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Robert Bailey

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© 2019 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

IFP3701/1/2020–2022

170777470

2MNB_style
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

CONTENTS
Page

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY GUIDE vi

LEARNING UNIT 1: UNDERSTANDING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE FOUNDATION

PHASE 1
1.1 ‌ Introduction 1
1.2 ‌ Understanding inclusive education from an international
human rights perspective 2
1.3 ‌ Inclusive education policies in South Africa 4
1.4 ‌ Application of theories of inclusive education in the
foundation phase 9
1.4.1 ‌ The social constructivist theory 10
1.4.2 ‌ Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory 12
1.5 ‌ Principles of inclusive education and their application in
the foundation phase 15
1.6 ‌ Competencies and expertise to deal with diverse learning
needs in the foundation phase 16
1.6.1 ‌ What are diverse learning needs? 16
1.6.2 Factors causing diverse learning needs 17
1.6.3 Barriers to learning 18
1.6.3.1 ‌Intrinsic barriers 19
1.6.3.2 ‌Extrinsic barriers 20
1.6.4 ‌ Competencies and expertise required to deal with diverse
learning needs 21
1.6.4.1 ‌Curriculum adaptation 22
1.6.4.2 Curriculum differentiation 23
1.7 ‌ Summary and conclusion 24
1.8 ‌ Reference list 24
LEARNING UNIT 2: IDENTIFYING CHILDREN WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS TO
MATHEMATICS LEARNING 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Knowing your learners 27
2.2.1 ‌ The role of the foundation phase teacher 29
2.3 Mathematics: a brief review 30
2.3.1 Mathematics as a concept 30
2.3.2 Focus of mathematics content areas in the foundation
phase 32
2.4 ‌ Identifying barriers to learning in the foundation phase 35
2.4.1 ‌ Observations 35
2.4.2 Observation book and screening checklist 36
2.4.3 Gather information on learner’s background 37
2.5 Early identification of barriers to learning mathematics
in the foundation phase 38
2.5.1 Barriers within the learner (intrinsic factors) to
mathematics in the foundation phase 38
2.5.1.1 Mathematics anxiety 39
2.5.1.2 ‌Emotional immaturity 40
2.5.1.3 Giftedness 41

(iii)
2.5.1.4 Difficulties with perceptual skills 41
2.5.2 Extrinsic factors that cause barriers to learning
mathematics 43
2.5.2.1 Barriers to learning within the school and classroom
environment 43
2.5.3 ‌ Manifestations of difficulties in mathematics in the
foundation phase 43
2.6 ‌ Support and intervention strategies for overcoming
barriers to learning in mathematics in the foundation phase
49
2.6.1 Curriculum adaptation and differentiation 50
2.6.1.1 ‌Principles of curriculum differentiation 50
2.6.1.2 ‌The importance of curriculum differentiation 51
2.6.2 ‌ Curriculum adaptation 52
2.6.2.1 Adapting the classroom environment 52
2.6.2.2 Adapting the content 53
2.6.2.3 ‌Adapting the teaching methods 53
2.6.2.4 ‌Adapting the assessment 54
2.6.3 ‌ Curriculum differentiation: differentiated teaching 55
2.6.3.1 ‌Differentiating the mathematics content 55
2.6.3.2 ‌Differentiating the teaching methods 56
2.6.3.3 ‌Differentiating the learning environment for mathematics
lessons 61
2.6.3.4 ‌Differentiating mathematics assessment 62
2.7 Conclusion 64
2.8 Reference list 64
LEARNING UNIT 3: EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS EXPERIENCING BARRIERS
TO LANGUAGE LITERACY AND DETERMINING PROVISIONS FOR
SUPPORT 65
3.1 ‌Introduction 65
3.2 ‌ Guiding principles of an inclusive education and training
system to facilitate language learning within mainstream
schools 66
3.3 ‌ Some reasons for the onset of language learning needs
within mainstream schools 67
3.4 ‌ Differentiating curriculum barriers to meet the needs of
all learners for language learning 68
3.5 ‌ Language learning 69
3.5.1 ‌ Reading 69
3.5.1.1 ‌
Identifying learners who experience common barriers to
reading, with provisions for support 71
3.5.1.2 ‌
Identifying learners who experience barriers regarding
directionality 71
3.5.1.3 ‌
Identifying learners who experience barriers regarding
laterality 74
3.5.1.4 ‌
Identifying learners who experience barriers regarding
position in space and spatial relationships 76
3.5.2 ‌ Writing 80
3.5.2.1 ‌
Identifying learners who experience common barriers to writ-
ing, with provisions for support ‌Poor pencil control
due to inadequate motor development 82
3.5.3 ‌ Spelling 89

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3.5.3.1 ‌
Identifying learners who experience common barriers to
spelling – with provisions for support 90
3.5.4 ‌ Comprehension 92
3.5.4.1 ‌
Identifying learners who experience common barriers
to comprehension, with provisions for support 92
3.6 ‌ Administering assessments to determine learner support
needs 95
3.6.1 ‌ Guidelines for assessing learners who may experience
potential language barriers 95
3.6.2 ‌ Checklist to determine potential visual barriers 96
3.6.3 ‌ Assessing learners to determine potential barriers related
to speech sound awareness 96
3.6.4 ‌ Assessing learners to determine potential reading barriers –
using the Burt word reading test 97
3.6.5 ‌ Assessing learners to determine potential writing barriers 98
3.6.6 ‌ Assessing learners to determine potential spelling barriers 99
3.6.7 ‌ Assessing learners to determine potential barriers to
spelling – using the Schonell spelling test 100
3.6.8 Assessing learners to determine potential comprehension
barriers 101
3.7 ‌ Lesson planning for multilevel teaching 102
3.8 ‌ Conclusion 103
3.9 ‌ Reference list 103

(v)
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO
THE STUDY GUIDE

In this module, INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE, you will be introduced
3

to the application of relevant policies with regard to inclusive education in the foundation
phase. Principles of inclusive education are applied in context to contribute to the
achievement of quality education for all learners. Early identification of barriers to learning,
assessment of learners’ diverse needs in order to determine the required level of support
and creation of an enabling inclusive learning environment in the foundation phase are
attended to.

PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is to equip qualifying graduates with knowledge and
4

understanding on how to identify and overcome barriers to learning and development

from a holistic perspective in a foundation phase. The qualifying graduates will also
have a clear understanding on how to provide the necessary support and use different
intervention strategies in order to deal with barriers to learning and development from
a diverse and multicultural context. The module will further look at the importance of
adapting and differentiating the curriculum in order to accommodate learners who
experience barriers to learning and development in a foundation phase context.

Prescribed book for this module

Nel, M, Nel, N & Hugo, A. 2016. Learner support in a diverse classroom: a guide for foundation,
intermediate and senior phase teachers of language and mathematics. 2nd ed. Pretoria, Hatfield:
Van Schaik.

5The following icons will be found throughout the study guide:

The icon is used to highlight the learning outcomes of the specific learning
unit. This is what you should be able to do after completing the learning
unit in question.

The question mark asks you to think about a certain question or statement
in the light of your existing knowledge and to make notes on your thoughts
for future reference.

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IFP3701/1/2020–2022

The pen indicates a written activity. This activity serves as a self-evaluation of

your progress and your insight into the work. These answers are not submitted
as part of any assignment, but are used to help you in your own studies.

The hand entails activities or case studies where writing is not involved.
Think of the hand as if it is forcing you to stop and think and do something.

The icon indicates feedback on the written activity or case study. The feedback
provides you with hints on how you could have responded to the written
activities.

As a B Ed student, you will have the most meaningful learning experiences if you work
9

through the whole study guide very carefully and complete all the activities systematically
on your way. This will give you a hands-on experience of the systematic way in which a
professional or teacher should work.

You are advised to write your notes on a notepad and keep them filed systematically
10

per learning unit in a box file for later use. Also ensure that you use a heading at the
beginning of each set of notes that you make, linking your notes to that section and the
page number where that activity is to be found in the study guide. By being an active
student as indicated at various points throughout the study guide, you will optimise your
chances of success and empower yourself as well. Be disciplined and study regularly,
preferably on a daily basis.

Please take note of the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria
for this module:

12 Specific outcome 1:
Enhance foundation phase students’ understanding of
inclusive education.

13 Assessment criteria:

1. Relevant policies and theories of inclusive education are applied in different contexts
in the foundation phase.
2. Principles of inclusive education are applied in different contexts of the foundation
phase.
3. Competencies and expertise are used to cater for diverse children’s needs in the
foundation phase.

(vii)
14 Specific outcome 2: Identify and respond to learners / children who experience barriers
to learning mathematics at an early age.

15 Assessment criteria:

1. Relevant methods for children who experience barriers to learning are identified
and used in context.
2. The needs and strengths of children who experience barriers to learning are identi-
fied in the foundation phase context.
3. The importance of language development and mathematical skills in young learn-
ers are described.
4. The manifestations of mathematics and language development problems in the
foundation phase are identified.

16 Specific outcome 3: Provide the necessary support and intervention strategies to children
in need.

17 Assessment criteria:

1. The curriculum is adapted in order to meet the needs of all children.

2. Intervention strategies that will improve the learning of all children are applied.
3. Practical strategies to assist learners with mathematics and language problems are
discussed.

18 Specific outcome 4: Manage inclusivity in the teaching of inclusive education in the

foundation phase.

19 Assessment criteria:

1. The intervention strategies that will improve the learning of all children are applied
by using different teaching styles.
2. Children’s achievements are evaluated to find out if the intervention has been suc-
cessful or not.

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IFP3701/1/2020–2022

Learning unit 1
UNDERSTANDING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE
FOUNDATION PHASE

SPECIFIC OUTCOME
20 Enhance Foundation Phase students’ understanding of inclusive education.

Learning outcomes for learning unit 1

When you have completed learning unit 1, you should be able to:
• apply relevant policies and theories of inclusive education in different contexts in
the foundation phase
• apply the principles of inclusive education in different contexts in the foundation phase
• use effective competences and expertise to deal with diverse learners’ needs in the
foundation phase

1.1 ‌INTRODUCTION
The objective of any education system is one of providing quality education for all
21

learners, regardless of their educational level. All learners deserve nothing less than
quality education and training that would provide them with opportunities for lifelong
learning, the world of work and meaningful participation in society as productive citizens.
Inclusive education has thus evolved as a movement that seeks to challenge exclusionary
policies and practices, and to ensure that justice in education prevails (Du Plessis, 2013).
Inclusive education is defined a process of providing in and responding to the diversity of
needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities,
and reducing exclusion (UNESCO, November 2008). Due to the fact that inclusive education
is a global phenomenon, every country has adapted an inclusive education policy based
on different contexts. South Africa has adopted it through the Education White Paper 6:
Special Needs Education –building an inclusive education and training system (Department
of Education, [DoE] 2001). The policy stipulates that all schools and educational institutions
have to accept inclusion as part of their approach to teaching and learning. Inclusion in
this case focuses on the transformation of education systems and schools so that they can
cater for the diversity of learners’ learning needs resulting from their social and cultural
background and their individual characteristics as regards learning motivations, abilities,
styles and rhythm.

1
Thus, this learning unit is looking at the application of relevant policies and theories
23

regarding inclusive education in different contexts in the foundation phase. It further

discusses how the principles of inclusive education can be applied in different contexts
in the foundation phase.

1.2 ‌UNDERSTANDING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FROM AN

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE
Inclusive education initially originated from the human rights which were pronounced
24

in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, stating the following:

Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
25

and fundamental stages.

Education shall be directed to the full development of human personality and to

the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

As a result of these human rights, there are a range of United Nations (UN) conventions and
27

declarations that inform the field of inclusive education. These conventions and declarations
started as a written document: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Over the last
fifty years, though, the idea of human rights has developed from words on a page to
become a global movement, driven by people from all walks of life and communities
across the world. This movement has led to human rights becoming a fundamental,
globally acknowledged part of every individual’s life, and to their being integrated into
international law.

28 Human rights policies in education aim to achieve the following:

Promote, respect and protect the universal right of all children to inclusive,
29

quality education

Recognise that every learner and every teacher are free to explore, discover, develop
30

and express their potential, with dignity, with equal opportunity and without
discrimination

A rights-based approach to education is closely linked to human rights principles.

These principles are defined in many international declarations, which many countries
– including South Africa, have ratified.

We are not going to discuss these policies in detail in this module. The INC3701 module
32

contains detailed information on these policies. The table below provides a timeline of
the development of some UN human rights documents and a summary of how they
inform inclusive education:

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Table 1: International conventions on inclusive education

Year Document title How it affects inclusive education
1948 Universal Declaration Education is a right. Primary school should be free. The
of Human Rights emphasis on non-discrimination, equality, fairness, and
(Article 26) affirmation of human dignity. We should learn about the UN
and how to get on with others. The best interests of the child
and the child’s view should be considered.
1965 International Condemns apartheid and racial segregation and obliges
Convention on the countries to “prevent, prohibit and eradicate” these practices
Elimination of All in all of their territories. Combats racial prejudice and
Forms of Racial encourages understanding and tolerance between different
Discrimination racial, ethnic and national groups.
1982 World Programme of Strategy to enhance disability prevention, rehabilitation and
Action Concerning equalisation of opportunities. Refers to full participation
Disabled Persons of people with disabilities in social life and national
development. Emphasises the need to approach disability
from a human rights perspective.
1989 UN Convention on Protects the rights of children in all areas of their life.
the Rights of the Governments have a responsibility to:
Child
• take all available measures to make sure children’s rights
are respected, protected and fulfilled
• agree to review their laws relating to children
Calls on governments to assess their social services, legal,
health and education systems, as well as levels of funding for
these services
1990 World Education Is a major milestone in the international dialogue on
Forum: Jomtien the place of education in human development policy.
Conference– Makes education a top priority; broadens the discussion
Education for All about education from its previous, limited focus on access to
(EFA) primary school.
1993 Standard Rules on Emphasises strong moral and political commitment of
the Equalisation governments to take action to attain equity for persons with
of Opportunities disabilities. Document is still a basis for policy-making and
for Persons with cooperation between countries.
Disabilities: UN
General Assembly
1994 Salamanca Calls for major school reform. Recognises the need for
Statement and and urgency of providing education for all children,
Framework for young people and adults “within the regular education
Action on Special system”. That means that every child has the fundamental
Needs Education: right to education and that all children are unique, and
92 countries, 25 therefore education must consider their diverse needs and
international characteristics.
organisations Children with “special educational needs” must have access
to regular schools as the most effective way of dealing with
discrimination, creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for all.

3
Year Document title How it affects inclusive education
2000 World Education Culmination of a major assessment of the state of education
Forum: Dakar across the world; 1990–2000. Resulted in a set of priorities
Framework that aimed to achieve equitable access to quality education –
particular focus on gender.
2000 UN Millennium Sets out eight global goals, including halving the extreme
Development Goals poverty rate, halting the spread of HIV and AIDS, and
2000–15 providing universal primary education.
2006 UN Convention on Followed decades of work by the UN to change attitudes and
the Rights of Persons approaches to persons with disabilities. Aims to shift culture
with Disabilities of viewing people with disabilities as “objects” of charity,
medical treatment and social protection to viewing them
as “subjects” like anyone else – people with rights, who are
capable of claiming those rights, making decisions and being
active members of society.
2015 UN Sustainable Sets out seventeen global goals, which followed on
Development Goals from the Millennium Development Goals. SDG 4 ensures
2015–30 inclusive, equitable, quality education and promotes lifelong
learning opportunities for all, and has a specific focus on all
marginalised groups.
2015 World Education Focused on the framework for action for SDG 4. Outlines
Forum: Incheon a commitment to “addressing all forms of exclusion and
Declaration marginalisation, disparities and inequalities in access,
participation and learning outcomes”; in practice:
• Provides twelve years of free education
• Ensures that access to education and learning is equitable,
with a focus on vulnerable groups
• Ensures that outcomes are relevant and effective, and
provide the building blocks for lifelong learning

1.3 ‌INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICIES IN SOUTH AFRICA

The South African Constitution was the country’s first policy document to reflect
33

a commitment to equity and equality. It embraced the international principles of human

rights and committed itself to building an inclusive education and training system. This
Constitution asserts the fundamental right of all persons to basic education (Section 29
[1]) and to non-discrimination (Section 9 {3; 4; and 5}. The responsibility of the Department
of Basic Education (DBE) was to transform the education system to one based on equity,
redress of past imbalances and the progressive raising of the quality of education and
training. The DBE therefore committed itself to transforming the South African education
system into an “inclusive education and training system” and recognised it as “a cornerstone
of an integrated and caring society” (DoE, 2001:10).

