‌Shrinking pattern\s and growing patterns

In addition to repeating patterns children should be exposed to other kinds of
patterns such as increasing (growing) patterns and decreasing (shrinking) patterns. In
both cases it is also important that they realise that patterns can increase by constant
amounts and by changing amounts.

50
 LEARNING UNIT 3: The development of patterns and algebra

Description Example of growing and shrinking

patterns
Increasing pattern with a constant
amount being added from one element
to the next

Increasing patttern with a changing

amount being added from one element
to the next.

Decreasing pattern with a constant

amount being subtracted from one el-
ement to the next.

Decreasing pattern with a changing

amount being subtracted from one el-
ement to the next.

Number patterns

Study the section on number patterns in your prescribed book. By studying this
section, you will understand the importance of patterns in the development of
numbers This section focuses on the following important areas.

•• Counting patterns
•• Patterns in addition and subtraction
•• Patterns in multiplication and division
•• Patterns in hundred chart
•• Patterns to explore in a number chart

ACTIVITY 3.4
•• Practice making pattern combinations of 5: Apply the three stages: concrete,
representational (squared paper) and abstract (symbols) (p 92)
•• Practice the same with 10. Use square paper and colour the squares to visually
illustrate addition to ten. Knowing numbers in basic facts enables learners to
add and subtract larger numbers e.g.

–– 2+ 5 = 7
–– 12 + 5 = 17

3.4 FUNCTIONS
A function is a rule that matches two sets of numbers in such a way that for each
first number there is one – and only one – possible second number.

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Learners find this type of exercise interesting and one can create many
different combinations. You can perform any of the operations (+, -, x) in an interesting
manner. Some teachers use creative input-output machines with different types of
pictures such as butterfly wings.

ACTIVITY 3.5
(1) Explain the concept “Functions”. Use an appropriate example in your
explanation.

20 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 3.5

You can refer to the explanation offered by Rey et al (2009).

As an example provide a flow diagram. Identify the input, the rule and the output.

SELF –ASSSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Suggest ways in which you can make connections between patterns, functions
and algebra and other areas (e.g. integration of knowledge and skill across
different areas)

•• Learners own real world

•• Other mathematics content areas
•• Other subjects
2. Explain how you would make provision for cultural diversity in your class by mak-
ing use of cultural activities and artefacts in patterning activities. Also explain
how you would use these patterning activities to stimulate language develop-
ment in diverse learners.
3. The teaching of patterns, functions and algebra require lots of resources. Com-
plete the following tasks:

•• Make a list of 3D and 2D items that you can collect for repeating as well
as growing patterning activities. Explain by means of three repeating
and three growing patterning activities how you would use these items
to build algebraic concepts

4. Design your own activity to develop the concept of “input/ output (function”
relationships.

3.5 CONCLUSION
In this section you were introduced to patterns, functions and algebra. In chapter
2 of your prescribed book you were introduced to the different concepts that you
need to know in order to teach this stream successfully.

52
 4 LEARNING UNIT 4
4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE AND
SHAPE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
From the time they are born, babies explore and learn about the world through
shape and space; the world around us is made up of geometric, organic and symbolic
shapes and it is a means to describe our physical environment and an important
factor to develop within foundation phase learners. From the arrangement of shapes
such as the eyes, nose and mouth – that make up Mom or Dad’s face, to crawling in
and out of spaces, up and down steps, cruising across furniture when they learn to
walk, hiding behind or underneath objects, trying to pack their own school bags,
building blocks and puzzles and learning to write; children are constantly engaging
with the geometric concepts of space and shape as well as developing their spatial
sense (Early Childhood Ireland, 2012).
As described above, and what your other modules would surely support, is that
these concepts are best learnt through hands-on experiences. As with most focus
areas within early childhood education, the study of space and shape improves
the development and understanding of various skills: properties and relationships,
orientations and positions, and the transformation of 2-dimensional shapes to 3-
dimensional objects (DBE, 2011:10).

4 LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Define the concepts of space and shape

•• Identify and explain the development of space and shape within foundation
phase mathematics
•• Identify and explain Van Hiele’s different levels of geometric development
•• Discuss the strategies for teaching the concepts of space and shape to
foundation phase learners
•• Design lessons that support the learning of specific content related to space
and shape

KEY CONCEPTS
•• Geometric shapes refer to the most common of shapes and consist of triangles,
quadrilaterals, polygons, curved, organic, symbolic and free-form shapes
•• Triangle refers to three-sided shapes
•• Quadrilaterals refer to four-sided shapes
•• Polygons refer to any closed 2-D shape with straight lines Concave deals with
lines curving inwards into a shape Convex deals with lines curving outwards
of a shape
•• Properties refer to the characteristics of the shape, these being how many
edges, faces, vertices and sides the shape has

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•• Symmetry is seen as two halves of an image/object depicting the reflection

of the other half if a line was drawn through the centre of it
•• Vertex/vertices refer to the corner/s made when two lines meet on a 2-D
shape or when edges meet on a 3-D shape
•• Nets refer to the pattern of connected 2-D shapes that can be cut and folded
to make a 3-D object

4.2 DEFINING THE TERMS, SPACE AND SHAPE

4.2.1 What is space

Space can be described as classifying objects in two categories: namely position and
movement. Objects can be described in relation to their position; such as inside/
outside; on top of/underneath, etc.
Regarding the movements of an object, three movements are considered: translating,
reflecting and rotating (Gifford, 2005:107). Learners in the foundation phase begin
to represent spatial relations in drawings, models, maps. For example, they can draw
a map to show the location of the shop from their house. The position of a shape or
object can be defined in terms of where it is in space, usually in relation to something
else. In the example below, the owl’s place in space is described in relation to a box
and other owls. In the English language we call these terms prepositions.
Position
The position of a shape or object can be defined in terms of where it is in space,
usually in relation to something else. In the example below, the owl’s place in space
is described in relation to a box and other owls. In the English language we call
these terms prepositions.

ACTIVITY 4.1
See if you can fill in the correct prepositions below:

FIGURE 4.1
Positioning of items

54
 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

21 FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 4.1

Compare you answers to the following responses:

4.2.2 ‌What is shape?

In geometry, a shape can be defined as the form of an object or its outline, outer
boundary or outer surface. Everything we see in the world around us has a
shape. The objects around us come in various different shapes and sizes. We can
see triangles, squares, and circles everywhere. The language of shapes to which
young children are introduced is commonly that of 2 dimensional or “flat” shapes
such as square, circle, triangle or an oblong shape. A shape that has a length and a
breadth only is a 2D shape. The sides are made of straight or curved lines. They can
have any number of sides.

4.3 PROPERTIES OF 2D SHAPES AND 3D OBJECTS

4.3.1 ‌Fundamental facts about 2 dimensional shapes

•• 2-D shapes are strictly speaking the surfaces of 3-D shapes.2
•• Shapes can be described and categorised by their geometric properties. Shapes:
have sides that are parallel, perpendicular, or neither; have line symmetry, rotational
symmetry, or neither; and are similar, congruent, or neither.
•• The word ‘similar’ is used to describe 2-D shapes that have the same angles,
even if the size of the shapes is different. So proportionality is not important for
shapes to be ‘similar’ but angles are.
•• Shapes are ‘congruent’ if they are identical in shape and size – even if this requires
one shape being rotated or reflected.
•• Tessellation means ‘tiling’ – shapes tessellate if they can be used to cover a surface
without gaps between them or without overlapping. Equilateral triangles, squares
and regular hexagons tessellate. Any triangle or any quadrilateral can be used

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to form a tessellation. Shapes that will tessellate can also be made into irregular
shapes that also tessellate.

You will notice in the following examples, a shape or a figure has a length and a
breadth only. Therefore, it is a 2D shape. The sides are made of straight or curved
lines. They can have any number of sides. Plane figures made of lines are called
polygons. Triangle and squares are examples of polygons. We will classify the figures
we have seen in terms of what is known as the dimension. A plane object that has
a length and a breadth only have 2 Dimensions.

We say that a figure that is drawn on paper and has only length and breadth is a 2-d
figure. For example:

FIGURE 4.2
Properties of 2D shapes

4.3.2 ‌Fundamental facts about 3 Dimensional objects

In our day to day life, we see several objects like books, ball, ice-cream cone etc.,
around us which have different shapes. One thing common to most of these objects
is that they all have some length, breadth and height or depth. Therefore, they all
occupy space and have three dimensions.