We are not going to discuss in detail the policies in South Africa. Refer to learning unit 2
34

of the INC3701 module for detailed information. Below is a timeline of some important
South African policies with a brief summary of how they inform inclusive education.

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Stop and reflect!

Which policies do you think influence inclusive education in South Africa?

Feedback

Refer to the table below.

Table 2: South African inclusive education policies

Year Document title How it affects inclusive education

1996 The South African The Constitution legislates that all people are
Constitution and Bill of equal and thus have equal rights, including
Rights the fundamental right to basic education
prohibiting unfair discrimination “against
anyone on one or more grounds, including race,
gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or
social origin, sexual orientation, age disability,
religion, belief, language and birth”.
Section 29(1)(a); Section 32(a)
1996 The South African Articulates the roles and responsibilities of
Schools Act public schools. Ended the system of separate
schooling on the basis of race and created a
single system for all learners. Right of equal
access to basic and quality education for all
learners without discrimination of any sort. No
learner may be denied admission to an ordinary
school on any grounds. The first step towards
a single, inclusive education system for South
Africa.
2001 DoE: Education White Suggests structural and programme changes
Paper 6: Special Needs to South Africa’s education system so that
Education: building diverse learners can be included in mainstream
an inclusive education schools. Outlines an inclusive education system
and training system in which all learners have equal access to
quality educational opportunities. Recognises
the importance of developing learners’
strengths, and of empowering and enabling
learners to participate actively and critically in
the learning process.
2005 The South African Protects the rights of children so that they
Children’s Act are able to grow up safely and develop well.
If abused or neglected, they will be helped to
recover. Children are allowed to have their say
and participate in decisions that affect their
lives. Values and protects families. Ensures
proper and safe after-care, crèches, drop-in
centres, and child and youth care centres.

5
Year Document title How it affects inclusive education
2015 DHET: Revised All teachers need to be familiar with what is
Policy on Minimum needed to implement inclusive education
Requirements for practices.
Teacher Education
Qualifications
2011 DBE: Policy Framework of procedures to identify, assess, and
on Screening provide programmes for all learners who need
Identification, additional support to boost their participation
Assessment and and inclusion in school.
Support (SIAS)
2011 DBE: Guidelines for Strategies for differentiated teaching and
Responding to Learner learning to meet the diversity of learners’ needs.
Diversity in the
Classroom
2011 South African Council Details ten principles for professional teaching.
for Educators (SACE):
Draft Professional
Teacher Standards
2012 DBE: National States what should be in the curricula for each
Curriculum and grade in South Africa, and how it should be
Assessment and Policy assessed.
Statement Grades
R–12
2012 The South African Promotes nation building as a key element of
National Development social cohesion schemes. Identifies 31 actions
Plan 2030 that will help to achieve this based on values,
equal opportunities, inclusion, cohesion,
citizenship and leadership.
2013 African Union: Agenda Strategic plan for the socio-economic
2063–Africa’s Agenda transformation of the continent. Emphasises the
for Children importance of education and children’s civil and
political rights as the foundations of sustainable,
rights-based development.
2014 Southern African Aims to realise the educational rights of
Development all children, including those who are most
Community (SADC): vulnerable, by overcoming barriers to learning
Care and Support for and participation. Supports schools through
Teaching and Learning nine programmes to become inclusive centres
(CSTL) framework of teaching, learning, care and support.
2018 DBE: Draft Norms and Deals with how an inclusive education system
Standards for Funding will be funded and resourced.

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Year Document title How it affects inclusive education

2018 DHET: Standards for Identifies standards for the development of
Inclusive Teaching inclusive teachers in five key areas: valuing
and understanding learner diversity; agency
for social justice and inclusion; collaborating
to enable inclusive teaching and learning;
developing professionally as an inclusive
teacher; employing classroom practices that
promote learning for all.

Activity 1.1

Application of relevant policies in the foundation phase

Read the case study below and answer the questions that follow.

Case study 1
Brighten Primary School is a large x-Model C school in a moderately well-off suburb.
It functions according to long-established discipline and routines.
The language of learning and teaching is English and classes are streamed according
to ability levels. The school now has quite a large number of learners who mainly live
in the nearest townships and informal settlements. They have different backgrounds;
they speak different languages; many come from poorer families, single-parent
households, and poorly resourced communities.
The number of learners range from 45 to more than 50 per class, and the classrooms
are much noisier than they used to be. Many of the learners are battling academically,
because they do not have a strong grounding in English.
The teachers have good qualifications and are dedicated and caring. However, most
of them find it difficult to maintain discipline in their classes, and focus more on work.
They do not focus on providing learner support or individual attention. They usually
prefer to refer learners who experience barriers to learning to a remedial teacher who
is being appointed by the School Governing Body (SGB), or to place those learners in
the lower streams. There are also many challenges that the school is facing in terms
of the successful implementation of inclusive education.
Mrs Brown, who is from a nearby township, visited the school looking for placement
for her nine-year-old daughter. She met the principal of the school and the
admissions committee.
Principal (introducing himself): I am Lucas Baker, the principal of the school. How
can I help you?
Mrs Brown: I’m looking for a place for my daughter in a Grade 2 class.
Principal: (asking the committee members). Do we still have spaces in Grade 2?
Member: Yes, sir, plenty.
Principal: May I have a look at the child’s report? Where did she attend Grade 1?
Mrs Brown: At Klipkloof School for learners with Mild Intellectual Disability (MID).
Principal: This is not a special school, Ma’m. I’m sorry; we can’t help you.

7
Mrs Brown: The special school is approximately 1 000 kilometres away from my
home, Sir. It costs me a fortune to take her to school. I am a widow and unemployed.
I cannot afford to pay the boarding fees.
Principal: What is wrong with this child?
Mrs Brown: Psychologists referred her to a special school because she is a slow learner.
Principal: Madam, I have to repeat myself – we just can’t take this child. This school has
never admitted learners with intellectual disabilities and it does not have a curriculum
for them. Besides, our teachers have never been trained to deal with such cases. This
will be a real burden for the school. I’m sorry.
[Conferring with the committee members]
Does anybody want to say anything?
Member: Yes, sir. I agree – we have our hands full already. We are currently battling
with slow learners in our classes.
Mrs Brown: If you have other slow learners in your school, can’t you consider giving
her a chance? I am willing to support and cooperate with the school. Last week I
attended an inclusive education advocacy workshop and I thought this school would
respond to my request.
Principal: Listen here; inclusive education is a dream that will never come true. Policy
makers don’t teach. I’m sorry; we are not prepared to take your child, not at this school.
Imagine if bus full of disabled children were dumped at this school. Would that be fair?
Mrs Brown: If you were in the same predicament, what would you do?
Principal: I would take my child to where he belongs, the special school in this case.

QUESTIONS
(1) Refer to the policies on the timelines and identify the misconceptions about inclu-
sive education and special education in this case study’s dialogue.
(2) Considering the South African Constitution, the South African Schools Act and other
legal frameworks, has this child been treated fairly? Why or why not?
(3) What do the South African Constitution, the South African Schools Act and Education
White Paper 6 on Inclusive Education say about this case?
(4) What do you think the parent should do after having been refused admission for
her child?
(5) “Imagine a bus full of disabled children were dumped at this school. Would that be fair”?
With reference to the quotation above, what does the Education White Paper 6 (DoE,
2001) say about this term (“disabled children”)? In your response, also explain about
the report from the two commissions which were appointed by the South African
Education Ministry regarding the terminology.
(6) The classes at Brighten Primary School are streamed according to ability levels. Is this
arrangement in accordance with the inclusive education policies, and why or why not?
(7) After the conversation with the parent, the principal realised that he might get
himself and the school involved in a serious legal case which might jeopardise his
career. He then approaches you as a foundation phase teacher to assist in designing
the school’s inclusive education policy.
(7.1) Explain what your first step will be in carrying out the principal’s request.

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IFP3701/1/2020–2022

(7.2) Analyse the policies on the timelines and design the school’s inclusive educa-
tion policy. Your policy should also guide and deal with teaching, learning,
assessment and learner support in the foundation phase context.
(8) Identify all factors from the scenario that may cause barriers to learning.

Feedback

When answering these questions, the following points should be considered:

y Policies in table 2
y Factors that cause barriers to learning: socio-economic background; culture; school fac-
tors; disability; race; ethnic group; language; and so forth

1.4 ‌APPLICATION OF THEORIES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN

THE FOUNDATION PHASE
In this section, we will learn more about the application of theories that influence our
37

understanding of inclusive education in our teaching and learning in the foundation

phase. In the INC3701 module you have learnt about different theories. In this module the
focus will be more on the Bronfenbrenner ecological systems and social constructivism
theories. It does not mean that they are the only important ones, but they are more
relevant to teaching and learning as well as learning support in the foundation phase.

Stop and reflect!

In the INC3701 module, you learnt about two models that influence inclusive educa-
tion – the medical model and the social model. Critically discuss how they influence
inclusive education. According to your experience, which model is predominately used?

Feedback

When answering these questions, the following points should be considered:

Read Study Guide 001 of INC3701: Models of inclusive education

y The medical deficit model focuses on what is “wrong” with a person – their “sickness” or
“deficit” – and the causes of this problem (Swart & Pettipher, 2016). This focus has led to
the view of people with a huge range of differences as having an individual condition.
This condition is seen as being outside what is considered “normal”, and therefore they
are thought to be at a social disadvantage. Medical deficit theories have had a major
influence in the fields of psychology and special education. This has had a profound effect
on the education of learners seen as having “deficits”, including those viewed as having
disabilities or learning difficulties, which are often referred to as “special educational
needs” (SEN).

9
y The social and human rights models are predominantly used in inclusive education. The
social model perspective does not deny challenges caused by diverse needs or the need for
medical treatment. However, it challenges the view of difference as a “deficit”. It therefore
sees the medical deficit view of “labelling” and defining individuals by their conditions as
discriminatory, constructed by an ability-oriented environment.
y In an education setting, the social model asks us to shift our view away from the learner
as being, or having, the problem. Instead, it proposes that society itself creates barriers
around diversity. The issue is not the person, it is the world. As a result, the social model
stresses the full inclusion of people with diverse needs in society, and advocates for diverse
children to be educated and to participate fully in mainstream schools. In South Africa,
the social model underpinned the development of Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001).

1.4.1 ‌The social constructivist theory

According to the constructivist theory, knowledge is not just passively passed on or
38

transferred from one person to the next (Nel, Nel & Hugo, 2016). Knowledge is socially
constructed, which means that learning is a social process. Both are actively and continuously
constructed anew by each individual through their experiences and reflections. The
approach encourages learner-centred learning, with the teacher guiding the teaching
and learning process (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010).

According to Vygotsky (in Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010) social constructivism
39

emphasises the importance of the social and cultural context in understanding what occurs
in society, and constructing knowledge based on this understanding. Such knowledge,
which is actively learned, is regarded as viable if it helps people to cope with the world.

The pedagogic practices used in this approach focuses more on teacher-learner and
40

learner-learner interactions where learners are supposed to work in groups, pairs, whole
class, or as individuals (Westbrook, Durrani, Brown, Orr, Pryor, Boddy, & Salvi, 2013). Social
constructivism can be seen as supporting the learner-centred pedagogy where teachers
accept a democratic role rather than being authoritative and also where the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding are practised. Teachers are expected to
adapt and diversify the curriculum, methods of teaching and the environment to make
teaching and learning flexible and accessible in order to accommodate all learners’ diverse
learning needs.

A social constructivist teacher can create a context for learning in which learners can
41

participate in interesting activities using their own styles of learning. Social constructivist
approaches that teachers can use include collaboration, scaffolding, cognitive
apprenticeship, tutoring and cooperative learning, and learning communities, mentoring,
and continuous professional development programmes (Shunk, 2000).

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. In this case, learners
42

use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources
to find solutions and answers. As learners explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and,
as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads
to more questions.

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Example of a constructivist teaching and learning scenario

A Grade 1 school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the “door”. Rather
than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher allows learners to reflect and to
construct their own methods of measurement. One learner offers the knowledge that a doctor said
he is two feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in “hands”. The learners discuss
these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.

The scenario indicates that learners are not blank slates upon which knowledge is
43

etched. They come to learning situations with already formulated knowledge, ideas,
and understandings. Their prior knowledge is the raw material for the new knowledge
they will create.

Activity 1.2

In this activity you are going to apply what you have learnt about the social constructivist
theory in relation to teaching and learning.
(1) You want to teach the concept of data handling to the Grade 3 learners. Using the
social constructivist theory, design a lesson and explain all the steps that you will
use. Use the following key aspects to guide you:
• Inquiry
• Allowing multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple intelligences)
• Collaborative learning
....................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................
(2) Critically discuss the role of the teacher and the learner, respectively, in social con-
structivism teaching and learning.
....................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................

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....................................................................................................................................................................

1.4.2 ‌Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

The ecological systems theory aims to show how individual people and groups at different
44

levels of society are linked in active, interdependent and interacting relationships (Donald,
Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010). Inclusive education focuses specifically on a systemic approach,
that is, the system in society (for example, the classroom, school, family, community,
government) need to interact so as to provide supportive structures for the learner (Nel,
Nel & Hugo, 2016).

It is therefore important for students and teachers to familiarise themselves with

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model. This model will enable you as students to
understand the complex influences, interactions and interrelationships in terms of the
learner and all the other systems associated with the learner. In other words, there are
levels of interacting systems that directly or indirectly have an influence on the change,
growth, and development (physical, biological, psychological, logical, social, and cultural)
of the learner (Swart & Pettipher, 2016: 11). The model places the child at the centre of the
systems and puts central importance on making decisions that are in the best interest
of the child.

The ecological systems model is a proximal process, meaning that there are forms of
46

interaction between an organism and the environment, operating over time, the primary
mechanisms of which are resulting in human development (Nel, Nel, & Hugo, 2016). Donald
et al (2010) describe the proximal interactions as interactions that occur face-to-face and
involve a long-term relationship (for example, between the teacher and the learner, or
between the parent and the child). Bronfenbrenner defines five types of systems which
consist of roles, norms and rules that shape the development of the child: microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. Below is the diagram which
presents Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model.

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Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Source: Adapted from: http://bit.ly/2KqobHv

The microsystem is characterised by individuals and events that are closest to a person’s
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life, for example, the family, classroom, neighbourhood or systems in the person’s
immediate environment. In the South African context, family as the microsystem where
socialisation takes place first may include the extended family.

The mesosystem is an interaction of two microsystems, such as the connection between a

child’s home and school, or between the neighbourhood and the home. In the mesosystem,
all of the microsystems interact together and contribute to the development of the child.

The exosystem is an environment that does not directly involve a child but affects them
50

anyway. For example, when the work situation of a child’s parent requires a lot of travelling,
this affects the child. Or, when a new community service is introduced that the child can
access, this will have an impact on their life.

The macrosystem is the larger cultural context: the circumstances, beliefs, customs and
51

laws shared by the community around the child. The cultural context can include, for
example, socio-economic status, poverty and ethnicity. The macrosystem evolves over
time, because each generation’s circumstances change.

Chronosystems show changes over time, for example to family structure, socioeconomic
52

status, schooling and living conditions, as well as events in the country, the region and
the world (known as socio-historical events) (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). These changes also
influence the child’s life.

13
Bronfenbrenner places the child at the centre of all of these structures. The child is
53

therefore continuously affected in one way or another by the continuous changes that
happen in their environment (Howard & Johnson, 2000). It is crucial that teachers know
about and understand these changes, and their effects, so that they can understand how
they affect the learners in their foundation phase classroom and respond appropriately.