•• ‘Nets’ are ‘flat’ shape patterns that can be folded into 3-D shapes. The arrangement
of these figures on the flat configuration does not necessarily correspond with
the arrangement of these figures on the object to be made because some of these
sides may be some distance from each other.
•• 2-D shapes are the surfaces of 3-D objects. It is incorrect to refer to 2-D shapes as
being ‘flat’ shapes because these could in fact be very thin 3-D objects. Therefore,
using a ‘net’ of a 3-D shape may be helpful when considering the construction
of that shape; however, the spreading out flat of the net is only a model, strictly
speaking it is not 2-D.
•• Some 3-D shapes exhibit a particular rule between the number of vertices, edges
and faces. Euler’s rule does not apply to all 3-D shapes; however, it applies to
most of the ones that primary school pupils encounter. Euler’s rule states that

56
 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

if you add the number of faces and the number of vertices together, the total is
two more than the number of edges.
•• Prisms and pyramids gain their names from their polygon ‘bases’.
•• Planes of symmetry are ways in which 3-D shapes can be sliced to leave two
identical ‘halves

FIGURE 4.3
Planes of symmetry

Examples of 3D shapes and figures

We can say that the figures which we draw on paper and have length, breadth and
height are called 3-d figures. Hence a 3D shape has three dimensions. The D in 3D
stands for dimensional. In a world with three dimensions, you can travel forward,
backward, right, left, and even up and down.

FIGURE 4.4
Properties of 3D objects

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Do you remember the faces, vertices, and edges of solid shape? Here you see a cube.

FIGURE 4.5
Key concepts of 3D object

The corners of the cube are its vertices. The 12 line segments that form the skeleton
of the cube are its edges. The 6 flat square surfaces that are the skin of the cube are
its faces. Can you see that the two-dimensional figures can be identified as the faces
of the three-dimensional shapes? For example, a cylinder has two faces which are
circles, and a pyramid has the triangle on its faces.

In geometry, side can be defined as the line segment that joins two vertices in
a shape or two-dimensional figure.

4.3.3 Attributes of shapes

The colour, overall size, and orientation, called the non-defining attributes of a two-
dimensional or three-dimensional shape, do not define or affect the shape in any
way. These attributes can change without any effect on the shape.

On the other hand, defining attributes such as the number of sides (parallel or non-
parallel, straight or curved), vertices, edges and faces of a shape, whether the shape
is open or closed, and the angle measures determine the shape of a two-dimensional
or three-dimensional object. Any change in these defining attributes will change
the shape.

Geometric figures are the most common of shapes and consist of squares, circles,
rectangles, triangles, polygons, curved, organic, symbolic and free-form shapes.

Shapes fall under these categories according to certain properties they possess,
such as how many lines and vertices (corners) the shape consists of together with
the interior angles:

•• ‌Triangles – equilateral, isosceles, scalene, right, obtuse and acute.

•• ‌Quadrilaterals – square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, diamond/kite and
trapezoid.
•• ‌Polygons – convex hexagon, concave hexagon, convex pentagon, concave pentagon,
convex octagon and concave octagon.
•• ‌Curved – circle, ellipse, crescent and oval.
•• ‌Organic shapes are those found naturally in nature e.g. leaf, heart, raindrop etc.
•• ‌Symbolic shapes are those representatives of something else e.g. cross, peace sign etc.
•• ‌Free-form shapes are generally irregular, uneven shapes that can be made up of
curved or straight lines, and generally come into being through random scribbling

58
 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

ACTIVITY 4.2
Watch the YouTube video on the teaching of space and shape by clicking on the
link below.

https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/teachers-tv-primary-maths-shape-and-
space-6044810#.

You will find this video very useful. This video includes three primary maths lesson
ideas for shape and space,

•• Observe how the teacher introduces the characteristics of different shapes using
long pieces of elastic, making large shapes in the classroom using their bodies.
•• At another school, the teacher takes the children on the field where they explore
different shapes. The children explore by finding mathematical shapes in the
real world.
•• Also observe how one teacher turns 2D into 3D shape, using drinking straws
and modelling dough

(1) In no more than 200 words write a paragraph on the benefits of teaching
the children about shapes and space outdoors
(2) What are the benefits of using the elastic band to teach the characteristics
of shape?
(3) How many different ways can the shapes be sorted?
(4) Reflect on how the teachers use the vocabulary related o space and shape.
Provide appropriate examples from the videos.

22 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 4.2

Notice how the conversations progress from simple prior knowledge, related to
children’s real life experiences to a bit more of a challenging activities.

Have you observed the collaborative learning in pairs where one asks the others
to make shapes, discussions about the properties of shapes? The activities help
them to visualize shapes. Shapes without corners like a circle.

You would have observed how the teacher ask children to make squares, longer
pieces of elastic. Use bodies to make shapes. Creating more complex shapes.
Helps children to develop understanding of shapes and properties. Good kines-
thetic learning.

4.3.4 ‌Nets for building 3D objects

“A net is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional figure that is
unfolded along its edges so that each face the figure is shown in two dimensions. In
other words, a net is a pattern made when the surface of a three-dimensional figure
is laid out felt showing each face of the figure.” A solid may have different nets.

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FIGURE 4.6
Nets for building 3D objects

4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE AND SHAPE CONCEPTS

“Space and shape involve connections with various other areas of mathematics. An
understanding of measurement, proportional reasoning, algebra and integers, among
others, is necessary to develop an understanding of space and shape (geometry)”
(Kotzé, 2007:22). Along with various other mathematical concepts, which need to
be developed before space and shape can be explored further in foundation phase
learners, vocabulary seems to be the first step towards concept formation. That
being said, all learners do come to school with an already developed sense of space
and shape. Although these may not be accurate or correct, it is important to note
that their experiences and interactions with the environment have already begun
the process of describing shapes and space in terms of its vocabulary and properties.
For instance, a child may call any circle, oval or round shape a “ball”, or crescent
shapes a “moon”.

4.4.1 The Van Hiele Model

The Van Hiele model describes how learners develop geometric concepts and needs
to be taken into consideration when planning teaching and learning activities. The
following diagram depicts the levels learners will go through when developing
geometric thinking:

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

FIGURE 4.7
Van Hiele’s Model

ACTIVITY 4.3
Download the article titled “Space and shape- Geometry” by clicking the link below

https://www.numbersense.co.za/assets/images/file_download/Space-and-Shape_
Grade-3_Website-version_16.08.pdf.

Then watch the YouTube video titled “Summary of the Van Hiele’s levels” to deepen
your understanding of the development of geometry in children

https://youtu.be/fGjicKyxFn4.

Answer the questions that follow

(1) Evaluate the following statement from the article that you have just read “For
learners to function at any level, they must have developed confidence at
the previous level. Progression from form level to another is based more on
experience and instruction than on age and development” (Article: page 1
first paragraph) To what extent do you agree / disagree with this statement?
What are the implications of this statement in terms of teaching?
(2) What is the role of the teacher in developing children’s geometric thinking?
(3) Explain how Van Hiele’s model contribute to deeper understanding of
geometry
(4) Identify the three stages most relevant in the foundation phase
(5) Discuss an example of appropriate activities within each stage and explain
how you will help learners to make the transition from one level to the next.

23 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 4.3

After watching the video, you would have realized that how children develop
spatial sense (geometric thinking) has been significantly influenced by the work
of Pierre van Hiele.

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There are two key aspects of van Hiele’s work that are of significance.

•• Van Hiele described the levels or stages of geometric development that

individuals progress through as they develop spatial sense (geometric thinking).

–– visualisation;
–– analysis;
–– abstraction;
–– deduction; and
–– rigour.
Van Hiele also described phases of learning that support this development. The
phases describe the different kinds of tasks which together make up lessons on
space and shape. Knowledge of the van Hiele levels allows teachers to describe
the extent of each child’s development with respect to geometric thinking in much
the same way that the levels of number concept development allow us to describe
the extent of each child’s sense of numbers.

Compare your response to the role of the teacher in developing children’s

geometric thinking to page 2 of the recommended article.

4.4.2 ‌Teaching and learning activities: Progression of concept

As has been discussed, children need time and a lot of opportunities to explore the
world around them, mostly through hands-on activities and through play, and it is
no different when it comes to developing concepts about shape and space. To help
organise the vast amount of teaching and learning activities that can be provided
for foundation phase learners within the geometry spectrum, we will now turn to
the CAPS Grades 1–3 Mathematics Curriculum (DBE, 2011:10) to further define
the general and specific focus areas.

In terms of the shapes and objects cluster the Assessment Standards should be read
and integrated as follows (CAPS, 2011).

FIGURE 4.8
Progression in teaching space and shape

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

TABLE .4.1
The assessment criteria on space and shape (Adapted from DoE, 2011)

The learner is able to describe and represent characteristics and relationships between
2-D shapes and 3-D objects in a variety of orientations and positions

Grade R Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

We know this We know this We know this We know this
when the learner: when the learner: when the learner: when the learner:

Recognises, identi- Recognises, identi- Recognises, identi- Recognises, identi-

fies and names fies and names fies and names 2-D fies and names
2-D shapes and shapes and 3-D ob- 2-D shapes and
2-D shapes and
3-D objects in the jects in the school 3-D objects in the
3-D objects in the
classroom and in environment and in environment and in
Shapes and Objects

classroom and in
pictures including: pictures including: pictures including:
pictures including:
•• Boxes (prisms) •• Boxes (prisms) •• Boxes (prisms), •• Boxes (prisms),
and balls balls (spheres) balls (spheres)
and balls
(spheres) and cylinders and cylinders
(spheres)
•• Triangles and
•• Triangles and •• Triangles, •• Cones and
rectangles
rectangles •• Squares pyramids
•• Circles
•• Circles •• Rectangles •• Triangles,
•• Circles squares and
rectangles
•• Circles
Describes, sorts Describes, sorts Describes, sorts Describes, sorts
and compares and compares and compares 2-D and compares 2-D
physical 3-D ob- physical 2-D shapes and 3-D shapes and 3-D
jects according to: shapes and 3-D ob- objects in pictures objects in pictures
jects according to: and the environ- and the environ-
•• Size
Properties

ment according to: ment including:

•• Objects that roll •• Size
•• Objects that •• Objects that roll •• Size •• 2-D shapes in or
slide or slide •• Objects that roll on the faces of
•• Shapes that or slide 3-D objects
have straight or •• Shapes that •• Flat/straight and
round edges have straight or curved/ round
round edges sur faces and
edges

Builds 3-D objects Observes and Observes and Observes and

using concrete builds given 3-D creates given 2-D creates given and
materials objects using con- shapes and 3-D described
crete materials objects using con-
•• (e.g. build- in crete materials
•• 2-D shapes and
blocks) •• (e.g. building 3-D objects
blocks and •• (e.g. building using concrete
Making

constructions blocks, materials (e.g.

sets) construction building blocks,
sets and cut-out construction
2-D shapes) sets,
•• cut- out 2-D
shapes, clay and
drinking straws)

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The learner is able to describe and represent characteristics and relationships between
2-D shapes and 3-D objects in a variety of orientations and positions

Grade R Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

We know this when We know this when We know this when We know this when
the learner: the learner: the learner: the learner:

Recognises symme- Recognises sym- Recognises sym- Determines lines

Transformations

try in them- selves metry in themselves metry in 2-D shapes of symmetry in 2-D
and their environ- and them environ- and 3-D objects shapes using paper
ment (with focus on ment (with focus on folding and reflection
front and back) left, right, front and
back)

Describes one 3-D Describes one 3-D Recognises 3-D ob- Recognises and
object in relation to object in relation to jects from different describes 3-D ob-
another (e.g. in front another (e.g. in front positions jects from different
of or behind) of or behind) positions

Follows directions Follows directions Positions him/ Reads interprets

(alone and/or as a (alone and/or as a herself within the and draws informal
member of a group member of a group classroom or 3-D maps of the school
or team) to move or or team) to move or objects in relation to environment or of an
place him/herself place him/herself each other arrangement of 3-D
Position

within the classroom within the classroom objects and locates

(e.g. at the front or or 3-D objects in re- objects on the map.
at the back) lation to each other
Describes posi- Describes posi-
tional relation- ships tional relation- ships
(alone and/ or as a (alone and/ or as a
member of a group member of a group
or team) between or team) between
3-D objects or him/ 3-D objects or him/
her-self and a peer herself and a peer

The Assessment Standards also convey the message that children should be given
the opportunity to play both generally (free play) and purposefully (focused play)
with a wide range of materials in order to make (build) shapes and objects (figures
and solids). Through play they come to describe, sort and compare the geometric
figures and solids and in so doing they learn about their properties: their similarities
and their differences.

It is also important to note that activities can be presented in two distinct manners:
formally (structured) or informally (unstructured). Formal activities are usually
teacher-initiated with more focus on a specific outcome, and can take the form
of whole-class, small group or independent-type activities. Informal activities are
usually child-initiated and are mostly in the form of free play where the child
chooses what they want to do and what they would like to achieve. In unstructured,
free-play activities, the teacher becomes a facilitator before the activity, by setting
up the environment to accommodate these experiences, and during the activity by
responding to cues given by the learners (Naudé & Meier, 2019:262).

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

ACTIVITY 4.4
The tables above are adapted from the South African National curriculum statement
(CAPS). It includes the knowledge and skills that learners ought to achieve in each
grade in the foundation phase.

(1) Compare the development of the concept of shape and objects from Grade
R to Grade 3.
(2) Compare the concept of “properties” introduced in Grade 1 to that of Grade 3
(3) Explain the concept transformation. Briefly explain the knowledge and skills
related to transformation that you will focus when teaching Grade R, 1,2 and 3
(4) Study the assessment criteria on position. What knowledge and skills will
you focus on in Grade 3 Plan an appropriate activity to teach grade 3 learn-
ers a concept related to position.

24 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 4.4

You would have noticed that the assessment criteria have been organised ac-
cording to the progression, stated in CAPS (2011, 25), that a learner goes through
their foundation phase developing space and shape concepts. It is important to
keep in mind that integration across the curriculum is always a possibility, and that
activities to develop these skills and concepts can occur throughout a learner’s
school day and not specifically within their mathematics lesson.

4.5 POSITION, ORIENTATION AND VIEWS

With respect to the position cluster of Assessment Standards the focus in the
foundation phase is on laying the foundation for an understanding of:

•• Reference frames ways of describing the position of an object (e.g. grids and co
•• ordinate systems)
•• Relative positions ways of describing positions of two or more objects with respect
to each other (e.g. compass directions and distance), and
•• Movement ways of describing movement between one place and the next.

In the Foundation Phase the focus should be on developing a sense of relative

position and the associated vocabulary:

•• On top and below, In front and behind,

•• To the left of and to the right of,
•• Between and so on.
This vocabulary is not only important in its own right but is also important as children
describe their actions in the making and position

4.5.1 ‌Language of Position

•• Give the learners each an object, and similar to “Simon Says”, call out instructions
of where this needs to be placed, for example, put the bean bag on top of your head
or put the pencil under your chair. To allow your learners the opportunity to use
these terms, let them each have a turn calling out an instruction. Another idea is

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to get learners to each use a chair, and similarly as above, call out instructions of
where they need to place themselves in relation to the chair. Apart from learning
language of position, learners have fun coming up with ways to follow out these
instructions and engage in problem-solving skills as they figure out how to get
“underneath the chair”.
•• Cut out various objects from cardboard or paper, relevant to your learners, and
give instructions on where they need to place it on the table, for example, put
the plane above the boat or put the car next to the boat. Alternatively, make a
book with various objects on individual pages and a sentence stipulating where
another object is on the page; these objects must be loose flashcards whereby
the learners must read the sentence and complete the illustration by placing
the flashcard in the correct position. For example, a page could have a tractor
illustrated on it and the sentence reads, “The chick is on top of the tractor”. The
learners need to find the chick flashcard and place it on top of the tractor. Draw
or cut out images from magazines or newspapers to compile these, or involve the
learners in creating their own. Follow the link to download, print or even gain
inspiration of a free printable of a positional word interactive reader, as described
above: https://www.themeasuredmom.com/free-positional-words-activity/ (The
Measured Mom, 2016).
•• Read story books that focus on objects within space. “Joey and Jet” (Yang, 2012)
is a lovely story about a boy, a ball and his dog, and how the ball gets thrown
and moves among, though, on, down, up, across, between, over, into and out of
various things around the environment. This could be extended into a drama
activity whereby learners pretend to be the ball moving among the objects as
described in the book. Alternatively, replicate or draw the situations, along with
an object to represent the ball, and allow learners to place the ball in various
positions such as among the birds or through the trees.
•• Another good book to read and act out is “We’re Going on a Bear Hunt” (Rosen &
Oxen bury, 1997) whereby a family goes on a bear hunt through various landscapes.
Upon approaching these obstacles, they realise they cannot go over or under
any, and decide to go through them. This repetitive book is easy for learners to
remember and hence act out the situations while practising using language of
position. Follow the link to watch the YouTube video, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kl36gmrhjai (see We’re Going on a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen and Helen
Oxenbury, 2016). A version of a lion hunt has also been written and therefore
the story can be adapted to suit the indigenous knowledge of your learners and
make it more relevant to their life-world.
•• Use routine activities to use language of positions in order to make use of teaching
moments as much as possible, for example, pack the cars into the box, place your
books onto my desk, sit next to your friend, stand behind each other in a line or
stand next to each other in a row.
•• Play a version of “I Spy” whereby the speaker describes an object they see in
terms of where it is in space and not by what letter it starts with, for example, I
spy something with my little eye that is: taller than me, under the table, next to
the sink.
•• During a physical education lesson, set up a simple obstacle course that learners
would be able to do blindfolded. Pair them up, and blindfold one learner while
their partner must direct them through the course. If equipment, space and class
management allows, set up more than one obstacle course to ensure the most
amount of learners are active at a time. This activity will ensure learners can use
and understand the positional vocabulary as well as build their listening, speaking
and social skills.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

4.5.2 ‌Describing Position

•• Pairs of learners are given a grid containing many shapes (see example below).
•• The teacher models asking questions about the position of shapes in the grid.
•• Learners take turns in asking questions with their partner describing the position
of the shapes.
•• As an extension activity, learners can draw in their own shapes on a blank grid
and the repeat the activity in step 3.