Activity 1.3

Read through the case study and answer the questions that follow.

Case study 2
Samuel is 10 years old and currently in Grade 3. He attends a school 8 km from
home. He lives in a two-room house that he shares with his mother, his 85-year-old
sick grandfather and eight other children. His mother is blind and cannot find a job.
Because no one in the house earns an income, they depend on their grandfather’s
grants. Samuel is often hungry. He and the other older children in the household
take turns to stay home from school and take care of the grandfather. His schoolwork
suffers because he is not able to attend school every day. He must also fetch water
from a river that is 1 km from home every morning before school and is often late
for school. When he is at school he often finds it difficult to concentrate because he
is usually hungry and he worries about his grandfather a lot. He is also sad because
his father left home to look for work and never returned.
When he gets home after a long day at school, he works in the neighbours’ garden
and then sells the vegetables to earn some money to buy food for the family.
The teacher does not know why Samuel comes to school late and why he is absent so
often. She shouts at him for not doing his homework and for his poor performance
at school.
Samuel gets nervous when the teacher shouts at him, therefore he sits at the back
of the class so that the she will not notice him. However, Samuel is partially sighted
and cannot see the board from the back of the class. No one knows about Samuel’s
visual impairment as his eyes have never been tested.
His academic performance gets worse and worse.

Questions
(1) Identify the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macro systems in the case study.
(2) Explain the negative interactions between the different systems.
(3) Describe in practical terms, what you might do in the classroom if you were Samuel’s
teacher.
(4) In which of these systems would you try to change what is happening?

Feedback

In your response, you were expected to include the following:

y examples of the factors in the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macro systems that affect Samuel’s
learning
y classroom support or assistance for Samuel

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1.5 ‌PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AND THEIR

APPLICATION IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE
Inclusive education is underpinned by the principles of social justice, human rights, equal
54

access to a single, inclusive education system, access to the curriculum, equity, and a
healthy environment. The principle of inclusivity in education, in particular, highlights the
need to celebrate diversity among our learners and encourages the creation of welcoming
cultures in schools and ensuring participation of all learners so that they are all valued and
they are all made to feel that they belong (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2014a).
The Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001) therefore defines inclusive education as follows:

• Acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth
need support
• Accepting and respecting that all learners are different in some way and have dif-
ferent learning needs which are equally valued and an ordinary part of our human
experience
• Enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the
needs of all learners
• Acknowledging and respecting differences in learners whether due to age, gender,
ethnicity, language, class, disability or HIV status
• Changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methodologies, curricula and the environ-
ment to meet the needs of all learners
• Maximising the participation of all learners in the culture and the curricula or edu-
cational institutions and uncovering and minimising barriers to learning
• Empowering learners by developing their individual strengths and enabling them
to participate critically in the process of learning
• Acknowledging that learning also occurs in the home and community, and within
formal and informal modes and structures

Activity 1.4

In this activity you are going to apply the principles of inclusive education in a practical
situation.
Principles of inclusive education
(1) Read the principles which underpin inclusive education and its definition as outlined
in Education White Paper 6. Critically analyse how you can implement these prin-
ciples to respond to the diverse learning needs of all the learners in your classroom.

....................................................................................................................................................................

15
....................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................
(2) Now, let us look at what causes diverse learning needs. Firstly, explain what is meant
by “diverse learning needs”. Then identify all learners’ diverse needs in your classroom.

....................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

Read the EWP6 (DoE, 2001) policy document.

1.6 ‌COMPETENCIES AND EXPERTISE TO DEAL WITH DIVERSE

LEARNING NEEDS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE
In this section you will learn more about diverse learning needs and barriers to learning.
55

Competencies and expertise required to deal with diverse learning needs are also discussed
in this section.

1.6.1 ‌What are diverse learning needs?

Having a diverse group of learners means recognising that people are unique in their
56

own way. When you look around in your classroom, you will observe that learners have
different socio-economic backgrounds, languages, cultures, religions, races, ability groups,

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ethics, genders and so on. Therefore, diversity means that learners display differences
in their use of language, learning style, developmental level, culture, socio-economic
background, ability, ethnic group, and intelligence.

The problem is that many schools act as if all learners are the same, and operate with an
57

evaluation system that reward only a certain number of abilities. It is important for you
as a foundation phase teacher to know these diverse learning needs so that you are able
to provide the necessary support to all learners. Examples of diverse learning needs are:

• Learners who have difficulty in reading and writing

• Learners who have difficulty in mathematics
• Learners with different learning styles
• Learners with hearing, visual and coordination difficulties
• Learners living in poverty
• Learners with health and emotional difficulties
• Learners experiencing difficulties in remembering what has been taught to them
• Learners who need assistive devices and adapted materials such as Braille
Source: DBE, 2011a

1.6.2 Factors causing diverse learning needs

58 Diverse learning needs may also arise because of the following (DoE, 2001):

• Negative attitudes towards and stereotyping of difference

• An inflexible curriculum
• Inappropriate languages or language of learning and teaching (LOLT)
• Inappropriate communication
• Inaccessible and unsafe built environments
• Inappropriate and inadequate support services
• Inadequate policies and legislation
• The non-recognition and non-involvement of parents
• Inadequately and inappropriately trained education managers and educators.

Activity 1.5

This activity refers to dealing with diversity in the classroom. Read the scenario and
answer the questions.
(1) Ms Lethusho is a Grade 1 teacher at Boreledi Primary school. She has 50 learners in
her classroom. Based on the context of the community where the school is situated,
there are different spoken languages socio-economic backgrounds and cultures. As
their teacher, Ms Lethusho has an important responsibility in making sure that all
these learners are included and affirmed in her classroom. Discuss how Ms Lethusho
will respond to this diversity in her classroom.

....................................................................................................................................................................

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....................................................................................................................................................................

1.6.3 Barriers to learning

Barriers to learning are difficulties that arise within the education system as a whole, the
59

learning site and/or within the learner, which prevent access to learning and development
for some learners (DBE, 2014b). Barriers to learning are caused by factors that lead to the
system being unable to respond to diversity or learners’ diverse needs. These factors
lead to breakdown in learning or prevent learners from accessing educational provision.
Examples of these are:

• Systemic barriers: these include policy and curriculum issues; situational issues such
as overcrowded classrooms; inaccessible environments; lack of basic and appropriate
learning materials, exclusionary policies and practices.
• Societal barriers: these include poverty; negative and harmful attitudes; late admis-
sions; violence and crime; impact of HIV and AIDS, child-headed households, and
children living in the streets.
• Pedagogic barriers: these include inappropriate teaching and assessment methods;
insufficient support to teachers; unqualified and underqualified teachers.
• Intrinsic barriers: these include neurological, physical, sensory and cognitive barriers,
or psychosocial and emotional difficulties. Giftedness is also an intrinsic barrier to
learning, because various extrinsic barriers could cause a breakdown in the learning
process for gifted learners. These learners are often labelled as “problem learners”
because of behavioural issues. If these learners are not given constructive stimulat-
ing activities, they get bored easily and may disrupt other learners in class. Epilepsy,
Down syndrome, physical impairment, autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),
and Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) are also examples of intrinsic barriers.

60 These barriers to learning may be divided into two broad groups, namely:

• Intrinsic barriers to learning: those located within the learner (usually called
impairments)
• Extrinsic barriers to learning: those emanating from outside the learner.

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1.6.3.1 ‌Intrinsic barriers

Intrinsic factors are factors located within individual learners themselves. These learners
61

are usually born with specific characteristics such as blindness or a missing arm. The
learners’ condition can be aggravated by a poor environment, ineffective education and
inapplicable education so that they may become disabled.

The most prominent intrinsic factors are physical and/or physiological impairments
62

and personality characteristics. More information on these factors are contained in the
INC3701 study guides.

• Genetic factors

Prenatal, perinatal and postnatal brain damage

Disability and chronic illnesses can cause barriers to learning and development if
64

the environment and the community do not adapt in order to provide for the needs
of these learners. However, if learners with impairments make use of supportive or
assistive devices, the barriers hampering their learning and development can largely
be removed. If, for instance, the learning centre is accessible to wheelchairs, learners
in wheelchairs are not hampered in their access to the school building. If blind
learners have access to reading and writing media (Braille and adapted computers)
and mobility training, they are not hampered in their learning either. Intellectual
impairments, severe autism or multiple impairments, however, can prevent learners
from ongoing involvement in programmes that are aimed at facilitating learning and
development in ordinary learning centres.

• Sensory impairments. These occur when one of the senses is affected. A person has
a visual or aural disability when his or her ability to see or hear is affected and the
environment does not make provision for support.
• Physical impairments. A person whose external physical appearance or functioning
is affected has a physical impairment. For instance, an arm is missing or crippled, or
a hand, a leg or limbs cannot be used, with the result that movement requires the
use of a wheelchair or crutches. Further examples are a hunchback, clubfeet, and so
on. However, the person is physically disabled only when he or she has no access to
the environment.
• Mental or intellectual impairments. These render affected persons mentally less
capable than the average so that they find it much more difficult to comprehend
and to learn. However, they can learn – therefore the emphasis in assessment is on
what they know and what they can do.
• Multiple impairments. Some persons have more than one impairment. They may, for
example, have physical and intellectual impairments, or visual and hearing impair-
ments. There are numerous other forms of physical impairments such as epilepsy,
autism and other forms of communication and behavioural disorders.

The term “physiological impairments” refers to impairment in the functions of the body.
65

These impairments comprise chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes mellitus, Aids,
tuberculosis, and so forth.

19
It is vital for learners with physical and/or physiological impairments to be identified as
66

early as possible so that they may benefit from the best possible assistance from an early
age, and so avoid developing a serious developmental backlog or delay – that is, that
they do not become disabled on a social level.

1.6.3.2 ‌Extrinsic barriers

67In the case of extrinsic factors, the barriers are not within the learners themselves.

Learners are perfectly normal at birth but circumstances beyond or outside the learners
68

– that is, their environment, home, upbringing or teaching – are so inadequate that they
adversely affect their development and learning and ultimately cause barriers to their
learning. The following are examples of extrinsic barriers to learning:

• Socioeconomic factors. These factors include the lack of access to basic services
(medical services, housing), poverty, underdevelopment and other factors exposing
learners to dangers such as child abuse, war and political violence.
• Discriminating attitudes. Labelling has a very negative effect on the self-image of
learners. Labelling occurs when these learners are placed in special schools or when
they are excluded from mainstream education – that is, it occurs when learners are
categorised. Very often people who label learners cannot determine what is needed
for the system to satisfy the needs of learners. A learner can, for instance, be classified
as intellectually disabled and therefore also as uneducable after one formal assess-
ment session, without considering his or her real abilities. Inadequate knowledge
of diseases such as Aids can lead to negative assumptions regarding this disease, so
that an HIV-positive learner may be denied access to learning centres.
• Inflexible curriculum. An inflexible curriculum that does not provide for the diverse
needs of all learners in the class can cause learning to fail; inadequately trained teach-
ers can use teaching styles that handicap the initiative and involvement of learners;
what is taught by the curriculum is not applicable to the situation in which learners
find themselves, and so on.
• Language and communication. For many learners, teaching and learning take place
in their second or third language, thereby compromising effective learning.
• Inaccessible and unsafe environment. Inaccessible and unsafe buildings in many
instances prevent learners with physical disabilities from having access to the learn-
ing centres, for instance if there are no ramps for wheelchairs, or if furniture is put in
aisles it hampers the movement of blind learners.
• Inapplicable and inadequate provision of support services. The labelling and
categorisation of learners have caused educational services to be focused on the
incompetence of learners rather than on the barriers within the system, such as poor
and stereotyped teaching methods. The nature of the intervention can cause learners
to be placed in a special school rather than to confront the problems of that specific
learning environment. In the rural areas, there are almost no support services.
• A lack of empowering and protective policy. This can promote the existence of bar-
riers to learning and development directly or indirectly. Legislation on age restriction
(which prevents learners from enrolling at schools or from staying in the education
system as long as possible) can for instance be a barrier to learning.

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• A lack of parental recognition and involvement. A lack of recognition of parents as

primary educators and continued negative attitudes as far as parental involvement
is concerned can also contribute to barriers to learning and development.
• A lack of human resources development. A lack of strategies for developing human
resources and a lack of ongoing in-service training for teachers can lead to a low
self-image, insecurity and a lack of innovative practices in the classroom.

Activity 1.6

Read the scenario in the activity and answer the questions.

(1) You are teaching a Grade 2 class of 45 learners.

(1.1) Observe these learners and select three who experience barriers to learning.
(1.2) Explain what might be the cause of these barriers to learning.
(1.3) Indicate in which category are those barriers to learning, for instance, intrinsic
or extrinsic barriers.

....................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

Refer to the causes and types of barriers to learning in 1.6 (1.6.1–1.6.3).

1.6.4 ‌ ompetencies and expertise required to deal with diverse

C
learning needs
As teachers you know that all learners have the right to learn. It is your role as a foundation
69

phase teacher to respond to diverse learning needs at an earlier stage so as to reduce

barriers to learning. We also know that not all learners learn in the same way and that

21
they bring different strengths and challenges to schools that are not always adequately
equipped to deal with them. This means that teachers have a lot to think about when
planning, teaching and assessing their learners’ work. You therefore need to develop
a practical way of responding to diverse learning needs in the classroom and become
better teachers. In order to create a classroom where all learners can learn, it is important
to plan carefully, arrange classrooms according to your learners’ needs, and use a wide
range of different teaching strategies.

Every teacher needs to understand that the most significant way to respond to learner
70

diversity in the classroom is through the curriculum (DBE, 2010a). In responding to the
diversity of learner needs in the classroom, it is imperative to ensure differentiation in
curriculum delivery to enable access to learning for all learners. It is therefore important
to understand the concepts of curriculum adaptation and curriculum differentiation so
as to ensure variations in mode of delivery and assessment processes to accommodate
all learners.

1.6.4.1 ‌Curriculum adaptation

Curriculum adaptation refers to making aspects of the curriculum accessible to all learners,
71

such as the teaching and learning materials, the classroom environment and assessment
(DBE, 2010a, 2014a). It can be broadened to modification and/or adjustment of lessons,
activities and materials to make them suitable for different learner needs. For example, if
you have a learner who has visual problems or is short sighted, his/her materials are made
accessible by using large fonts or large-print books, or alternatively, a magnifying glass
will be used so that he or she can access the materials. If you have a learner with auditory
impairment or who is hard of hearing, a teacher can use an overhead projector to present
material; this allows learners to see a visual presentation of the material and watch the
teacher’s lips simultaneously. This topic is discussed in detail in the next learning unit.

Activity 1.7

Read the scenario in the activity and respond to the answers.

(1) In your Grade 1 class, you realised that you have one learner with cerebral palsy, one
learner with perceptual motor problems and one learner with hearing impairment.
Briefly explain how you will adapt the resources, classroom environment, and as-
sessment for these learners.

....................................................................................................................................................................

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....................................................................................................................................................................

1.6.4.2 Curriculum differentiation

Curriculum differentiation is a key strategy for responding to the needs of learners with
72

diverse learning styles and needs. It involves processes of modifying, changing, adapting,
extending, and varying teaching methodologies, teaching strategies, assessment strategies
and the content of the curriculum (DBE, 2010b, 2011, 2014a). It takes into account learners’
ability levels, interests and backgrounds. Curriculum differentiation can be done at the level
of content, teaching methodologies, assessment and learning environment. For example,
the same activity can be taught to a class with learners who have diverse needs ranging
from those with intellectual disabilities to those who are gifted, by differentiating what
is taught, how it is taught and how the learners demonstrate that they have achieved
the learning outcome. You will learn in detail how to differentiate the curriculum in the
next learning unit. Read the scenarios below so that you can have an idea of how the
curriculum can be differentiated.

Scenario 2
In Ms Lerole’s new class, she is working on the skill of reading and understanding the text with
Grade 2 learners. Ms Lerole has planned her lesson so that most of the learners in her class will
be able to answer the questions, “What is the title of the book?” and “Who is the author?”. She
also asks, “What is the colour of the book cover?”, “What do you see on the cover of this book?”
and, after a learner has given the title of the book, Ms Lerole asks, “Who do you think is the main
character in this book?”
She has modified the content by asking these additional questions so that all the learners can
participate in the lesson and begin to gain an understanding of “reading the text”.