FIGURE 4.9
Position using a grid

4.5.3 ‌Grids
Learners each need an A4 sized game board, marked with a 3 x 3 grid. These can be
made on coloured card and laminated. Learners use positional language to instruct
their partner to place their shapes to match the layout of their own shapes on the
grid. It is a good idea to model playing this game initially for learners in order to
demonstrate the range of language that can be used. The task can be extended by
using different manipulatives, for example, if using small plastic bears, the size and
colour of each bear would have to be specified

FIGURE 4.10
Manipulatives and grids

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4.5.4 ‌Location
Learners need a simple map or picture, for example, a simple picture of a park. Google
maps of the local commonly used in infant maths activities (small plastic teddy bears,
transport vehicles, farm animals, etc.). Learner A instructs their partner regarding
where to place the toys on their board, for example, put a big blue teddy bear sitting on
top of the slide in the park, put a cow beside the biggest tree, etc. Alternatively, if using a map,
learners can instruct their partner regarding how to move from a starting point.
For example, the learner can provide directions on how to get from the school to a
certain location, for example, the shop: Stand your teddy at the front gate of the school, now
walk down the street toward the park, stop when you get to the zebra crossing, cross over the road to
the other side of the road, walk away from the park now, turn right when you get to the next street.

4.5.5 ‌Simple sequences or patterns (can be 3-D or 2-D)

Learners describe to their partner successive items to be threaded on a string or
simply placed in a line. Any commercial or non-commercial 3-D or 2-D objects
could be used including 3-D beads, attribute blocks, or materials gathered by the
children. When the sequence is completed the barrier is lifted to reveal whether the
sequences are the same

FIGURE 4.11
Position integrated in patterns

4.5.6 ‌Features of Shapes and Objects

•• Describe, sort and compare shapes/objects with various characteristics such as
size, colour, objects that roll, objects that slide, 2-D shapes that make up faces
of 3-D objects, and flat, straight, curved or round sides/surfaces.
•• Provide various types of one shape/object when presenting activities to expose
learners to the attributes:

FIGURE 4.12
Sorting and comparing objects

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

•• Have a scavenger hunt to match 3D objects found in the classroom or playground

to flashcards.
•• Use 3-D objects to make imprints on playdough to help identify and describe
the shape of their faces.
•• Cut and fold various paper shape nets to form 3-D objects.
•• Provide geoboards or similar alternatives for learners to form shapes.

Focused Activities

•• Use 3-D objects (blocks, Lego, boxes) or 2-D shapes (cut from paper or cardboard,
tongue depressors) to build with.
•• Observe 3-D structures on a flashcard and build the given object using playdough
and toothpicks or by combining blocks together
•• Observe and build 2-D shapes by drawing, painting, using sticks, tongue
depressors, playdough, paper etc.

FIGURE 4.13:
Additional resources to teach space and shape

4.6 SYMMETRY

4.6.1 ‌What is symmetry

The focus in the Foundation Phase is on developing a sense of symmetry reflection
about a line and/or rotation about a point. Children should develop the sense
that when something is symmetrical then there is “a sameness” about the things
being compared.

It is important throughout that children realise that we need a way of showing

(convincing ourselves and others) that things are the same. It is not enough to say that
things look the same. In the case of line symmetrical drawings this sameness can be
shown by folding along a line of symmetry. In the case of rotational symmetry this
sameness can be show by turning around a point. In addition to realising that line
symmetrical figures can be “folded to lie on themselves,” children should also be
supported in coming to realise that some of the elements of the figure are closer to
the “fold” and others further away and that this is true for the matching components.

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FIGURE 4.15
Shapes and symmetry

ACTIVITY 4.5
Identify items/ objects in your environment that are symmetrical. Describe the
symmetrical lines in each object/item.

25 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 4.5

You may use words such as diagonal, vertical, horizontal, to describe the lines.

4.6.2 ‌Recognition of symmetry in own body

•• Allow learners to paint half of themselves on a piece of paper and fold it over
while still wet in order to print the rest of their body onto the other side of the
page. Alternatively, take portrait style photos of each of your learners, print these,
cut in half and issue the learners with one of these halves so that they can paste
it on a piece of paper and draw the other side of their face.
•• Identify parts of the body that we have two of, one on each “side”.
•• Use pictures to fold in half to identify the line of symmetry.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4: The development of space and shape

•• Provide half of a laminated image to allow learners the opportunity to copy its
symmetrical side with a white-board marker. This can also be done using blocks
or natural objects and a string or ruler to represent the line of symmetry for a
3-D experience.

•• Provide light weight mirrors for learners to explore objects and what they would
look like if they were symmetrical.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the difference between space and shape.
2. Analyse the different levels of the Van Hiele model of geometric thinking and
identify the most appropriate level that applies to learners in grades R, 1, 2 and 3.
3. Explain your understanding of the terms:

•• Sides
•• Faces
•• Vertices

4.7 CONCLUSION
By now, I am sure you have realised how broad a topic space and shape (geometry)
is, and are able to define these confidently as well as describe how they relate to
various other concepts in mathematics. Although we have said that learners come
to school with an already developed sense of space and shapes, they are constantly
engaging with geometric concepts of space and shape. Activities to further develop
these need to remain practical and hands-on in order for them to conceptualise
and construct the concept themselves so that firm foundations can be set for when
further development of concepts is necessary. We repeat that, as with most focus
areas within early childhood education, the study of space and shape improves the
development and understanding of various other skills; properties and relationships,
orientations and positions; and the transformation of 2-dimensional shapes to 3-
dimensional objects (DBE, 2011:10).

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5 LEARNING UNIT 5
5 MEASUREMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3: Learning about Measurement in the Foundation Phase in your prescribed
book. Learning about Measurement in the Foundation Phase (Naudé & Meier, 2020:99-117)
deals with the concepts: developing measurement concepts and skills, the teaching
and learning of measurement, using units of measurement, time as a construct of
measurement, problem solving in measurement, assessing measurement skills, and
technology in the classroom.

The following unit will be set out similar to your prescribed textbook for ease of
reference. Reliance on only this unit in this module guide, will not be sufficient to
gain a comprehensive understanding of the concepts being discussed and it is in
your best interest, as a lifelong learner, to read the corresponding chapter fully and
critically in order to achieve the learning outcomes listed below.

5 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Define key concepts related to measurement

•• Identify and explain the development of measurement within foundation phase
mathematics
•• Explain effective and efficient approaches for teaching concepts of measurement:
time, length, distance, mass, capacity, volume, perimeter and area
•• Design lessons that support the learning of specific content focus related to
measurement

KEY CONCEPTS
•• mass refers to how much matter an object comprises
•• time as measured in seconds, hours and minutes, or relating to events in the
past, present or future
•• length/distance the measurement of the longest part of an object from end
to end
•• area refers to the size of a surface a specific object is occupying
•• perimeter refers to the distance around a 2-D shape or 3-D object
•• capacity/volume refers to the amount of 3-dimensional space an object is
occupying
•• temperature refers to whether an object is hot or cold, usually measured in
degrees Celsius (C°)

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 LEARNING UNIT 5: Measurement

5.2 DEFINING THE TERM, MEASUREMENT

Measurement is defined as “a number that shows the size or amount of something.
Usually the number is in reference to some standard measurement, such as a meter
or kilogram” (Maths is Fun, 2018). According to Naudé and Meier (2020:99), the
concept of measuring something provides us with information regarding “time,
length, distance, weight, perimeters, volumes or capacity, and even temperatures”.
Measurement concepts are often learnt very early on in a child’s life as their caregivers
describe various things around them, for example, the fire is hot, it is cold outside,
your shoes are too small and daddy is tall. Therefore, as stated in your textbook,
measurement is already being formed because of their real world experiences, and
it is up to you as a teacher to develop these concepts further in order to develop
their skills in being able to measure these concepts themselves and make their own
deductions about the objects, shapes and events.

5.3 DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS AND SKILLS IN THE

FOUNDATION PHASE
According to CAPS (DBE, 2011:28-33) the concept of measurement is divided into
the following categories, which we will touch on simultaneously while working
through chapter 3 of your prescribed book for the remainder of the unit in terms
of discussing their development thereof:

•• Time
•• Length
•• Mass
•• Capacity/volume
•• Perimeter and area
Being able to measure requires exactness, coordination, the ability to compare and
order, and an aptitude for number sense. These skills enable a learner to gain the
required information (time, length, distance, weight, perimeter, volume, capacity or
temperature) based upon a sound understanding of each concept of measurement
and the units (non-standard or standard) used to describe them, as well as proper
use of measuring language and tools.

Refer to chapter 3, section 3.2 in your prescribed textbook (Naudé & Meier, 2020:99)
to help you further understand what the nine concepts are that learners will need to
conceptualise to master measurement skills.

5.4 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF MEASUREMENT

This section deals with the different strategies recommended in the teaching and
learning of measurement as well as the steps involved. After reading this, what can
you say about the relationship between the learning objectives mentioned and what
they will enable learners to do?

Refer to table 3.2 (Naudé & Meier, 2020:102) and compare the learning trajectories
(developmental levels) for measurement in the foundation phase to the progression
of measurement in the CAPS mathematics documents (DBE, 2011:28).

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5.5 USING UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

This next section deals with using units of measurement when measuring length,
mass, capacity, volume, perimeter and area. When reading through the various
sections, you should make your own table, similar to table 3.3 featured in your
prescribed textbook, whereby you extend it to include the age groups of foundation
phase learners to link with the standard (formal) and non-standard (informal) units
of measurement as well as the steps for creating teaching and learning activities.

Remember, all things considered need to be developmentally appropriate. See the

table below to help you start your own.

TABLE 5.1
Units of measurement

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 LEARNING UNIT 5: Measurement

5.6 TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM: MEASUREMENT

Refer to the relevant section under the same title and make a point of referring to
the prescribed websites to assist you in implementing technology into your lesson
presentations. Remember, we want to design activities that speak to each and every
one of our learners and that includes using technology for our auditory and visual
learners as well as connecting with those who are growing up in a technologically-
driven environment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the measuring of the various units (length, capacity/volume mass,
area, perimeter and time) should be introduced.
2. Explain how the concept of area can be facilitated through informal activities.
3. What technologies can a teacher introduce to learners to assist in the teaching
of time?
4. Write out a word problem relating to each unit of measurement for each age
group (grades R, 1, 2 and 3).

5.7 CONCLUSION
If you went through your prescribed book and completed all the activities in this unit,
you should have a solid understanding of measurement and its vocabulary, multiple
strategies and developmentally appropriate steps in place to teach the specific concepts,
relevant learning objectives and skills that are linked to your learners’ life- world.
Through correct facilitation your learners will be able to explore, compare, explain
and measure the properties of concrete objects confidently and fluently.

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6 LEARNING UNIT 6
6 DATA HANDLING

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Data handling goes beyond collecting objects and then identifying the most and
least popular. The School Run (2019) states that “children learn a lot about collecting,
organising and presenting data in primary school mathematics” and as learners
participate in these activities they develop the skills to handle real life situations
and develop critical thinking skills (Mkhabela & Naidoo, 2017). Secondly, if you
consider the ego-centric nature of learners at the foundation phase, and adjust your
data handling activities to reflect your learners’ interests, this creates a means to
develop reflective thinking skills; based upon learners collecting information on their
personal preferences, reasoning their choices, and on communicating and analyzing
the differences prevalent among themselves and their peers, such as recording the
favorite parts of their birthdays. This information collected can lead to discussions
and positive attitudes towards promoting inclusive and multi-culture classrooms
in South Africa today. More skills, and the progression thereof, are stated in the
CAPS (2011) curriculum and range from collecting to sorting and counting objects,
representing the sorted collection, reading, discussing and lastly comparing results.

The above briefly states the important role data handling plays in mathematics as well
as the overall education of learners in the foundation phase. Even more importantly,
the teaching of data handling clearly supports the development of three of the
four 21st century skills – critical thinking, collaboration and communication – and
should not be overlooked. In order to make the most of teaching data handling and
therefore develop those vital skills in our learners, we need to look deeper into what
data topics can be explored, the data cycle, varieties of forms that this information
can be presented in (types of graphs and using technology), development of data
handling, and lastly the role of the teacher in the development of data handling.

6 LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• ‌ efine the concept of data handling

D
•• ‌Identify and explain the development of data handling within foundation phase
mathematics
•• ‌E xplain appropriate teaching strategies to teach the concepts of data handling
within foundation phase learners
•• ‌Plan suitable activities for foundation phase learners to practice their skills in
the sorting, classifying and representation of data

KEY CONCEPTS
•• data refers to information collected
•• charts reflect data in the form of a table
•• data tables reflect data in the form of rows and columns

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 LEARNING UNIT 6: Data handling

•• object graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with 3-D objects
•• pictographs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with 2-D images
•• block or symbolic graph refers to a graph whereby the data is represented
with blocks per unit or any other symbol chosen
•• tally graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with the use of
tally marks to show value
•• line graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented using lines that
are connected via markers/points representing a value
•• bar graphs refers to a graph whereby the data is represented using columns

6.2 DEFINING THE TERM, DATA HANDLING

Data handling deals with collecting, organising and representing information in
a systematic way in order to analyses and interpret findings that are meaningful
to others. This can be done using objects/information personally collected by or
obtained through your learners, or by presenting them with a ready-made graph;
either way, communication is key whereby questions need to be answered in order to
aid the analysis and interpretation thereof. “The focus is on using diverse attributes
of objects and data to categories them in different ways” (Wessels, 2008 cited in
Mkhabela & Naidoo, 2017:97). In essence, graphing can be used to “describe data in
any of the content areas and provides an opportunity to apply fundamental concepts
and skills” (Charlesworth & Lind, 2007:269) that include classifying, communicating,
one-to-one correspondence, comparing and counting.

6.3 THE DATA HANDLING CYCLE

The cycle depicted below serves as a general guideline to navigate your learners
through the data handling process in a step by step fashion. It is important to note
that this cycle can be followed from the time learners are in grade R all the way to
grade 3. However, the processes used in each step and the medium that is used need
to progress in complexity according to developmentally appropriate practices – such
as described by Bruner with regard to the levels of knowing (enactive, iconic and
symbolic knowledge) and the levels of understanding (concrete, semi-concrete and
abstract) learners possess.

FIGURE 6.1
Stages in the data handling process

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6.3.1 ‌Step 1: Question generation and topics for graphs

Before learners can start with collecting data, a question needs to be asked to begin
the research and data handling cycle. When generating questions, you need to keep
it developmentally appropriate in terms of the information that needs to be gathered
as well as the complexity in how this can be done. Secondly the question as well as
the data needs to be aligned with the curriculum being taught. As mentioned briefly
above in unit 1, learners are at a pre-operational stage (2–7 years) going onto a concrete
operational stage (7–11 years) of cognitive development. Therefore, your learners
in the former stage still possess ego-centric qualities and data handling topics or
themes need to be designed around your learners, their interests and environments
for optimal participation, and therefore learning to be achieved. For example,
topics that are based upon what pets they have at home or what their favorite toy
is. As for the latter stage “children’s thinking becomes less ego-centric and they are
increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realise that one’s own feelings
are unique and may not be shared by others or may not be part of reality. During
this stage, however, most children still cannot think abstractly or hypothetically.”
(WebMD, 2017). Therefore, topics for data handling can branch out and could include
information that deals with others’ perspectives and experiences too. Topics that allow
learners the opportunity to think logically also need to be considered. For example,
a topic such as the Cricket World Cup 2019 can be used to devise questions such as
what team is the favorite to win, and who and how many teams have won the cup
previously etc. The important thing to remember for both stages of development is
that learners in either stage, still think concretely and data handling activities need
to reflect that thinking in order to support your learners’ development.

The following have been taken and adapted from Naudé & Meier (2014: 247) and
can be used as topics under which specific questions can be generated for data
handling activities:

•• Favourites
Ask questions regarding any of the learner’s favourite things, such as animals,
activities, holidays, school subjects, colours, books and places.