Activity 1.8

Answer the question below.

(1) You want the Grade 3 learners to explore the transport system in the area of the
school. Explain in detail how you will vary the lesson to suit the writing skill levels
and interest levels of all learners.

....................................................................................................................................................................

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....................................................................................................................................................................

1.7 ‌SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we learnt about the application of relevant policies, theories and
73

principles of inclusive education in the foundation phase context.

This deepened our understanding of inclusive education in the foundation phase.

Relevant competencies and expertise on dealing with diverse learning needs have also
been discussed. Learning unit 2 will focus on the identification of learners who experience
barriers to learning at an early stage.

1.8 ‌REFERENCE LIST

Department of Education (DoE). 2001. Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education:
building an inclusive education and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2010a. Guidelines for inclusive teaching and learning.
Pretoria: DBE.
Department of Basic Education. 2010b. Guidelines for full‐service/inclusive schools. Pretoria:
DBE.
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the
classroom through curriculum and assessment policy statements. Pretoria: Government
Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2014a. Training course on the Guidelines for Full Service /
Inclusive: Participants’ manual. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2014b. Policy on screening, identification, assessment and
support. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2010. Educational psychology in social context. (4th
ed.) Cape Town. Oxford University Press.
Du Plessis, P. 2013. Legislation and policies: progress towards the right to inclusive education.
De Jure, 46 (1).
Nel, M., Nel, N., & Hugo, A. 2016. Learner support in a diverse classroom: A guide for foundation,
intermediate and senior phase teachers of language and mathematics. (2nd ed). Pretoria,
Van Schaik Publishers.
Republic of South Africa. 1996a. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Pretoria:
Government Printer.

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Republic of South Africa. 1996b. South African Schools Act, no. 84 of 1996. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Shunk, D. H. 2000. Learning theories: An educational perspective. (3rd ed.) Upper Saddle
River: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Swart, E. and Pettipher, R. 2016. A framework for understanding inclusion. In Landsberg, E.,
Kruger, D. & Swart, E. Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective. (4th
ed.) Pretoria: Van Schaik. 3–25.
UNESCO. 2008. Defining an inclusive education agenda: Reflections around the 48th session
of the International Conference on Education. Geneva: UNESCO IBE.
Westbrook, J., Durrani, N., Brown, R., Orr, D., Pryor, J., Boddy, J. & Salvi, F. 2013. Pedagogy,
curriculum, teaching practices and teacher education in developing countries. Education
rigorous literature review. London: Department for International Development.

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Learning unit 2
IDENTIFYING CHILDREN WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS
TO MATHEMATICS LEARNING

SPECIFIC OUTCOME
To develop the student’s knowledge and competency to identify and respond to learners
75

experiencing barriers in mathematics in the foundation phase of schooling.

Learning outcomes for learning unit 2

When you have completed learning unit 1, you should be able to:
• know who your learners are
• identify learners who experience barriers to learning in mathematics in the founda-
tion phase
• use relevant methods of identifying learners who experience barriers to learning in
mathematics
• identify the needs and strengths of learners who experience barriers to learning in
mathematics in the foundation phase
• understand intrinsic and extrinsic barriers that cause difficulties in mathematics.
• deal with barriers to learning in mathematics in the foundation phase
• use relevant strategies to support learners who experience barriers to learning in
mathematics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 1 you have learnt about different policies that informed inclusive education,
76

theories and the principles that underpins inclusive education. You have also learnt about
causes of diversity and diverse learning needs; as well as various categories of barriers
to learning, for example, intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Please read the Education White
Paper 6 and the policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS), (DBE,
2014) for more information on the different barriers to learning.

In this learning unit, we will focus on barriers to learning in mathematics. You will learn
77

more on how to identify barriers to learning in mathematics in the foundation phase,

identify the needs and strengths of learners who experience barriers to learning, and
explore diverse and culturally sensitive methods of identifying barriers to learning.

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2.2 KNOWING YOUR LEARNERS

From the discussion on learner diversity and diverse learning needs in learning unit 1, it is
78

known that human beings have similarities and differences. It should not be expected that
learners could learn in the same way, or at the same pace. Learners are also different and
have their own unique learning needs, abilities, interests and background of experience.
You should therefore know your learners very well, particularly, how each learner learns
most effectively. The more you know your learners, and the more they know that you
know them, the more the trust is built between them and you. In addition, a dynamic
and vigorous learning environment is built on trustworthy relationships. When you create
strong connections with your learners, you create an inclusive learning environment
where risk-taking and collaborative learning can take place. Knowing your learners is
fundamental to differentiation as a strategy for responding to diverse learning needs.
This will inform you how you teach in an inclusive manner in order to meet the diverse
needs of all learners including those learners who experience barriers to learning.

In the INC3701 learning unit 4, you have learnt about different learning strengths, multiple
79

intelligences, and different learning styles. Knowing a learner’s individual strengths,

interests and preferences enables teachers to use these to enhance learning.

Stop and reflect!

Catering for multiple intelligences in the classroom

No two learners are alike. They each have different attributes, different ways of knowing
and of expressing knowledge. Howard Gardiner identified and labelled these as “intel-
ligences”. In planning foundation phase lessons, you have to consider the range of activi-
ties related to the content of the lesson and the skills learners have to master. This will
provide a range of opportunities in order to respond to learners’ different strengths and
learning styles. These can be approached by seeking to answer the following questions:
• Logical-mathematical: How can I include the use of numbers, classification, critical
thinking and calculations?
• Spatial: How can I include pictures and diagrams, colours, art or graphs?
• Intrapersonal: How can I include private learning time and choice?
• Interpersonal: How can I include group work, peer sharing and discussions?
• Bodily-kinaesthetic: How can I include movement, practical apparatus, drama or art
and craft?
• Musical: How can I include music, sounds, rhyme, rhythms and dance?
• Verbal-linguistic: How can I include reading, writing and speaking?
Source: Pritchard, 2009, p. 35

(2) How can the learners’ needs and strengths assist you on identifying learners who
experience barriers to learning?

Complete Activity 2.1. Read the INC3701 study guide, learning unit 4: multiple intelligence
80

and learning styles.

27
Activity 2.1

• Needs and strengths of learners

(1) Observe your learners in the classroom and during break for a week. Then list all the
needs and strengths that you have observed for each learner.

....................................................................................................................................................................

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Feedback

In your response, you were expected to include the following:

(1) Observable needs and strengths

Needs Strengths
Reserved; always looks tired; cannot read Likes singing and dancing; friendly;
from the chalkboard; learners with hearing, intelligent; energetic; observant; creative;
speech, visual and coordination difficulties; good at listening; cooperative; competitive;
learners living in poverty; learners with imaginative; practical; responsible; likes
health, emotional and behaviour difficulties; pictures and images; talkative; likes problem
learners struggling to remember what has solving; reasoning.
been taught; learners requiring assistive
devices and adapted materials; learners with
difficulty in reading and writing.

(2) Matching different learning styles to the strengths and needs

y Visual (spatial): likes pictures, images, and special understanding

y Logical (mathematical): likes to reason; solves problems; creative
y Aural (auditory): likes music; sound
y Kinaesthetic (physical): always on the move; energetic; dancing
y Verbal (linguistic): talkative; writing
y Interpersonal (social): cooperative; good at listening; prefers to work in groups
y Intrapersonal (solitary): reserved; prefers to work alone

2.2.1 ‌The role of the foundation phase teacher

Teachers have a very important role to play in identifying barriers to learning and/or
81

learners who are vulnerable. Learners are at school all day, so you spend more time with
them every day than even some of their caregivers. You, together with their caregivers,
are best placed to understand individual learners and their needs. In order to do this
well, teachers need to:

• be committed to the principle of inclusion and take care not to label learners who
are identified for additional support, thereby promoting exclusionary practices
• know your learners and understand their diverse needs
• understand the learning context (the school, classroom and home) and the full range
of potential barriers (intrinsic, societal, systemic or pedagogic)
• meet and interview parents/caregivers and develop a working relationship with them
• know the curriculum and be able to make it accessible to all learners by accommo-
dating the diversity of learning needs
• open a learner profile for new admissions in Grade R, and update it annually
• review the learner profile every year in order to assess barriers to learning and develop
a full understanding of each learner’s support needs

29
• conduct ongoing screening and identify barriers to learning using a variety of screen-
ing tools, such as observation, interviews and consultation, reflection, formative
actions, and previous records
• plan support for individual learners who experience barriers to learning. Use the
Guidelines for Responding to Diversity in the Classroom.
• support learners experiencing barriers by adapting curriculum content, adjusting
classroom methodologies and the classroom environment, and applying the neces-
sary accommodations in assessment and examinations
• know what support and resources, including specialised learner support and teach-
ing materials (LTSMs), are available and how to access them
• consult with the school-based support team (SBST) once all your support strategies
have been exhausted
Source: Adapted from the DBE, 2015

The following section discusses the identification of learners who experience barriers
82

to learning mathematics. Firstly, you have to understand what mathematics is and why
do learners learn the subject. Then the sections that follow will discuss the strategies of
identifying and dealing with barriers to learning mathematics in the foundation phase.

2.3 MATHEMATICS: A BRIEF REVIEW

Mathematics is part of our daily activity – for example, when learners think about buying
83

snacks during lunch time at school, the number of days before the schools close, or the
minimum temperature for a specific day, mathematical concepts, mathematical thinking,
reasoning and problem solving are involved. Thus, mathematics is such an important
part of the modern life that anyone who wishes to actively participate in the economic
and social development of the society must have basic skills of mathematics. However,
the Annual National Assessments (ANA) and other international/regional statistical
analyses indicate that South African learners perform below average in mathematics
as compared to other countries. A high proportion of learners have clearly not mastered
basic mathematical skills from the foundation phase (Heyd-Metzuyanim & Graven, 2016).
It is crucial to identify all the barriers to learning mathematics at an early stage so that
relevant support may be provided to reduce these barriers to learning.

2.3.1 Mathematics as a concept

Mathematics is a language that makes use of symbols and notations for describing
84

numerical, geometric and graphical relationships (DBE, 2011). It is further described as

a human activity that involves observing, representing and investigating patterns and
qualitative relationships in physical and social phenomena and between mathematical
objects themselves. It helps to develop mental processes that enhance logical and critical
thinking, accuracy and problem solving that will contribute to decision making (DBE, 2011).

The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (DBE, 2011: 6) constituted specific
85

aims for the teaching and learning of mathematics. These specific aims assist the teachers

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to recognise the importance of acquiring a broader range of mathematical understanding

and abilities that can be applied beyond school level. The following are the specific aims:

• ‌ critical awareness of how mathematical relationships are used in social, environ-

A
mental, cultural and economic relations
• ‌Confidence and competence to deal with any mathematical situation without being
hindered by a fear of mathematics
• ‌A spirit of curiosity and a love for mathematics
• ‌An appreciation for the beauty and elegance of mathematics
• ‌Recognition that mathematics is a creative part of human activity
• ‌Deep conceptual understandings in order to make sense of mathematics
• ‌Acquisition of specific knowledge and skills necessary for:
− the application of mathematics to physical, social and mathematical problems
− the study of related subject matter (e.g. other subjects)
− further study in mathematics.
The following are essential mathematics skills that are envisaged by the CAPS (DBE, 2011:
86

6) for learners to:

• ‌ evelop the correct use of the language of mathematics.

d
• ‌develop number vocabulary, number concept and calculation and application skills
• ‌learn to listen, communicate, think, reason logically and apply the mathematical
knowledge gained
• ‌learn to investigate, analyse, represent and interpret information
• ‌learn to pose and solve problems
• ‌build an awareness of the important role that mathematics plays in real life situations
including the personal development of the learner

Activity 2.2

• Study the essential skills for learners listed above and explain with examples how you
could develop these skills in a mathematics lesson in the foundation phase.

.......................................................................................................................................................................

31
.......................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

Mathematics skills are likely to develop if you:

y use and develop correct mathematical language

y enable learners to use mathematical language effectively and accurately
y help them to understand mathematical concepts
y use activities that build upon learners’ experiences
y use activities that are interesting to learners
y provide constructive feedback to learners
y encourage learners to collaborate, and to involve them in problem solving and decision
making

2.3.2 Focus of mathematics content areas in the foundation phase

Mathematics in the foundation phase covers five content areas. Each content area
87

contributes towards the acquisition of specific skills. The table below has been adapted
from the CAPS (DBE, 2011: 7); it shows the general focus as well as the specific focus of
the content areas for the foundation phase.

Table 2.1: Content focus of foundation phase mathematics

MATHEMATICS CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
Content area General content focus Foundation phase specific content
focus
Numbers, Development of number sense The number range developed by the
operations and that includes: end of Grade 3 includes whole numbers
relationships
• t‌ he meaning of different to at least 1 000 and unitary and non-
unitary common fractions. In this
kinds of numbers
• the relationship between phase, the learners’ number concept
is developed through working with
different kinds of numbers
• ‌the relative size of different physical objects to count collections
of objects, partition and combine
numbers
• ‌the representation of quantities, skip count in various ways,
solve contextual (word) problems, and
numbers in various ways
• ‌the effect of operating with build up and break down numbers.
numbers • ‌ ounting enables learners to
C
develop number concept, mental
mathematics, estimation, calculation
skills and recognition of patterns
• ‌Number concept development helps
learners to learn about properties of

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numbers and to develop strategies

that can make calculations easier
• ‌Solving problems in context enables
learners to communicate own
thinking orally and in writing through
drawings and symbols
• ‌Learners build an understanding
of basic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and
division
• ‌Learners develop fraction concept
through problems involving the
sharing of physical quantities
and by using drawings. Problems
should include solutions that result
in whole number remainders or
fractions. Sharing should involve
not only finding parts of wholes, but
also finding parts of collections of
objects. In this phase, learners are not
expected to read or write fraction
symbols
Patterns, Algebra is the language In this phase, the focus of patterns and
functions and for investigating functions is to lay the foundation for
algebra and communicating most developing algebra in the intermediate
of mathematics and can and senior phases. Learners should use
be extended to the study physical objects and drawings to copy,
of functions and other extend, create and describe
relationships between
• geometric patterns (e.g. pictures)
variables. A central part of
this content area is for the
• numeric patterns (e.g. skip counting)
learner to achieve efficient
manipulative skills in the use
of algebra. It also focuses on
the:
• ‌ escription of patterns and
d
relationships through the
use of symbolic expressions,
graphs and tables
• ‌identification and analysis of
regularities and change in
patterns, and relationships
that enable learners to
make predictions and solve
problems
Space and shape The study of space and shape Space and Shape enables learners
(geometry) improves understanding and to develop tools to think about and
appreciation of the pattern, describe their physical environment,
precision, achievement and so that they can study, manipulate and
beauty in natural and cultural manage it. The focus is mainly on:
forms. It focuses on the

33
Content area General content focus Foundation phase specific content
focus
Space and shape • ‌ roperties, relationships,
p • L‌ earners recognise and describe shapes
(geometry) • ‌orientations, positions and and objects in their environment that
• transformations of two-
‌ resemble mathematical objects and
dimensional shapes and shapes.
three-dimensional objects. • ‌Learners explore properties by sorting,
classifying, describing, drawing and
interpret drawings of shapes
• ‌Learners construct and deconstruct
objects.
• ‌Learners should be given opportunities
to follow and give directions as well as
describe their own positions and the
positions of others and objects in space,
using appropriate vocabulary.
Measurement Measurement focuses on In this phase the learners’ concept of
the selection and use of measurement is developed by working
appropriate units, instruments practically with different concrete objects
and formulae to quantify and – learning the properties of length,
characteristics of events, capacity, mass, area and time.
shapes, objects and the
environment. It relates directly
• L‌ earners measure the properties of
shapes and objects using informal units
• to the learner’s scientific, where appropriate – such as hands,
technological and economic paces, containers and so on.
worlds, enabling the learner • ‌Learners compare different quantities
to: by using comparative words such as
• ‌make sensible estimates; taller/shorter, heavier/lighter, and so on
and • ‌Learners measure using standard units
• ‌be alert to the reasonableness such as grams, kilograms; millilitres,
of measurements and litres; centimetres, metres
results. • ‌Activities related to time should be
structured with the awareness that
learners’ understanding of the passing
of time should take place before they
read about time
Data handling Through the study of data The focus of the teaching and learning of
handling, the learner develops data handling in the foundation phase is
the skills to on sorting objects and data in different
• collect ways, based on the different features of
• organise the objects or data
• display • L‌ earners are expected to interpret and
• analyse and interpret given construct pictographs and bar graphs
data. with 1-to-1 correspondence with the
given data
• ‌Learners interpret bar graphs that do
not have a 1-to-1 correspondence
Source: Adapted from DBE, 2011

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2.4 ‌IDENTIFYING BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN THE

FOUNDATION PHASE
It is critical that barriers are identified as early as possible and that the screening is ongoing,
88

even after a successful support intervention (DBE, 2014). The screening and identification
process starts from the moment you first make contact with a learner. It does not only take
place in formal assessment situations (DBE, 2015). You need to get a picture of strengths
and areas of difficulty.