•• Numbers
Ask questions that will lead to the answer being a numerical one, such as, how many
pets or siblings do you have, how many times do you exercise in a week and how
many players in different sport teams?

•• Measure
Base your graphs upon measuring information such as measuring the height of
everyone, how much the class plant is growing over a specific time, the changes in
temperature, and how far you can run in 10 seconds.

•• Beyond the classroom

Questions can be based upon learners’ surrounding community and events such as
their favourite restaurant or soccer team in the current league, how many parks are
in specific areas, what parents do for work, and what neighbourhoods they live in.
Remember to be aware of informal learning opportunities too; if the learners show
interest in a topic most likely engendered among themselves during play or from a
class discussion, and if it lends itself towards data handling, do not hesitate to take the

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 LEARNING UNIT 6: Data handling

time and engage in an informal and unplanned activity. These impromptu activities
create a lot more excitement among learners and, as a teacher, you maximise their
learning.

ACTIVITY 6.1
From the list above, generate three specific data handling questions per topic
mentioned.

26 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 6.1

To complete this activity, you will have to come up with questions that will initiate
the data handling cycle and interest your learners. Remember that the answers
to these questions need to be accessible to your learners in order for them to be
able to collect the necessary data.

For example, questions to go under the topic favourites could be:

•• What is your favourite farm/sea/wild animal?

•• What is your favourite part of Christmas/your birthday/school?
•• Based upon a literature book being read as a class, who is your favourite
character?

6.3.2 ‌Step 2: Collect data

Collecting data, depending on the question being posed, can provide immediate
results (best suited for your younger learners) such as collecting the various plastic
farm animals in the classroom to see how many of each there are. On the other hand,
it can take time to generate a series of results (best suited for your older learners)
such as asking your learners to record how much their plant grows every three days
over a span of three weeks. As with the plastic animal example, learners will need
to look around the classroom to gather all the plastic animals they see in order to
create one big collection. With regard to the plant example, learners would need to
measure their plant every three days and keep a record thereof over the given time
period as part of their data collection process.

6.3.3 ‌Step 3: Organise data

Before learners even begin with plotting the information collected onto a graph,
sorting and organising information is engaged with on a concrete level, before a
semi-concrete and then abstract level. Learners follow a similar sequence when
it comes to organising data:

•• Sort objects according to a specific attribute

The attributes could be anything, such as colour, length, the most popular, and
amount. Similar to the pictures below, learners could sort all the farm animal toys
present in the classroom according to what type of animal they are, or sort the
building blocks according to their colours:

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•• Create an object graph

Crate an object graph using the objects collected, or using something such as Lego
blocks, to create a 3-D bar graph by placing these in a similar fashion to what a
bar graph would look like on a 2-D level. For instance, the picture below depicts a
concrete bar graph made from Lego blocks:

FIGURE 6.2
Block graph

•• Lastly, a tally chart can be generated

Depict the organised data in an abstract level using a tally chart. To tally something
means that you use marks, strokes or lines to represent a single entity of something
being counted. Usually these are grouped into quantities of 5 with the 5th stroke
being drawn diagonally across the first 4 marks. Therefore, one stroke means 1, two
strokes 2 and so forth.

FIGURE 6.3
Tally Graph

Therefore, a tally chart is created when one draws up a simple table, with the attribute
of objects/data collected and the tallied amount. Below is an image of how many
learners think they were naughty or nice within the year when discussing if they
think they would get presents from Santa Claus.

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 LEARNING UNIT 6: Data handling

6.3.4 ‌Step 4: Represent data

Just as a child goes through stages of play and physical development, so they go
through stages when engaging with data handling. According to CAPS (DBE,
2011:34-35) the progression of data handling deals with “moving from working with
objects to working with data; and working with new forms of data representation”.
As discussed already in section 7 Step 3: Organising Data, we have learnt about
object graphs and tally charts, which are your first data handling representation
forms for foundation phase learners. The following types of graphs describe the
order in which learners should represent their data according to their maturity and
developmentally appropriate practices; object graphs, pictographs, bar graphs /
histograms, line graphs, and circular or pie charts.

•• Object graphs
Object graphs are the best way to begin any data handling activities. They reinforce the
idea that learning needs to take place 3-dimensionally before 2-dimensionally. Lego
is a great resource when beginning with teaching graphing activities as it provides
for the building of 3-dimensional graphs on a horizontal as well as a vertical scale.
Playdough can also be used as a means to represent data for a variety of graphs.

FIGURE 6.4
Object graph

•• Pictographs
“Picture graphs and bar graphs are the easiest for young learners to construct and
interpret” (Charlesworth & Lind, 2007:422) and hence fall into the beginning stages
of data representation. A pictograph, as it states in the name, is a graph that uses
pictures or symbols to represent the information of the data collected. If one is
using symbols to represent the data, a key needs to state what quantity each symbol
signifies, for example, a stick figure represents 2 children and half a stick figure
would represent 1. The following pictograph/picture graph shows how many toys
of each farm animal was collected in the class:

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Farm Animals
Pig

Cow

Sheep

FIGURE 6.5
Pictograph

Pictographs are easy for learners to adjust to following object graphs, and support
Bruner’s theory of working in a concrete, then semi-concrete level. They also maintain
the steps in a multi-modal think board method whereby learners must manipulate
real objects and “do” the work with concrete materials before using diagrams to
make representations (Varying Approaches to Maths Teaching, 2018).

•• Bar graphs/Histograms
Bar graphs use bars, as the name suggests, to compare information that has been
collected. This information is represented as categories and values, for instance,
favourite colours and how many people like the various colours. Bar graphs can be
created by learners through two methods: paper based and colour in.

•• Paper Based
Paper based bar graphs allow learners to create their bar graphs by using cut out
blocks of paper, which represent a chosen value and will then be plotted onto the
bar graph template taking into consideration the amount corresponding to each
attribute. For example, if the learners have collected data on what their favourite
subject is, organized their data into a tally chart or table, and have discovered that 5
learners love mathematics, 2 English, 7 creative arts and 9 physical educations, they
will then need to paste 5 paper squares in their mathematics “column”, 2 into their
English and so forth to create their bar graph.

FIGURE 6.6
Paper based graph

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 LEARNING UNIT 6: Data handling

•• Colour In
Similar to the above, instead of learners pasting squares of paper to create their bars
per attribute, they colour in the blocks per chosen value on a bar graph template.

•• Line graphs
“Line graphs demand concrete operational thinking because more than one aspect
of the data must be focused on at the same time” (Charlesworth & Lind, 2007:422).
Line graphs show one variable and how it changes over time. This can be extended to
show two variables on one chart in order to compare their differences and similarities.
A line graph incorporates points plotted on the x and y axes and learners need to
be able to connect these in order to analyse the information. Below is an example
of how a line graph looks:
Information such as marks achieved per subject per month in the year can be recorded
or how many pages were in each book they read for each month. As you can see
from the example, just as with a bar graph, values are plotted on the y-axis, (vertical
column), in this case marks achieved/page numbers and attributes/characteristics
plotted on the x-axis (horizontal column), in this case, months of the year. The
values achieved need to be plotted according to the relevant value in the y-axis and
then in line with the x-axis attribute. Once all data is recorded, a line is drawn from
one plotted point to the next. If you want learners to compare data, another set of
data can be recorded in a different colour representing data collected from another
subject/year for example. Remember that a key needs to be present to illustrate what
each coloured line represents.

•• Circular or Pie charts

FIGURE 6.7
Pie graph

6.3.5 ‌Step 5: Analyse and interpret data

The language that is used during the data cycle, and especially during the analyses
and interpretation phase, should be the same as that of the skills the learners need
to obtain through doing these activities. Therefore, the following data handling
language, taken and adapted from Charlesworth and Lind (2007:270), should appear
often in your discussions with your learners:

•• ‌Less/more/fewer than
•• ‌Longer/longest
•• ‌Shorter/shortest
•• ‌Higher/taller

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•• ‌The same as
•• ‌None
•• ‌All
•• ‌Some
•• ‌A lot of
•• ‌The most/least

6.3.6 ‌Step 6: Report data

In addition to the above vocabulary, which will be used often when analysing graphs,
below are words that can be used as a guide for question generation that will help to
generate higher order thinking skills as well as develop 21st century skills:

•• ‌Discuss
•• ‌Describe
•• ‌Give reasons
•• ‌Predict
•• ‌Compare
•• ‌Contrast
•• ‌Organise
•• ‌Analyse
•• ‌Interpret

ACTIVITY 6.2
Use each of the words listed above to generate questions based upon a single
graph activity.