It is important to have a good strategy of identifying learners who experience barriers

to learning in order to provide relevant support. Sometimes, some teachers make the
mistake of identifying learners only for the sake of identification; this could be detrimental
to fulfilling the learning potential of those learners. The following strategies are significant
for identifying learners who experience barriers to learning or who are vulnerable.

2.4.1 ‌Observations
Carefully observing learners during teaching and learning, break, and during extra-
90

curricular activities will assist you to identify intrinsic barriers. Observation can be planned
or unplanned, formal or informal, and must be an ongoing part of the education process.

• Formal: Within the formal learning environment, for example, observing in the
classroom while learners are working
• Informal: Outside of the formal learning environment, for example, observing learn-
ers while they are talking and playing with their friends during break
• Planned: You plan the observation in advance so you know who, what, how and
where you will be observing
• Unplanned: You notice something. The “story” (a record of an interesting incident)
can be just as useful as planned and formal observations. Teachers must keep their
eyes open at all times and notice what is happening around them!
Source: Adapted from DBE, 2015

Activity 2.3

• Choose a word from the list to fill in the gaps in the paragraph below:
formal, informal, planned, unplanned
In order to observe all learners fairly, the teacher planned to observe Grade 1 learn-
ers in groups for a week at a time (_____________ observation). On one day of the
week, she decided to observe them while they were working on maths problems in
class (_____________ observation) and while they were getting ready to go home
after the bell had rung (______________ observation). During this day, a learner
who was not part of the group being observed burst into tears when he was asked
to do a creative writing exercise. The educator noted down details of the incident in
her observation book (_______________ observation).

35
Feedback

Read the types of observations: 1 planned observation, 2 formal observation, informal obser-
vation, 4 unplanned observation.

2.4.2 Observation book and screening checklist

As you observe the learners, it is important that you use a checklist and an observation
91

book to record all the aspects that need to be considered in order to plan for the most
appropriate support strategies. Make sure that notes recorded in the observation book
are meaningful and informative so that they can be employed as useful evidence.

92 A good observer:

• pays careful attention to what is happening inside and outside the classroom
• avoids making subjective judgments
• observes and records strengths, as well as difficulties
• asks himself/herself questions and thinks about a wide range of reasons for certain
types of behaviour
• does not jump to conclusions or label learners too quickly
• notices whether there are patterns to certain types of behaviour (for example, they
occur at certain times of the day or week, or during certain activities or lessons)
• discusses observations with other people, for example, conferring with other edu-
cators (remember that these are shared confidences to help the child, not gossip)
• records and keeps detailed notes of observations (in the observation book), instead
of relying on memory
• respects the confidentiality of the learner (and does not leave the observation book
lying around for others to view)
• records useful and meaningful comments about observations

The following table is an example of a checklist can be used to screen learners who
93

experience barriers to learning mathematics. Mark the characteristics that apply to the
learner. Remember that most learners experience difficulties of one sort or another
from time to time. In this exercise, you are looking for persistent and ongoing patterns
of difficulties or behaviour that could indicate a barrier to learning. The more signs you
mark, the more chance there is that the learner is at risk of, or is experiencing, a difficulty
that requires attention.

Numeracy and mathematics Grade Grade Grade Grade

R 1 2 3
Has difficulty with simple counting and one-to-one
correspondence between number symbols and items/
objects
Difficulty mastering number knowledge (i.e. recognition
of quantities without counting)

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Has difficulty with learning and memorising basic addition

and subtraction facts
Has difficulty learning strategic counting principles (i.e.
by 2, 5, 10, 100)
Poorly aligns numbers resulting in computation errors
Has difficulty with comparisons (i.e., less than, greater than)
Has trouble telling time
Has trouble learning multiplication tables, formulae and
rules
Social / Emotional
May not detect or respond appropriately to teasing
Has difficulty “joining in” and maintaining positive social
status in a peer group
Has trouble knowing how to share/express feelings
Has difficulty with self-control when frustrated
Has difficulty dealing with group pressure, embarrassment
and unexpected challenges
Has trouble setting realistic social goals
Attention
Fails to pay close attention to details or makes careless
mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities
Has difficulty sustaining attention in work tasks or play
activities
Does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish
schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace
Avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that
require sustained mental effort such as homework and
organising work tasks
Is forgetful in daily/routine activities

Source: Adapted from DBE, 2017

2.4.3 Gather information on learner’s background

Another way of identifying barriers to learning is to gather as much information as
94

possible about the learners’ history/background, such as their developmental and family
background. After you have done several observations, you can invite the parents to gather
more information about the learner. Also, talk to other teachers to get more information
about the learner. Continuous assessment is also an important strategy of identifying
barriers to learning. This will help you to plan for an appropriate intervention strategy to
reduce environmental factors that can cause more barriers to learning.

37
2.5 EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING
MATHEMATICS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE
The ability to master mathematical concepts and processes is affected by intrinsic
95

and extrinsic factors, including learners’ different backgrounds and teachers’ teaching
strategies, the environment, and the system (Ogbonnaya, Mji, & Mohapi, 2016). It is also
possible that the intrinsic and extrinsic factors may overlap, causing learning difficulties. It
is therefore important that you understand these intrinsic barriers to achieving outcomes
in mathematics in order to prevent environmental factors from influencing the existing
barriers by aggravating it (Engelbrecht, 2016). An example of this situation may be a teacher
expecting a learner with intellectual impairment to adhere to the curricular outcomes in
exactly the same way as chronological peers; the teaching and learning environment could
be an additional extrinsic factor aggravating the existing intrinsic barrier to achieving the
outcomes. In your INC3701 module and learning unit 1 of this module, you have learnt
about different types of barriers to learning. However, in this learning unit we are going
to learn how these barriers influence the learner in developing mathematical skills.

2.5.1 Barriers within the learner (intrinsic factors) to mathematics in the

foundation phase
Most of foundation phase learners are still learning at a concrete level, meaning that
96

the progression from the concrete level to the abstract thinking does not take place
automatically. Learners have to be able to make the link between manipulatives and
symbolic representation of numbers, and thereafter, development of the concept (Paulsen,
2019), for example:

97 5 Abstract thinking (learner

has an idea of numbers)

General observations that could point to intrinsic barriers to attaining outcomes in

mathematics could include some of the following:

• Memory deficit
• Slowness in grasping ideas
• Inadequate use of strategies for solving mathematics tasks
• Deficits in generalisation and transfer of learned knowledge to new and unknown
tasks
• Reading and language barriers resulting in inability to solve mathematical problems
• Difficulty in oral expression or written work, hampering progress in mathematics
• Perceptual delay (especially visual discrimination, foreground/background percep-
tion, visual and auditory analysis and synthesis, auditory discrimination, auditory
sequential memory)
• Short attention span and attention distraction (for example, they do not follow all
the steps needed to complete a mathematics problem, leaving work incomplete)
• Physical, sensory and/or psychosocial barriers (which could include hearing and visual
impairment, anxiety, low self-esteem, emotional immaturity, illness)

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• Dyscalculia
• Giftedness (for example, when enhanced opportunities are withheld)
• Right-brain hemisphere dominance
Source: Adapted from Engelbrecht, 2016

Activity 2.4

Let us read the case study below and answer the questions that follow.

Case study 1
Bongi is a Grade 2 learner at your school. Her parents recently died in a car accident
and she has been transferred from another province to your school. Her language of
learning and teaching has changed. She was learning in isiZulu and is now learning
in English. In addition, Bongi has a hearing problem and is always quiet during group
discussions. She recently scored far below average in a formal task and the teacher
thinks Bongi has a learning difficulty in mathematics due to her limited receptive and
expressive vocabulary in English.

Questions
(1) You are Bongi’s teacher. List all the factors that might contribute to barriers to learn-
ing mathematics for Bongi.
(2) What would you do to ensure that Bongi also benefits from the learning process?

Feedback

Refer to learning unit 1 for factors that cause barriers to learning.

(1) language of learning and teaching, hearing problem

y Develop a positive learning environment for the learner

y Use games and concrete resources to show that mathematics can be fun to learn
y Use clear instructions and provide enough time for Bongi to work through activities

From the manifestations above, it is relevant to discuss factors in more detail because they
are frequently misinterpreted or ignored, which may result in learners not being supported
appropriately. Other factors such as perceptual skills are commonly causing barriers to learn-
ing among learners in the foundation phase.

2.5.1.1 Mathematics anxiety

Mathematics anxiety refers to negative emotions that interfere with solving mathematical
100

problems (Blazer, 2011). For many learners, mathematics causes feeling of anxiety. They
fear to be humiliated in front of other learners if they come up with wrong answers. If
learners cannot recall facts from their short-term memory fast enough, they start to
believe that they can never be successful in mathematics.

39
101 Strategies to reduce mathematics anxiety

• Relate mathematics to real life

• Accommodate learners’ varied learning styles
• Encourage active learning
• Let learners work in cooperative learning groups
• Do not embarrass learners
• Use clear instructions and create many opportunities to work through examples

2.5.1.2 ‌Emotional immaturity

In young learners, emotional immaturity manifests in the observable behaviour of
102

perceptual delays. If treated as perceptual delays, the pressure for instant acquisition
of these outstanding skills may even put more emotional pressure on the child and
development may be further delayed (Engelbrecht, 2016). A practical example to explain
this immaturity is the admission policy of the Department of Basic Education in South
African Education. The policy states that for a learner to be admitted in Grade 1, he or
she must be turning 6 years before the 1st of July of that specific year, meaning that the
learner would be five years and six months old. This five-year-old learner may be enrolled
in a Grade 1 class with a learner who has just turned seven, or even older (because of some
reasons). That that there will be a frequent chronological age discrepancy of approximately
18 months between these learners.

All these learners are exposed to the demands of a mathematics curriculum designed for
103

a seven- year-old learner, and moreover, this will be throughout the foundation phase.
That means as teachers you will be confronted with such dilemmas, and if the level of
emotional development is not taken into consideration, learners are frequently wrongfully
labelled as “slow learners” or “learning disabled” or experiencing barriers to learning. It is
important to note that effective learning is determined by emotional growth, meaning
that as teachers, you have to understand the relationship between emotions and learning.

104 Strategies to enable emotional experiences vital to developing mathematics skills

For foundation phase learners to display progress in terms of the mathematics curriculum,
105

they need to feel safe, and accepted. They also need to develop internal strength and
the capacity to symbolise, to feel secure and be able to explore, and to have a sense of
individual identity (Engelbrecht, 2016).

• Feeling safe and accepted – spend quality time with each learner on a regular basis;
also engage with learners in small groups.
• Feeling secure and able to explore – refrain from verbal and especially written nega-
tive remarks when learners have made mistakes. Learners need to experience making
mistakes and working on their mistakes to improve, with your guidance as a teacher.
• Feeling secure in their attachment to significant adults – in order to motivate the
learners and to make them feel secured it is important that you bring them closer
to you, especially those who are vulnerable. Extramural activities provide good op-
portunities for bonding.

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• Developing individual identity – try to practise a clear distinction between the learner’s
personality and the observable unacceptable behaviour, then guide the behaviour
into more acceptable behaviour by praising them.
• Being able to symbolise – follow the learner’s pace and use more concrete and ver-
bal experiences. As a foundation phase teacher, try to use visual resources as far as
possible.

2.5.1.3 Giftedness
Gifted learners are frequently denied opportunities for challenging and stimulating
106

mathematical learning experiences. Failure to provide gifted learners with stimulating

or more advance mathematical activities increase the risk of boredom, frustration, and
developing behavioural problem, leading to disengagement. Because they fail to realise
their potential, they develop behavioural problems in the classroom where they have
been ignored. Gifted learners may display the following characteristics:

• Their work might be very untidy

• Withdrawal, and rejected by others
• They easily see conclusions without displaying knowledge of sequential concepts
• Inattentive to teacher’s comments and class discussions. They are wrongly labelled
as learners with attention deficit disorders
• Usually daydreaming
In order to support gifted learners, teachers should allow them to move beyond their high
107

abilities in order to keep developing their mathematical skills and enhance their thinking
abilities. These learners should be given access to learning opportunities that are faster
paced and more complex. Allow them to work on more advanced mathematics tasks
and offer them an option to complete independent projects.

2.5.1.4 Difficulties with perceptual skills

108 These skills enable learners to give meaning to information perceived through one’s senses.

• Spatial orientation: In spatial development, learners have to be able to position

themselves in space (Paulsen, 2019). Learners first need to learn to perceive objects
in an accurate relationship to themselves before they can perceive them in relation
to each other. Learners who experience problems in this regard cannot understand
concepts such as above/beneath, in front/behind, under/over and beside; they can-
not indicate first, middle and last; they cannot estimate time, depth or distance in
ball games, for instance; they cannot determine direction very accurately and so
often get lost.
• Visual discrimination: The young learners may experience problems with the sort-
ing and classification of objects, especially according to colour, shape, size, and type.
Differences and similarities in pictures and patterns sometimes present problems.
Some learners find it difficult to name and distinguish between various shapes, while
others cannot identify shapes or objects that appear in a different position, size or
colour than the ones they are familiar with.

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• Laterality: This is not a learned skill, but is a concept that must develop within learn-
ers themselves. The awareness of a left and right side of the body develops from the
awareness of the operation of gravity (balance) and learners learn to manipulate their
body accordingly. Learners sometimes experience problems in crossing their imagi-
nary middle line, and so will not, for example, be able to cross their arms over their
chest (e.g. left hand on right shoulder) or touch their right foot with their left hand.
• Directionality: Direction certainty is also a consequence of laterality and has important
implications for academic learning. In order to have a stable spatial world, learners
must learn to know their body and be aware of it. Only then will they know exactly
where in space objects around them are. Learners who experience problems with
this will, for example, be unable to identify the one little duck in the row that is fac-
ing the opposite direction. In the foundation phase, these learners will experience
difficulty with the order in which symbols are arranged and may, for example, turn
numbers upside down (for example, 6/9).

Activity 2.5

Answer the following questions.

(1) You are teaching in a Grade 1 class. Observe learners during the mathematics period
and write the manifestations that you have observed from learners who experience
barriers in mathematics on the following perceptual problems:
(a) Directionality
(b) Spatial orientation
(c) Visual discrimination
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Feedback

Manifestations may be any of the ones indicated in the discussion on 2.5.1.4.

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2.5.2 Extrinsic factors that cause barriers to learning mathematics

According to Reusser (in Engelbrecht, 2016) most observe that poor performance
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in mathematics is caused by extrinsic factors such as insufficient teaching-learning

environment and socio-economic factors. Let us read the section below on the types of
extrinsic factors that cause barriers to learning mathematics.

2.5.2.1 Barriers to learning within the school and classroom environment

Engelbrecht (2016) identified the following barriers that could prevent learners from
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fulfilling their mathematics potential.