27 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 6.2

Firstly, you would need to design or find a completed graph relevant to the specific
age group you have chosen. Once you have done this, begin generating your
questions using the words from the list just before this activity. Based upon this,
the completed activity should include nine questions to ask your learners based
upon the one completed graph.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What are the steps in the data handling cycle?
2. List, explain and give examples of the topics that data handling questions can
fall under.
3. Based upon the pictograph graph example, create three higher order thinking
questions from the list of key words stated in Step 6: Report Data.
4. Explain how Bruner’s theory can be incorporated into data handling activities
in the foundation phase.
5. Why is it important that learners should be able to sort and classify objects
before handling data?

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 LEARNING UNIT 6: Data handling

6.4 CONCLUSION
It is clear that the teaching and learning of data handling deals with more than
describing more and less than, and from reading this unit you should realise the
problem-solving nature of these activities as well as the communication, collaboration,
critical and reflective thinking skills it develops, and how this is crucial for our 21st
century learner. Through developmentally appropriate implementation of the data
handling cycle, you will be able to successfully design lessons to support and facilitate
the development of data handling concepts within foundation phase learners.

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7 LEARNING UNIT 7
7 ASSESSMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Assessment has long been used as a tool to inform teachers of learners’ achievement
of learning outcomes together with the successfulness of their own instruction, and
is an integral component in the teaching and learning process and planning stages.
“To determine a learner’s instructional needs, assessment must provide information
in two key areas. Assessment data should be collected to help you to analyse the
output of your instruction – ‘What is it that my learner knows, can show and do?’
Assessment practices should also allow you to evaluate your teaching methods – ‘How
do I plan my teaching in order to improve the performance and meet the diverse
needs of my learners?’” (DBE, nod).

7 LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:

•• Define the concept, assessment:

•• Identify and explain the purpose of assessment within foundation phase
mathematics teaching
•• Evaluate various assessment strategies pertaining to foundation phase
mathematics
•• Apply assessment strategies to ensure that the assessment of mathematics
is valid and reliable.

KEY CONCEPTS
•• types of assessment refer to the two main types of assessment: formative
and summative
•• formative assessment is continuous and refers to assessment for learning
summative assessment is formal and refers to assessment of learning and
occurs at the end of a learning unit, term or year
•• forms of assessment refer to what assessment activity the learners will
be involved in, in order to demonstrate their level of achievement of specific
outcomes in terms of their knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
•• assessment tools refer to how the information will be collected
•• assessment methods refer to who will use the assessment tool to collect
the information
•• differentiation refers to the action of distinguishing between the diversity
among people
•• learning outcomes states objectives of what learning needs to take place at
the end of a learning activity and be demonstrated by the learner

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 LEARNING UNIT 7: Assessment

7.2 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?

Assessment is a continuous planned process of identifying, gathering and interpreting
information about the performance of learners by using various forms of assessment.
It involves four steps:

•• ‌generating and collecting evidence of achievement;

•• ‌evaluating this evidence;
•• ‌recording the findings; and
•• ‌using this information to understand and thereby assist the learner’s development
in order to improve the process of learning and teaching.

Assessment should be both informal (assessment for learning) and formal (as-
sessment of learning). In both cases regular feedback should be provided to
learners to enhance the learning experience. In the foundation phase, the main
techniques of formal and informal assessment are observation by the teacher,
oral discussions, practical demonstrations and written recording. Grade R as-
sessment should be mainly oral and practical. ( DBE(2011:48)

For the purpose of this module we will refer to various assessment terms, those being
types of assessment, forms, tools and methods. These will be explained in further
detail below, and will help you as a mathematics teacher to design, implement and
present comprehensive and varied assessments for learners that meet the requirements
of the curriculum – especially those pertaining to assessments needing to be fair,
flexible, valid and reliable.

7.2.1 ‌Assessment Types

The CAPS (Continuous Assessment Policy, 2011) describes two main types of
assessment that different forms of assessment fall under: formative and summative
assessment

•• Formative Assessment
Otherwise known as assessment for learning, this type of assessment is usually performed
on a continuous basis using many informal methods of assessment. This specific
recording of information can assist the teacher and learner in self-reflection and
self-assessment along with assisting the teacher in:

•• ‌providing information on what the learners can and cannot do,

•• planning future teaching and learning activities with a focus on enrichment or
learner support,
•• ‌adjusting their teaching methodology and methods accordingly, and
•• reporting to the stakeholders involved such as caregivers, parents, associated
therapists and principles.

•• Summative Assessment
Otherwise known as assessment of learning, this type of assessment is usually performed
at the end of a unit, week, term or year on a once off basis using more formal methods
of assessment. This long-term form of assessment assists the teacher in:

•• ‌planning future activities in terms of setting new goals,

•• ‌providing information of learner’s strengths and weaknesses, and
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•• providing feedback to stakeholders, especially in the form of year-end reports.

It is important to take note that although these are the two main types of assessment
that should be conducted within a foundation phase mathematics classroom, it is
vital that a third type of assessment is conducted: a baseline assessment. This type of
assessment is usually conducted at the beginning of a year to measure the learners’
needs, abilities and potential. In essence, it provides the teacher with information
on what the learners’ prior knowledge is on the topic, gaps in their learning, and
lastly gives direction for planning future teaching and learning activities, taking into
consideration enrichment, scaffolding and further support.

In conjunction with the following section, I suggest that for further reading you
consult the CAPS Mathematics Gr 1-3 (DBE, 2011:485) document in your e- reserves,
as it provides exemplars of the various types of assessment according to each grade
and term.

7.2.2 ‌Forms of assessment

Forms of assessment refers to what type of activity the learners will be involved in,
in order to demonstrate the extent of their achievement of the knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes relevant to the specific learning outcome:

•• ‌Classwork observation
•• ‌Orals/discussions
•• ‌Practical demonstrations
•• ‌Work samples/written recordings
•• ‌Research (projects, portfolios etc.)
The main types of assessment you will be using as a foundation phase mathematics
teacher will be both formative and summative in the form of observations, discussions,
practical demonstrations and work samples/written recordings.

7.2.3 ‌Assessment tools

Assessment tools are those tools that the teacher uses to record the information gained
from the assessment activity, and thus should be decided upon before continuing with
the assessment. These tools provide different ways for the teacher to collect evidence
and you will find that some will work better with certain forms and methods of
assessment than others. The following are some assessment tools one will be using
within a foundation phase mathematics classroom:

•• ‌Observation (anecdotal notes)

•• ‌Rubrics
•• ‌Rating scales
•• ‌Checklists
•• ‌Work samples

7.2.4 ‌Assessment methods

Once you have decided upon what form of assessment to use and what assessment
tool to use for the activity, you must decide what the best method is to use in

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 LEARNING UNIT 7: Assessment

recording this information? Assessment methods refer to who will be recording the
information. Below are the four options to choose from:

•• Teacher assessment
•• Peer assessment
•• Group assessment
•• Self-assessment
Checklist (Self-Assessment) – Problem-Solving Activity

√ or X

Could I read the problem?

Did I underline the facts needed to solve the problem?

Did I draw a picture to help me understand and solve the problem?

Could I write the number sentence for the problem?

Could I show my work?

Did I solve the problem?

Did I check my answer

Checklist (Teacher Observation) – Small Group Shape and Space Activity

√ or X Comments

Did learner engage in partner talk?

Did the learner ask a question?

Did the learner answer a question?
Could the learner identify the 2-D
shapes?

Could the learner sort the 2-D shapes

according to give criteria i.e. triangles,
round, straight sides etc.?

Could the learner describe some of the

shape’s properties?
Could the learner recognise shapes in
the environment?

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Rating Scale (Teacher Assessment) – Formal Assessment on Number Sense:

1–Requires attention 2–Partially achieved 3 – Achieved 4–Competent 5–Outstanding achievement

Mark Comments
Counts up to 10 everyday objects
Counts up to 10 2-D images
Rote counts forward to 10
Identifies numerals 0–5
Can give objects up to 10 from reading
number numeral

Write numerals 0–5

Rubric (Teacher Observation) – Classwork Activity on Length

Not Achieved Competent

achieved
(needs
support)

Distinguishes between long and

short.

Uses correct language when compar-

ing lengths e.g. short, shorter, long,
longer etc.

Ability to sort objects from shortest to

longest.

Ability to use informal measurement

unit to measure the length of objects.

Can record measurements.