• Lack of fundamental knowledge of mathematics concepts and skills

• Lack of passion for, and devotion to, the discipline of mathematics
• Lack of knowledge on the part of the teachers of why and how learners learn and
therefore failure to mediate the learning of mathematics
• Inappropriate teaching methods
• Failure to accommodate diversity in terms of ethnicity, gender, and ability to access
the curriculum
• Lack of continuity due to teacher’s absenteeism
• Lack of responsiveness to learners’ barriers to attaining outcomes in mathematics
• Refusal to grant expanded opportunities in terms of more stimulating activities or
content for deserving learners, particularly the gifted learners
• Refusal to organise re-teaching opportunities or extra tuition for learners who ex-
perience barriers to learning mathematics
• Teacher’s lack of interest to motivate and involve learners meaningfully in the math-
ematics lessons
• Overemphasis of formal assessment – rather provide more continuous assessment
• Refusal to link mathematics to real-life problems

The following barriers to learning also contribute to difficulties in learning mathematics.

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These barriers should be acknowledged and understood.

• Lack of continuity due to frequent change of mathematics teachers within a school

year
• Lack of continuity due to poor service delivery of mathematics teachers in previous
grades or phases
• Inaccessibility of language of learning and teaching (LoTL)
• Gaps in the understanding of mathematics due to chronic absenteeism
• Learners being transferred from one school to another
• Lack of teaching resources for teaching mathematics to the teacher’s full potential
• Lack of learning resources to maximise sense of teacher’s teaching

2.5.3 ‌ anifestations of difficulties in mathematics in the foundation

M
phase
Most of learners’ difficulties in mathematics starts in their first years of formal schooling,
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that is, in the foundation phase. Teachers come across learners’ mistakes in mathematics

43
every day. In the foundation phase, learners are mainly learning number concepts or
numbers and operations. The following are manifestations of difficulties in mathematics:

• An inability to estimate quantities

• Difficulties with sorting objects according to various characteristics – first, colour,
then shape
• Overdependence on concrete materials to work out an answer. Even in Grade 3 learn-
ers will calculate a simple sum such as 1 + 1 by counting on their fingers.
• Counting without understanding the relationship between the numbers they are
counting
• Counting slowly because they first have to think which number follows
• An inability to count forward and/or backward
• An inability to grasp numerical values
• Problems counting in multiples of twos, threes, and so forth
• An inability to distinguish between operational symbols such as +,-,x, and ÷
• Unable to understand the equal sign (=); greater than, and less than
• Difficulties to understand the concepts of digits – tens and units
• Unable to analyse and apply the operations they should use in solving problems
• Unable to complete patterns
• Not understanding the use of the number line
• Difficulties in measurements
• Not understand the concept of 0
• Not understanding positional values
• Cannot read the time on an analogue clock
• Not understanding the use of the number line
• Not understanding the two main calculations, namely adding and subtraction – in
the case of adding, the numbers grow bigger and in the case of subtraction, the
numbers grow smaller
• Not understanding that, in case of subtraction, the second number has to be taken
away from the first.

The table below presents other barriers experienced by learners in different content
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areas of mathematics in the foundation phase. General strategies for overcoming these
barriers are also included in the table. (Adapted from the DBE, 2011: Guidelines for inclusive
teaching and learning, 30)

Barriers Implications Strategies to support the learners

experienced by
learners
Numbers, Learners may: • Pair off:
operations and
relationships
• rote count with no Give the learner any amount of shapes.
understanding of one-on- The learner must place the shapes on
one correspondence the number line (e.g., from number 1 to
• not recognise number 5). Do this exercise a few times.

•
symbols or number names
• Body exercises for pairing off:
not count and say the
numbers in a one-on-one
• Beat the tin with the wooden spoon.
Learner has to walk rhythmically on
correspondence

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• not understand quantity the beat of the drum, one step for
• not remember or be able each number.
to visualise and remember • Constant exposure by drawing
how many they have attention to numbers through
counted (cardinality). When everyday experiences (e.g., age,
the learner is asked “how house numbers, clocks, money).
many”, their response is Learners must make the connection
invariably to recount the that the spoken number is
objects. represented in a visual form.
• Matching number cards, pointing
to the number on the number line,
matching number cards to their
position on the number line.
− Touch count each sequenced
number.
− Move the object into a line as the
number is spoken.
• When counting objects on paper,
cross out the object with a pen as the
number is spoken.
• Draw a number line on the floor.
The learner stands on the naught.
Bounce the ball once on each
number. No bounce on naught
because it is an empty group!
• Count real objects often. Allow
learners to touch or point to the
objects while counting. One word
per item. Encourage the learner
to slow down when counting. Use
shapes that are not too large or too
small and do not roll.
• Pairing off together with estimation:
Use the number line from 1 to 10.
Ask the following questions:
In my hand I have 8 shapes / blocks.
Are there enough shapes for all the
blocks? Yes / No.
The learner can now put the blocks
on the different numbers on the
number line. Do the same with other
numbers.
• Match numbers with shapes/pictures
(e.g., 3 =

• The learner needs to be taught

that “how many” means to retain
and recall the last number counted
rather than recounting the number
sequence. Teach the cue “put the
number in your

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Barriers Implications Strategies to support the learners
experienced by
learners

head” (e.g., ‘How many?” Response

should be 5, not 1,2,3,4,5).
• Play counting games, which end
before the whole set has been
counted, also to encourage
understanding cardinality.
Learners may • Play counting games that start at
• confuse next number / one
•
numbers other than 1.
Repeated modelling and practice are
more / one less and equal
needed to teach the learner to count
from the given number. For instance:
“Count to 10. Start at 5”. Initially, use a
number line / number grid as a visual
prompt. The learner can now visually
check which is more or less.
• Quantity: Use every day experiences
(particularly food) to estimate which
is more or less.
− Check by pairing objects for each
group. The learner then selects
which group is preferred.
− Using numbers with the same
“ten” (e.g., which is more, 25 or
21?).
− Using multiples of 10 (e.g., which
is more, 30 or 20?).
− Using any two numerals (e.g.,
which is more, 27 or 31?).
• Games
Walk to number 3. Give one step
Experience problems with forward. Where are you now? 4,
number concept – learners may therefore four steps are more than
three steps.
• not understand ordinal
Learner goes back to number 3.
numbers: 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Walk two steps forward. Where are
you now? 5, therefore five steps are
more than three steps.
Learner goes back to number 3.
Walk one step backwards. Where are
you now? 2, therefore two steps are
less than three steps.
Learner goes back to number 3.
Walk two steps backwards. Where
are you now? 1, therefore one step

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is less than three steps. Do a lot of

these exercises.
• Work with each number in isolation
until mastered.
• These numbers must relate to real-
life experiences (e.g. lining up at the
door and sports day). Support auditory
memory with a card (visual cue) (e.g.,
visually and verbally identify 1st, 2nd,
3rd).
Learners may Learners group real objects (e.g., in twos
• not be able to count in and then count in twos, moving two
objects at a time as they count).
twos, threes (skip or interval
counting) • Initially, the learner will need to
• not understand addition: be shown how to miss alternate
• not be able to subtract numerals (e.g., jumping or stepping
• not understand borrowing over cards on the floor, “jumping”
• not understand over numbers on a number line).
“commutativity” • To prepare for addition, play
• experience difficulty with counting games that start at
place value numbers other than 1.
Patterns, Learners may • Start by copying simple sequences
functions and
algebra
• not be able to follow or design using colours or objects (e.g., red,
blue, red, blue … or objects (e.g.,
simple patterns
crayon, block, crayon, block …).
• Make the sequences more complex
using three and later four colours,
shapes, etc. Learners should
understand that a pattern is a
repetition of a sequence or actions.
• Sequence numbered Unifix blocks
horizontally or vertically. Give verbal
and visual cues.
• Let them repeatedly add the same
number. For example, 1 (+2) = 3 (+2)
= 5 (+2) = 7 (+2) = 9 (+2) = 11 (+2) = …
Shape and space Learners may • Identifying and describing shapes.
(geometry)
• have difficulty with the The learner feels the outside of the
shape while naming the shape and
following concepts of shape
and space: its characteristics.
− naming shapes • Multiple choice:
− identifying shapes Practise identifying the shape from a
− sorting according to selection of two or more (e.g.,
shape
‘Give me the circle’. Repeat these
steps until mastered.
• Practice and generalisation:
Sorting shapes of varying size,
texture, colour and thickness

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Barriers Implications Strategies to support the learners
experienced by
learners
over/under − finding the shape in the
through environment
− drawing the shape
by − tracing around the shape
in/out − making the drawn shape into a
picture
on/off
− selecting the shape – by touch
inside/outside alone – from a small selection
behind/in front ‘feely bags’.
− The following procedure is
top/bottom recommended for concept
near/next to development:
forward/backward Model of concept:
back/front • The concept is modelled to the
across learner using verbal cues (e.g. adult
or peer shows the concept, moves
high/low behind the chair or places a plastic
middle object behind the chair).
side/corner/edge Experience the concept:
toward/away from • The learner repeatedly experiences
the concept while hearing and using
around the language (e.g., playground
left/right equipment, classroom situations
hiding behind the chair.
• Practise with three-dimensional
objects:
• The learner uses three-dimensional
sociodramatic play equipment to
practise the skill (e.g., Duplo doll’s
house, Fisher Price garage, tea sets).
• Practise with two-dimensional
objects:
• The learner identifies or uses the
concepts in books or worksheets.
Measurement Learners may experience • Constant use of a clock, pictures,
difficulty with real events and/or calendar is very
• time: night/day, morning/ important when introducing a new
time concept:
afternoon, today
age, before/after
• discuss and describe vocabulary (e.g.,
morning is before lunch, afternoon is
date on written work after lunch).
birthday: day and month • relate to learners’ events for that time
using pictures/individual learner
seven days in one week photos etc. (e.g., photo or picture of
order of days of the week learner in bed at night; walking to
school).
weekdays/weekend

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yesterday/today/tomorrow • use individual timetables (displayed

O’clock related to daily in visual form) showing the sequence
of events
activities • teach recording of date (e.g., 12 January
day/month/year 2004).
am/pm • memorise date and month of birthday
and know how to plot it on a calendar.
Seasons, special days or
events calendar
• introduce concepts of weekdays and
weekends (e.g., on weekdays we go
• struggle to understand to school, and on weekends we don’t
• measuring: length capacity/
•
go to school).
the learner places flashcards with the
mass temperature
word ‘yesterday’ and ‘tomorrow’ on
blank calendar.
• Introduce the learner to units of
measurement
The learner needs to be given the
opportunity to measure many
items using a ruler, string and other
resources.
Select a range of everyday
containers to compare volumes.
Generalise the skill to cooking. A
similar process is used for mass.
Compare learners’ heights and
weights.
• Weather: Relate to the maximum and
minimum temperatures from the TV,
radio or newspapers.
Record in a graph.

Now that you have learnt how you can identify barriers to learning from an early stage,
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the following section discusses approaches and strategies of supporting learners who
experience barriers to learning mathematics in the foundation phase.

2.6 ‌SUPPORT AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN MATHEMATICS
IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE
We acknowledge the fact that barriers to learning are caused by different factors; however,
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that does not stop teachers from providing relevant support to reduce these barriers to
learning. Every teacher needs to understand that the most significant way to respond to
diverse learning needs and dealing with barriers to learning in the classroom is through the
curriculum. You also have to note that the school curriculum is one of the most important
factors that create significant barriers to learning. These barriers arise from different
aspects of the curriculum such as the content, the language, classroom environment
or organisation, teaching methodologies, pace of teaching and learning, time available

49
to complete the curriculum, teaching and learning support materials and assessment
(DoE, 2001; DBE, 2011; 2014, 2017). We acknowledge that the CAPS sets the content of
what is to be taught, but as teachers, you have to plan how you will teach it to different
learners in the classroom.

It is therefore imperative to ensure that adaptation and differentiation in curriculum

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delivery is implemented to enable access to learning for all learners. That means, the same
curriculum is offered to a diversity of learners while simultaneously ensuring differentiation
or variation in the mode of delivery and assessment processes. The following section
discusses what curriculum differentiation is, what is being differentiated and how it is
differentiated.

2.6.1 Curriculum adaptation and differentiation

It is important to know and understand what the two concepts – curriculum adaptation
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and curriculum differentiation – mean, and also to know and understand the difference
between them. Adaptation is described a strategy for making aspects of the curriculum
accessible to all learners. The DBE (2010), further explains it as a strategy for ensuring
effective curriculum delivery to all learners. Differentiation, on the other hand, assumes
that learners vary in their cognitive abilities.

Therefore, curriculum differentiation is described as a key strategy for responding to the

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needs of learners with diverse learning styles and needs (DBE, 2011). It involves processes of
modifying, changing, adapting, extending, and varying teaching methodologies, teaching
strategies, assessment strategies and the content of the curriculum. It takes into account
each learner’s ability levels, interests and backgrounds (DBE, 2011; 2017). A differentiated
curriculum offers a variety of ways for learners who differ in abilities, knowledge and skills
to access a shared curriculum. The DBE (2011) further describes differentiation as a way
about teaching and learning. It is a philosophy. As such, it is based on a set of beliefs, that:

• learners who are the same age differ in their readiness to learn, their interests, their
style of learning and their life circumstances;
• the differences in learners are significant enough to make a major impact on what
they need to learn, the pace at which they need to learn and the support they need
from the teachers and others to learn it well.

2.6.1.1 ‌Principles of curriculum differentiation

• Acknowledgment that all learners are different
• Learner differences will influence HOW they learn
• Teachers are capable of teaching all learners
• Teachers are responsible for providing opportunities for all learners to achieve their
full potential.

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2.6.1.2 ‌The importance of curriculum differentiation

• Learners differ in their cognitive abilities
• A learner’s mind is not an empty vessel; they bring with them some knowledge,
which they have gained, from home or previous classrooms or schools
• We need to practise inclusion
• It is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure that learners learn together
• It is the teacher’s ethical responsibility to ensure that all learners are engaged posi-
tively with each other, the teacher and the learning content
• Learners are entitled to positive learning experiences
• Learners need to learn together (important for social cohesion)
• Teaching and learning therefore should be learner-paced and learner-based.
Source: Adapted from DBE, 2017

Activity 2.6

Read the following statements and state whether they are true of false:

True False Not sure

Differentiating the content involves dealing with
the same content but adjusting it for the learners’
interest, readiness, or learning style.
Adapting the learning environment means
extending the classrooms for more space.
Curriculum adaptation refers to modifying the
teaching methods, environment, assessment and
resources.
Using concrete objects when teaching
mathematics at Grade 3 indicate that you have
differentiated the resources.
Differentiating the content means teaching
different content to different learners in the same
grade.
Differentiation means making the curriculum
accessible to all learners.
Adapting the content means teaching only what
is of interest to different learners.
Differentiating the content is a method used only
when learners are struggling with the content.
Differentiating the content means lower
expectations for learners.
Differentiating the content entails meeting
with small groups to re‐teach an idea or skill for
struggling learners, or extend the thinking or
skills of advanced learners.

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2.6.2 ‌Curriculum adaptation
Teachers offer adaptations to what learners learn (content), how learners learn (process),
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and how learners demonstrate what they have learnt (product). In other words, the
classroom environment, learning materials, curriculum content, teaching methods and
assessment strategies are the aspects that can be adapted to make the teaching and
learning accessible to all learners.

2.6.2.1 Adapting the classroom environment

Adapting the environment means to create a positive classroom environment in which
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learners feel valued, and encouraged to take risks and actively participate. The following
are considered when adapting the environment:

• Position in classroom

As a teacher you must note that the sitting arrangement can be a hindrance for some
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learners. Since you know your learners better than anyone in the school, you need to
encourage them to sit away from elements that may interfere with their concentration.
For example, the learner who is easily distracted by movement may sit away from the
window. Learners who are experiencing concentration problems sometimes find it difficult
to sit close to the teacher as his or her table is a beehive of activities.

Consider their senses: is the learner sitting in a position where he or she can see the
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teacher or the board? For example, the learner with albinism (skin pigmentation) may
not prefer to face light. Learners with low vision may prefer a front seat. A learner who
is hard of hearing may prefer to sit in the front seat to be able to read the teacher’s lips.