7.3 CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DESIGNING ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

7.3.1 ‌Differentiation in assessment

Differentiation has much to do with a teacher creating an inclusive classroom as
it does in designing assessments. When you plan for differentiated assessments it
means that you have thought of the diverse needs of your learners and provided
activities that allow them various opportunities to demonstrate their achievement.
Remember in unit 2, we discussed that learners whose mother tongue is different
from the language of learning and teaching (LoLT), will struggle when learning the
number names (ones, two, three etc.). Therefore, in assessing learners’ understanding
in number concepts, a teacher might need to provide several opportunities to allow
these learners to demonstrate their knowledge that they understand the quantity
behind the numeral 2 – in this case show a flash card of the numeral so learners can
count out the necessary amount instead of asking them verbally to count out 2 items.

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 LEARNING UNIT 7: Assessment

7.3.2 Linking the specific focus, skills and learning outcomes to assessments
As obvious as this consideration may be, many student teachers make the mistake
of not linking their assessment to the specific focus, skills and learning outcomes
stipulated in their lesson plan. If this mistake is made, you will not know if your
learners achieved the learning outcomes and hence, will struggle to plan future
activities that speak to your learners’ needs and abilities as you have not gathered
the correct information or evidence to inform you properly.

7.3.3 ‌Generating measurable Learning outcomes

As above, another common mistake made with first time teachers is designing
learning outcomes and assessments that are not easily measurable, for example, “At
the end of the activity learners will understand the concept of sorting.” How will you know that
the learners have understood as this is not measurable? In order to write learning
outcomes and hence design assessment activities, you need to be specific when
generating learning outcomes, for example, “At the end of the activity learners will be able
to sort objects by specific criteria.” This learning outcome (LO) is still not specific enough
and can be narrowed down further: “At the end of the activity learners will be able to sort
objects according to colours.” Once you are sure you have measurable learning outcomes
that are specific, you can design your assessment activities, taking into consideration
that you have planned related teaching and learning opportunities for the lesson.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Look in the CAPS Mathematics Gr R-3 (2011) document for a specific focus/skill.
Generate a learning outcome that speaks to the focus/skill you have chosen.
Lastly, design three differentiated assessment activities that link to the learning
outcomes, and ultimately the specific focus/skill stipulated in the curriculum.

28 FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 7.1

Remember, when generating learning outcomes, focus on one or two skills only
and ensure that these can be measurable (in an assessment activity) and are
developmentally appropriate for the age group. Begin writing your LOs by complet-
ing the following phrase: “At the end of this activity, learners should Be able to”.

7.3.4 ‌Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to guide assessment planning

Bloom’s taxonomy categorizes levels of thinking, from lower order thinking skills to
higher order thinking skills, in terms of difficulty, and are used throughout educational
systems to help teachers teach and learners learn. The importance of Bloom’s
taxonomy for educators, among others and for the purpose of this unit, is that it
aids towards creating differentiated assessments by providing clear descriptions of
what is expected of the learner in terms of how they will demonstrate achievement
of the learning outcomes. Bloom’s taxonomy greatly assists teachers in avoiding
“parrot fashion” or “rote learning”-based assessment tasks and therefore gives all
learners differentiated opportunities to succeed. The six levels of Bloom’s taxonomy
are featured below:

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FIGURE 7.1
Bloom’s taxonomy

An example of how these can be used in a mathematics situation can be found in

your prescribed textbook (Naudé & Meier, 2020:117).

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Compare and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two main types
of assessment.
2. Design an appropriate formative and summative assessment for a grade 1
learner with regard to number sense development.
3. Explain the difference between assessment forms, tools and methods.
4. What do you think are the important aspects to consider when giving a learner
a self-assessment?
5. What other considerations do you need to consider when planning and present-
ing assessment activities?
6. Create assessment activities for number pattern development, which is linked
to Bloom’s taxonomy.

7.4 CONCLUSION
The above unit dealt with assessment in terms of the various assessment strategies
you could use as a teacher in a mathematics classroom in the foundation phase.
An important aspect to take from this unit is that assessment in the foundation
phase relies on both formative and summative assessments whereby activities need
to remain hands-on, and relative to all learners in terms of being developmentally
appropriate, differentiated, and related to the learning outcomes of the curriculum.
In this regard, you need to refer to Bloom’s taxonomy and the curriculum you will
be working from as a teacher, and use it as a guideline for planning and presenting
assessment activities in order to record and report on learners’ achievements, and
to reflect and improve or change your own teaching practices.

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 APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

child-centred approach means that the child is in the centre of the teaching and
learning process

teacher-centred approach means the teacher is in control of the teaching and

learning process

cognitive development is the development of thought processes such as problem

solving, memory recall, reasoning and decision making

constructivism emphasizes the fact that learners are creators of their own knowledge

socio-cultural theory is the belief that knowledge is constructed based on the

interactions an individual has with others

zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area in which a learner can develop
further with the support of a more knowledgeable other

scaffolding refers to supporting a learner to achieve specific learning outcomes

enactive knowledge is derived from the physical manipulation of objects and the
child’s own movement

iconic knowledge involves mental operations where the child uses representations
of concrete objects, emphasising visual and perceptual information

symbolic knowledge refers to the ability to use abstract symbols

ethno mathematics is the study of the relationship between mathematics and culture

learning styles means the different ways in which learners learn and acquire
information

cultural diversity refers to the presence of different cultures within the classroom

number sense means the ability to use and understand numbers

operations refer to the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers

estimating is the ability to make a calculated guess on the value of something

one-to-one correspondence is the ability to match the correct number of objects

to a number symbol, showing understanding that the symbol represents a value
consecutive means following after each other

fractions refer to a part of something whole

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APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

number name is the number written out in its word form e.g. “two”

numeral is the number symbol e.g. 2

subitising is the ability to see the total number of objects instantly

ordinal counting deals with what place an object is holding within a given list

place value refers to the value a numeral/symbol has based upon its position in a
number

automaticity refers to the ability whereby learners are proficient in adding and
subtracting when calculating sums

geometric shapes refer to the most common of shapes and consist of triangles,
quadrilaterals, polygons, curved, organic, symbolic and free-form shapes

triangles refer to three-sided shapes

quadrilaterals refer to four-sided shapes

polygons refer to any closed 2-D shape with straight lines concave deals with lines
curving inwards into a shape convex deals with lines curving outwards of a shape

properties refer to the characteristics of the shape, these being how many edges,
faces, vertices and sides the shape has

faces refer to the flat surfaces that appear on 3-D shapes

edges could be seen as the lines made when two faces meet on a 3-D shape symmetry
is seen as two halves of an image/object depicting the reflection of the other half if
a line is drawn through the centre of it

vertex/vertices refer to the corner/s made when two lines meet on a 2-D shape or
when edges meet on a 3-D shape

nets refer to the pattern of connected 2-D shapes that can be cut and folded to
make a 3-D object

mass refers to how much matter an objects comprises

time can be measured in seconds, hours and minutes, or can relate to events in the
past, present or future

length/distance the measurement of the longest part of an object from end to end

area refers to the size of a surface a specific object is occupying

perimeter refers to the distance around a 2-D shape or 3-D object

capacity/volume refers to the amount of 3-dimensional space an object is occupying

temperature refers to whether an object is hot or cold, usually measured in degrees

Celsius (C°)

data refers to information collected

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 Appedndix A: Glossary of terms

charts reflect data in the form of a table

data tables reflect data in the form of rows and columns

object graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with 3-D objects

pictographs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with 2-D images

block or symbolic graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with
blocks per unit or any other symbol chosen

tally graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented with the use of tally
marks to show value

line graphs refer to a graph whereby the data is represented using lines that are
connected via markers/points representing a value

bar graphs or histograms refer to a graph whereby the data is represented using
columns

circular or pie charts refer to a chart that uses a circle as its base and then is divided
up according to percentages/fractions according to the relevant value

types of assessment refer to the two main types of assessment: formative and
summative

formative assessment is continuous and refers to assessment for learning summative

assessment is formal and refers to assessment of learning and occurs at the end of
a learning unit, term or year

forms of assessment refer to what assessment activity the learners will be involved
in, in order to demonstrate their level of achievement of specific outcomes in terms
of their knowledge, skills, values and attitudes

assessment tools refer to how the information will be collected assessment method
refers to who will record the information collected differentiation refers to the
action of distinguishing between the diversity among people

learning outcomes states objectives of what learning needs to take place at the end
of a learning activity and be demonstrated by the learner

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APPENDIX B: LIST OF ACRONYMS

APPENDIX B: LIST OF ACRONYMS

ZPD – Zone of Proximal Development

DAP – Developmentally Appropriate

LoLT – Language of Learning and Teaching

CAPS – Continuous Assessment Policy Statement

LOs – Learning outcomes

DBE – Department of Basic Education

LTSM – Learning and Teaching Support Materials

96
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