The comfortability of the desk must also be considered. For example, learners who are
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not tall may prefer to elevate their desks using their bookcase. A taller learner may prefer
to sit in front to allow his/her legs to stretch easily.

The most important aspect for a teacher who practises inclusion is to be approachable,
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inviting and welcoming to enable learners to discuss their needs openly.

• Classroom management

Another crucial aspect is how you manage your class. Without good class discipline and
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teacher preparedness, there is no quality teaching and learning. Learners will always be
disruptive. Planning or rather lack of planning is the main contributing factor to poor
discipline. Learners know when the teacher is only trying to keep them busy. The following
will help you to manage your classroom:

• Know your learners: If learners believe that their teacher is interested in them as a
person, they respond more positively to instructions. Asking learners to complete a
simple questionnaire on their likes, dislikes, hobbies and so forth, will produce very
valuable information.

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• Rules: Rules should be simple and should be compiled by the learners. Every rule
should be linked with a consequence that is known to the learners. Rules should be
written positively: “Put up your hand” instead of “Do not shout out answers”.
• Daily routine: As a teacher, you need to stick to your routine. Learners feel safe and
free in an environment where they know what is going to happen.

2.6.2.2 Adapting the content

Content is what the teacher teaches and what the learner is expected to learn. The reasons
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for adapting the content are to provide access to learning; to ensure success experiences
for all learners; to motivate learners and build their self-esteem; and to promote effective
learning for all learners. The content can be adapted by considering the following:

• Abstractness

In any curriculum we have facts, definitions, descriptions, patterns, relationships, key

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concepts and generalisations. Depending on learners’ levels of functioning, they might

access the content at a concrete or abstract level. Certain learners might need to work
with concrete objects, such as small stones as counters before they are ready to work
with abstract numbers. It is your responsibility as the teacher to ensure that the content
is adapted to the level of the learner. We cannot assume that all learners can learn easily
at an abstract level.

• Complexity

Many aspects of the curriculum can be complex and difficult to understand for some
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learners. For example, understanding the different characters in a story is a more complex
task than just relating the plot of the story. We also need to contextualise topics rather
than present facts in isolation.

• Variety

To cater for learners’ levels of functioning, prior learning and their interests, you need
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to expand the curriculum. For example, give expanded opportunities to a learner who
is excellent at mathematics. He or she might be given new and varied problem-solving
activities to stop him or her from being bored.

2.6.2.3 ‌Adapting the teaching methods

The methods that teachers use have to ensure that they are responsive, involve the
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participation of all learners, and suit different learning styles and intelligences. That
means, the different learning styles and intelligences determine the teaching methods,
not the other way around. The following are examples of how the teaching methods
can be adapted:

• Auditory learners learn best when they listen and talk. Therefore, teachers can
involve learners through role play; orally – teacher talks them through work while
writing on the board, and learners given the opportunity to explain orally to their
peers and teacher.

53
• Visual learners learn best by seeing, therefore teachers can use videos, boards, or
worksheets to involve learners.

Learning materials and methods of presentation also are determined by the learning styles
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and different intelligences. Instead of teaching auditory learners by using pictures and
diagrams, it will mean that teachers will have to replace these with written explanations.

Scaffolding is another way of adapting the method of teaching, whereby personal

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guidance, assistance and support are provided to learners who experience barriers to
learning. Teachers or peers can provide these guidance and support. Flexible grouping
of learners can also be used.

2.6.2.4 ‌Adapting the assessment

Within a differentiated curriculum, assessment of learners and their learning is integral
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to the teaching and learning process. We acknowledge the fact that the standard of
assessment should never be compromised; however, the diverse learning needs of
learners cannot be met in one way only. As teachers, you should know the main purpose
of assessment. The following serves as the key purposes for assessment:

• To inform instructional planning

• To inform instruction
• To evaluate effectiveness of teaching for all learners
• To assess learning
• To identify learner needs and strengths
• To evaluate learner achievement against predetermined criteria for the purpose of
grading and reporting

Source: Adapted from DBE, 2011

We can describe differentiated assessment as an ongoing process through which teachers

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gather data before, during, and after instruction from multiple sources to identify learners’
needs and strengths. Learners are differentiated in their knowledge and skills. They
differ in the ways and speeds at which they process new learning and connect it to
prior knowledge and understanding (DBE, 2013). They also differ in the ways they most
effectively demonstrate their progress. Therefore, as teachers you also have to use
alternative assessment to accommodate different learning styles.

Differentiated assessment is used to reduce the barriers in the performance of learners.

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Assessment can be adapted by using different alternatives to cater for learners who
experience barriers to learning:

• Alternate Assessment Based on Alternate Attainment of Knowledge (content, con-

cepts and skills). This is for learners with a significant cognitive disability (learners
who require a high level of support). The assessment is based on grade- level content
but reduced in depth, breadth and complexity.

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• Alternate Assessment Based on Modified Attainment of Knowledge (content, concepts

and skills). This is for learners with disabilities who are working on grade-level content
in the general assessment. Here the content is reduced or at a more functional level.
Target learners can include learners with moderate intellectual disability, learners
who are deaf and some learners on skills programmes.
• Alternate Assessment Based on Grade-level Attainment of Knowledge. This is for
learners with disabilities or learning difficulties who need formats that provide them
with equal opportunities to demonstrate their attainment of content and it is at the
same grade level as the general assessment.

2.6.3 ‌Curriculum differentiation: differentiated teaching

In the preceding section the focus was mostly on curriculum adaptation. We only provided
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the difference between adaptation and differentiation based on the definitions or

explanations. Curriculum differentiation aims to promote a repertoire of teaching and
learning strategies, from the standardised to the differentiated; and a range of support
for all learners, from learning environment to resources, to peer learning, group learning
and self-directed learning, and to assessment (DBE, 2011).
Just like curriculum adaptation, curriculum differentiation can be done at the level of
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content, teaching methodologies, assessment and learning environment. However,

learners’ ability levels, interests and backgrounds are considered. In this section, we will
demonstrate using practical examples on how to differentiate the mathematics curriculum.
The following diagram represents a model of curriculum delivery.

138

2.6.3.1 ‌Differentiating the mathematics content

As indicated in ‌the content is adapted based on the three levels of abstractness, variety,
139

and complexity. Therefore, in order to cater for the ability levels of all learners, the content
is differentiated using different teaching methodologies such as multilevel teaching; tiered
teaching, scaffolding and designing down; and straddling.

55
Another strategy that can assist the you as a teacher to differentiate mathematics content
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is to break down the learning objectives into what you want your learners to Know;
Understand; and Do (KUDo’s). The concept of “Know” relates to facts, definitions, dates,
and other key information to be memorised by the learners. For example, in the foundation
phase, learners should be able to know how to count – counting forward, counting on,
and counting backward. Understanding, on the other hand, relates to the concepts,
principles or general “big ideas” learnt by the learners. For example, learners should be
able to understand and solve problems using basic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). The concept of “do” encompasses skills and processes and
how learners independently apply their knowledge and understanding in follow-up
activities or in other contexts outside the lesson. For example, explain properties by
sorting, classifying, describing, analysing and interpreting.

2.6.3.2 ‌Differentiating the teaching methods

As teachers, you are aware that learners in classrooms have different abilities, skills,
141

knowledge, and personalities. Therefore, in order to respond to their diverse needs you will
have to differentiate your teaching methods and strategies. Differentiating the teaching
methods refers to the flexible use of a wide variety of learning materials; methods of
presentation; learning activities; and lesson organisation.

2.6.3.2.1 Multilevel teaching

In most cases, teachers teach multilevel classes. These classes are characterised by
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a combination of two or more different types:

• Combined classes of different year levels

• Classes of mixed proficiency (ability level)
• Classes with some learners having different home languages than the language of
learning and teaching (LOLT)
• Classes of mixed motivation levels
• Different learning styles including visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and so on
• Various intelligences in class – multiple intelligences such as linguistic, mathematical,
special, kinaesthetic, musical, and so forth

The advantages of teaching a multilevel class is that it enables learners to develop the ability
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to work independently; increases learners’ self-confidence and motivation; encourages

a cooperative attitude; helps learners to develop organisational skills and manage their
learning and allow learners to work at their own pace. The following are examples of
different forms of multilevel teaching:

• Splitting the class: Learners can be split based on the content level, for example,
when a teacher wants to give different input to the group. Learners in one group
can work with self-access resources while the teacher is busy with the other group.

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• Differentiating tasks: All learners are given the same basic task, but at different levels
according to their ability levels. This can be done by language level; complexity level;
or amount of support provided.
• Abilities or skills: Activities that incorporate other abilities such as mathematics;
problem solving or using general knowledge can motivate learners with lower pro-
ficiency levels, as they allow these learners to participate by using their strengths
other than language.
• Using groups or pairs: It has been found that group work has been an effective
management tool for multilevel classes. Learners can be grouped as mixed abili-
ties; groups of same abilities; paired groups; interest groups; or cooperative groups
(jigsaw group).
• Peer tutoring: Learners learn best from others – not only from their teachers. Peer
tutoring can be done during pair or group work, where learners will learn from each
other. Learners who experience barriers to learning feel more comfortable asking
their peers for repeated explanations.
• Card games for Language and Mathematics: Games and activities using cards offer
a good opportunity for differentiation (DBE, 2017). In groups with learners of mixed
ability, more advanced learners can perform the harder tasks, such as reading from
the cards while the others listen and comprehend.

When teachers plan for multilevel teaching, they must always consider the varied proficiency
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level of learners. Generally, you might find that most of the learners perform at the same
proficiency level; however, you should always plan for those who are performing above
level or at a lower level.

Activity 2.7

Answer the following questions.

In your Grade 2 class, you have learners who display considerable diversity in terms of
abilities. Despite this diversity, the whole class is interested in mastering mathematical
skills. Design a differentiated lesson using the multilevel teaching approach where you
will be teaching learners about measurement. Use the following learning outcomes:
By the end of this activity, learners should have:

• practiced using a 30 cm ruler to measure a variety of objects in class

• practised using a 1 m ruler or a rope to measure their desks, tables and the chalkboard
• compared various objects in their classroom using the concepts “longer than” and
“shorter than”.
These outcomes will guide you to adapt the content on the three levels: abstractness,
variety, and complexity.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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.............................................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

You can use a 30 cm ruler, 1 m ruler, measuring tape, and a rope to measure. Let learners com-
pare objects in the classroom to use the concepts of “longer than” and “shorter than”. Some
learners can demonstrate using the rulers or measuring tape to measure objects such as tables,
chalkboard, doors, and so on. Other learners can calculate the measurement.

2.6.3.2.2 Tiered teaching

Tiered teaching means that all learners work with the same important understanding
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and skills, but proceed with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity. That
means, in a differentiated classroom, a teacher uses varied levels of tasks to ensure that
learners explore ideas and use skills at a level that builds on what they already know
and encourages growth. While they work at varied degrees of difficulty on their tasks,
they all explore the same essential ideas and work at different levels of thought. Groups
eventually come together to share and learn from each other.

146 Tiered tasks should be:

• different tiered work, not simply more or less work

• equally active
• equally interesting and engaging
• fair in terms of work expectations and time needed
• requiring the use of key concepts, skills, or ideas

147 Example of using tiered teaching in mathematics

Outcome: learners all use the same materials – pattern blocks, but what they do with the
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materials are different.

150 Pattern block OUTCOME

151

152 Tier 1 Identify all the ways you can group your pattern blocks.
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154 Tier 2 Identify all the different patterns you can make with your pattern
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blocks.
156 Tier 3 Create a bar graph to show all the different kinds of pattern blocks.
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158

Activity 2.8

You are introducing capacity/volume to the Grade 3 learners. Use the tiered teaching
method and explain how you will teach this learning area. Also show the activities that you
will provide for the different tiers. Remember to write your outcomes and resources.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

This is how you were expected to respond to the question:

Tier Activity
Tier 1: Low Estimate and measure using different containers – for instance,
using a cup or glass to fill a litre bottle
Tier 2: Middle Estimate and measure the capacity of an object by measuring
in litres.
Tier 3: High Compare, order and record objects whose capacity is stated in
litres – for instance: 2 litres of milk, 5 litres of paint, and so on.

2.6.3.2.3 Scaffolding and designing down

Scaffolding refers to the personal guidance, assistance, and support that a teacher, peer,
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or task provides to a learner. That means, temporary support structures put in place to
assist learners in accomplishing new tasks and concepts they could not typically achieve
on their own. Once these learners have mastered the activities or tasks, then scaffolding
is gradually removed, and the responsibility shifts from the teacher to the learner.

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One of the main benefits of scaffolded teaching is that it provides for a supportive learning
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environment. Learners are free to ask questions, provide feedback and support their peers
in learning new materials. They take an active role in their own learning.

2.6.3.2.4 Flexible grouping

Grouping learners can be used for different purposes and as teachers, you should take
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care that a learner is not labelled as belonging to one group only. You should avoid seating
learners in ability groups. Grouping learners should be determined by the task at hand.
The following examples can guide you on how to group learners, for what purpose, and
where the content can also be differentiated:

• Enhanced / enriched learning allows knowledge, concepts and skills to be attained

on an advanced level. The knowledge concepts and specific skills of the specific
grade are expanded.
• Unmodified learning concerns knowledge, concepts and skills appropriate to the age
or grade. Here learning allows for the attainment of grade-appropriate knowledge,
concepts and skills.
• Unwinding/scaffolding learning involves knowledge, concepts and skills being
grouped and structured. Learning support allows for scaffolding by breaking down
the task into steps and going one step at a time. This is also called designing down.
• Straddled learning relates to learners working on the same thematic knowledge,
concepts and skills, but at a lower grade/phase level. Learning can be attained on a
lower grade/phase level.

Activity 2.9

Prepare a mathematics lesson where you will be teaching Grade 1 learners about 2D
shapes. Use the flexible group method demonstrating differentiation according to mul-
tiple intelligences. Remember to write your outcomes and resources.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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Feedback

In your response, you were expected to include the following:

y Resources: different shapes, boxes, ropes, charts, crayons

y Group learners and provide suitable activities, for example:
− Spatial learners use strings or robe to create a large shape of a square and glue to
paste on a blank chart.
− Auditory learners and bodily/kinaesthetic learners will walk around the shape,
observing the features of a square and saying “I am walking along a square; one,
two, three, four corners.”.
− Logical/ mathematical learners will draw a square in the sand and be asked to identify
squares in the class, and so on.

2.6.3.3 ‌Differentiating the learning environment for mathematics lessons

The purpose of differentiating the learning environment is to ensure that it is conducive
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and stimulating for all learners. For the purpose of mathematics lessons, differentiating
the learning environment involves paying attention to the psychological, social and
physical factors. The psychological and social factors include aspects of learners’ well-
being, satisfaction, and ability to perform effectively, whereas the physical factors include
classroom space, arrangement of furniture, classroom infrastructure, noise level, class size,
classroom display as well as sufficiency of resources. The following questions can guide
you in differentiating your learning environment:

• Are you able to manage an overcrowded classroom?

• How do you do it? (E.g. grouping learners and facilitating their progress, attracting
the learner’s attention by using PowerPoint presentations / charts, videos).
• Do you embrace all learners?
• Do you give learners interesting activities to perform?
• Are you able to manage learners with behavioural difficulties and learning difficulties
(e.g. ADHD, withdrawn/passive learners, aggressive or bullying behaviour)?
Source: Adapted from DBE, 2017

Activity 2.10

Case study 2
Diteboho used to live with both her parents in the Free State Province in South Africa.
Both her parents are living with HIV and has separated. Diteboho moved with her
mother to Gauteng, and now lives in a densely populated and very poor informal
settlement. Her mother rented a small room in the backyard of relative strangers.
Her father still lives in the Free State and does not even bother to visit or call to check
on her. Her mother got a sleep-in job as a domestic worker. Diteboho stays alone in
the room during the week. Her mother arranged for her meals to be provided by the
landlord, as she stays with Diteboho on weekends only.

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Questions
(1) How would you accommodate the psychosocial needs of Diteboho when planning
your lessons?
(2) Describe how you would adapt the psychosocial environment in the classroom to
respond to her needs.

Feedback

In your response, you were expected to include the following:

y To consider her wellbeing, interest, and ability to perform effectively

y Diteboho appears to feel safe and comfortable in the room
y The seating arrangement motivates Diteboho to work and participate in group activities
y Provide a welcoming learning environment

2.6.3.4 ‌Differentiating mathematics assessment

Assessment, specifically baseline assessment is the main strategy to identify learners
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who experience barriers to mathematics. This baseline assessment can be through either
observations, interviews or written activities; however, it should not be used to label
learners’ abilities. Learners perform at different levels and their progress is also different
– there are those whose performance may progress quicker in mathematics, whereas
others work at a slower pace.

Let us look at the picture below, and indicate whether the assessment caters for the
164

diversity of all.

165

Source: Adapted from DBE, 2017

From this diagram, we can confirm that there is a need to differentiate assessment based
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on the following key principles:

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• Every learner should have access to the standard of assessment best suited to his
or her needs.
• No learner will be disadvantaged by the assessment strategy.
• Teachers are accountable for children’s achievement.
• Assessment tells us what the learner can do at a particular stage.
• Assessment informs us about what support a learner needs to progress to another
level.
• Every learner can show what knowledge and skills he or she has learned in creative
ways.
• Assessment should be authentic and make provision for multiple abilities, learning
styles and levels.
• Assessment should include supportive teaching practices.
• Assessment should be integrated in the teaching and learning process.
Source: DBE, 2011

The goal of differentiating assessment is to meet the diverse learning needs of all learners.
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Therefore, when differentiating mathematics assessment, you need to follow these steps:

• Design assessment tasks which would allow for different learning styles or intelligences.
• Allow for group assessment tasks.
• Allow for tests and assignments to be taken orally as well as in written form.
• Pace and scaffold the assessment activities.
• Allow learners extra time to complete the task.
• If possible, use technology to undertake assessment tasks.
• Vary assessment activities.

Activity 2.11

Develop a rubric or checklist that you will use to assess problem solving for a Grade 3 class

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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Feedback
In your response, you were expected to choose any content area of your choice and a theme/
topic which requires problem-solving activities. Follow the expected outcomes of the specific
grade.

2.7 CONCLUSION
Almost every day and in almost every school subject learners are required to apply
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mathematical concepts or thinking. Early identification of barriers to mathematics is

therefore important so that you can be able to provide relevant support and intervention
programmes. For you to make learning more meaningful and interesting in mathematics,
you have to consider how learners construct knowledge, not forgetting their strengths
and needs. Curriculum adaptation and differentiation are the most crucial strategy to
respond to the diversity of learners’ needs.

2.8 REFERENCE LIST

Department of Education (DoE). 2001. Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education:
building an inclusive education and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2010. Guidelines for inclusive teaching and learning. Pretoria:
Government Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2011a. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).
Foundation phase mathematics (Grade R-3). Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2011b. Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the
classroom through curriculum and assessment policy statements. Pretoria: Government
Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2014. Policy on screening, identification, assessment and
support. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2015. Responding to learner diversity in the classroom:
Participant’s manual. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Basic Education. 2017. Responding to diversity in Grades R-9: Practical
approaches to English and Mathematics Curriculum differentiation. Participant’s manual.
Pretoria: Government Printers.
Engelbrecht, A. 2016. Supporting learners in acquiring the skills of mathematics. In Nel,
M., Nel, N., & Hugo, A. Learner support in a diverse classroom: A guide for foundation,
intermediate and senior phase teachers of language and mathematics. (2nd ed), Van
Schaik Publishers, Pretoria.
Heyd-Metzuyanim, E., & Graven, M. (2016). Between people-pleasing and mathematizing:
South African learners’ struggle for numeracy. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
91(3), 349–373.
Ogbonnaya, U. I., Mji, A., & Mohapi, S. J. (2016). Identifying Some Hindrances to Students’
Achievement in Mathematics in South Africa. Dirasat: Educational Sciences, 43(2),
705–714.
University of South Africa. 2019. Study Guide 001 (DG 001). Inclusive Education (INC3701).
Pretoria.

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Learning unit 3
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS EXPERIENCING
BARRIERS TO LANGUAGE LITERACY AND
DETERMINING PROVISIONS FOR SUPPORT

SPECIFIC OUTCOME
To develop the student’s knowledge and competency to identify and respond to learners
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experiencing barriers in reading, writing, spelling, and comprehension in the foundation

phase of schooling.

Learning outcomes for learning unit 3

After you have completed learning unit 3, you should be able to:
• identify learners experiencing barriers in reading, writing, spelling, and comprehen-
sion in the foundation phase
• assess learners to determine support needs in reading, writing, spelling, and com-
prehension in the foundation phase
• use relevant intervention strategies to improve learning of reading, writing, spelling,
and comprehension in the foundation phase
• provide relevant support to learners experiencing barriers in reading, writing, spell-
ing, and comprehension in the foundation phase
• use a differentiated curriculum, within an inclusive framework or context, to meet the
needs of all learners in the foundation phase, including those learners who experience
barriers in reading, writing, spelling, and comprehension in the foundation phase

3.1 ‌Introduction
Including all learners in the learning process, in spite of their challenges or differences,
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is crucial for their psycho-educational development. Learners in the foundation phase

are still developing and learn at different paces and in different ways. According to
the Department of Basic Education [DBE] (2011a) and Education White Paper 6 [EWP6]
(Department of Education [DoE] 2001), the teacher must be in a position to understand
the diverse needs of each learner and assist them accordingly, to equally access learning
for achievement. However, when learners show signs of unusual delays in their learning
and achievement, the teacher should identify these delays as early as possible for early
intervention to take place. The teacher has to possess the knowledge and competency to
respond appropriately and support the learners who are experiencing barriers which may
be causing delays in their learning and preventing them from achieving the learning goals.

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In fact, the Department of Basic Education [DBE] (2011b:19) highlights the essential need
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for the teacher to track and monitor the progress of each learner to “inform the next steps
to be taken in the learning pathway.”

In this learning unit, we will look at some potential barriers that learners may experience in
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reading, writing, spelling, and comprehension which may delay their learning milestones.
We will also introduce you to some strategies which we believe may assist you to help
learners to possibly overcome these barriers. Through differentiating the regular curriculum
and assessment, as well as developing support programmes to cater for learners at varying
ability levels, the teacher is sure to deliver quality education to all learners within a diverse
framework that focuses on meeting the individual needs of all learners (DBE 2011a; DoE
2001). Furthermore, the policy on screening, identification, assessment and support
(Department of Basic Education [DBE] (2014:18) also highlights the importance for the
teacher to shift the focus “from the individual learner deficit to the support programme”.
In the mainstream school, the teacher is expected to support those learners experiencing
mild to moderate intellectual barriers (DBE 2011b). However, when barriers go beyond the
mainstream teacher’s domain, the teacher then refers the learner for more specialised
intervention. Crucial to this referral, though, is the principle of inclusion first, and out-
placement last (DBE 2001a; DoE 2001).

3.2 ‌GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF AN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AND

TRAINING SYSTEM TO FACILITATE LANGUAGE LEARNING
WITHIN MAINSTREAM SCHOOLS
Providing site-based support (educational and psycho-social) and linking with full- service
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schools, centrally based support centres, district based support teams (DBST), NGOs, and
other governmental departments to access further support for learners in a mainstream
school system is the number one priority of an inclusive education and training system.
However, in providing such support, the school and teacher should keep the following
guiding principles (DoE 2001) in mind to meet the needs of all learners.

• Change attitudes, behaviour and the learning environment to meet the needs of all
learners.
• Change or differentiate teaching methods and the curriculum to meet the needs of
all learners.
• Acknowledge and respect the differences in learners, whether due to age, gender,
ethnicity, language, class, disability, or impairments.
• Uncover and minimise the learners’ barriers to learning.
• Maximise the participation of all learners in the culture, curriculum, and language of
learning and teaching of the school.

Take note!

EWP6 maintains that an inclusive education and training system acknowledges that “all
children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need support” (DoE 2001:6).

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Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other guiding principles which embrace an inclusive approach to facili-
tate language learning in mainstream schools?

Note them down

3.3 ‌SOME REASONS FOR THE ONSET OF LANGUAGE

LEARNING NEEDS WITHIN MAINSTREAM SCHOOLS
The school system is supposed to be a flexible learning institution that provides
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quality education for all learners, irrespective of their individual differences. However,
the school can also be a place that can debilitate learners and hold back their educational
development and prevent them from accessing quality education, which may lead to
different learning needs. These different learning needs, according to EWP6 (DoE 2001),
may also arise due to:

• negative attitudes and stereotyping of differences in learners

• an inflexible curriculum
• inappropriate language of learning and teaching
• inappropriate communication
• inadequately trained educators and education managers

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Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other reasons that exist within the mainstream school which may give
rise to different learning needs?

Note them down

3.4 ‌DIFFERENTIATING CURRICULUM BARRIERS TO MEET THE

NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING
Often the curriculum itself gives rise to barriers to learning (DoE 2001), in particular
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language learning. The Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) of the school may not
necessarily be the first language or the “mother tongue” of the learner and this creates
barriers to adapting to and learning a new language. There are also implications for written
and verbal communication fluency. Consequently, we believe that teachers should be
sensitive to this fact and plan lessons accordingly, keeping the following in mind:

• Keep communication simple and to the point.

• Give learners one instruction at a time.
• Simplify the language that you use so that learners are able to understand what you
are saying.
• Teach one aspect or concept of the curriculum at a time.
• Adjust the pace of teaching to help the learners to complete the curriculum.
• Adjust teaching methods to suit the learners’ learning needs and style.
• Task activities should concentrate more on quality than on quantity.

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• Cater for multiple intelligences in the classroom through the teaching of differenti-
ated ability level groups for task achievement.
• Use appropriate and relevant teaching materials to enhance the learners’ understand-
ing of concepts through personal experiences.
• Use a lot of repetitive language or instructions to assist learners to grasp language
learning.
• Ask simple questions to assess the learners’ understanding of teaching and learning.

Take note!

The long-term goal of EWP6 is to develop an inclusive system that will “uncover and ad-
dress barriers to learning, and recognise and accommodate the diverse range of learning
needs” (DoE 2001:45) of all learners.

3.5 ‌L ANGUAGE LEARNING

The National Curriculum Statement [CAPS] Grades R-12 (DBE 2011b) represents the policy
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statement for the teaching and learning of the English Home Language curriculum in
South African schools. Languages is integrated into all subjects and used across the
curriculum in all oral work, reading and writing (DBE 2011b). In this unit we will focus our
attention, as mentioned before, on barriers learners may experience in reading, writing,
spelling and comprehension in the foundation phase of schooling.

Take note!

For the complete South African foundation phase language curriculum, refer to the CAPS
document (DBE 2011b). International students are encouraged to refer to your country’s
policy document on language curriculum.

3.5.1 ‌Reading
Reading is all around us. Exposure to early language and literacy (emergent reading)
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begins in the infant years of a child’s life and continues throughout their growth and
development. Even before learners are admitted to school, they develop a sense of sound
and language, which they are exposed to through what they see and hear every day.
Children develop emergent reading through pictures, signs, and bold captions, and so
forth that they often hear (through adverts) and see. Incidental reading is also developed
in much the same way, through frequent exposure to print.

When children enter the foundation phase they are taught to learn to read. The teacher
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begins to develop the learners’ phonemic (sound) awareness in Grade R. Phonemic

awareness refers to listening and recognising sounds and sound patterns in spoken
language. Phonemic awareness is auditory. Developing the child’s phonemic awareness is
aimed at preparing learners for future learning and development of phonics (identification
of letter-sounds). The teacher places much emphasis on the oral development of the

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learner to listen to sounds through daily practice with rhymes, poems, songs, and so on.
As learners learn sound patterns, they gradually begin to recognise that spoken language
consists of sounds and follows certain sound patterns. During this stage of development,
learners are ready to be exposed to phonic learning. When learners learn print, they begin
to discover that print has meaning.

However, these stages of attainment may not be the same for all learners. When the
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teacher observes that a learner is presenting with deficits in that the learner is unable
to recognise sounds, sound patterns, letter-sounds or shapes, blend sounds, and so on,
and performs at a delayed or irregular pace, the teacher should grow concerned that the
learner may be experiencing a barrier to reading that puts the learner at risk for reading
difficulties, which requires intervention. Barriers to reading refer to anything that may
cause interferences and prevent the learner from reading.

Stop and reflect!

Can you think of some barriers to reading that learners are likely to experience, or which
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you have observed during a reading lesson?

Note them down

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Take note!

Barriers affecting language learning often overlap and may affect reading, writing, spell-
ing, as well as comprehension. Similarly, provisions for support may also overlap in their
approach towards these overlapping barriers.

3.5.1.1 I‌ dentifying learners who experience common barriers to reading, with

provisions for support
The most common barrier learners experience when reading is a lack of word attack skills.
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These skills include phonetic analysis, structural analysis and word patterns. Learning
the similarities and differences between the beginning, middle and end sound of words
prepare learners for reading. However, reading is a process and if the learner’s perceptual
skills are not adequately developed, such a learner may experience certain barriers to
reading. We look at some common problems learners may have that cause them to
experience barriers when reading. We also offer some intervention strategies for you to
practise with the learners. You should however keep in mind that if the learner’s reading
barriers continue in spite of your intervention, you should seek assistance from the parents
and the school-based support team (SBST).

3.5.1.2 ‌Identifying learners who experience barriers regarding directionality

Directionality refers to our sense of how we see the world in relation to ourselves. This
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involves our sense of direction of objects from our position, whether the object is to our
left or right, up or down, between, or in front of, and so on. Problems with directionality
affect both reading and writing.

You will know that a learner is experiencing problems with directionality when you
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observe the following symptoms:

• The learner confuses directions and is unable to tell the difference between up and
down, left or right, or back and front.
• The learner is unable to judge the direction from which and to which something is
moving.
• The learner is unable to follow reading from left to right and line by line on a page,
or follow reading from the top of the page to the bottom of the page. As a result,
the learner is not able to hold his or her place while reading, or to find a word in a
sentence, for instance.
• The learner skips letters and omits words when reading, writing or spelling.
• The learner frequently repeats the same word or sentence when reading, writing
or spelling.
• The learner is unable to write from a left-to-right direction on the page and line by
line following from a top-to-bottom direction on the page. As a result, the learner
writes randomly on the page.

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189 Provisions for support

Once you have observed that a learner is experiencing problems with directionality, you
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should try to support the learner. Here are some intervention strategies for you to practise
with the learners. Practise these activities as often as possible.

During outdoor activities, engage the learners in activities which teach directionality.
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For example:

• ‌ sk the learners to point to the right, then point to the left. Point up to the sky, and
A
point down to the ground.
• ‌Get two learners to hold a rope, the kind that is used to play tug of war. Ask learners
to run to the right end of the rope. Run to the left end of the rope. Run to the mid-
dle of the rope, then from the middle of the rope; follow the rope to the right end.
Follow the rope to the left end. Ask learners to go to the right end of the rope and
follow the rope to the left end, and so on. Practise several times.

During class activities, engage the learners in activities which teach directionality. For
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example:

• ‌Show the learners pictures and ask them questions.

Picture 1: Boy and girl (Source: Clip Art)

193

Put the picture on the chalkboard. Ask learners, on which side of the boy is the girl – left
194

or right? On which side of the girl is the boy – left or right? Ask learners to stand in front
of the girl and say on which side of the boy they are standing. Ask learners to stand in
front of the boy and say on which side of the girl they are standing.

195 Here is another example.

Picture 2: Boy holding up a page (Source: Clip Art)

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Put the picture on the chalkboard. Ask the learners to say in which hand the boy is holding
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the page (which represents a certificate). On which side is the boy looking? Where are the
boy’s hands – up or down? Extended discussions on picture “reading and comprehension”
could also take place. Ask learners, what do they think the boy is holding up; talk about
his medal, achieving or winning something, and so on.

• ‌ ie a string across the classroom. Peg some pictures that tell a story (which the
T
learners are familiar with) in sequence on the string and ask learners to touch each
picture, from the right end (beginning of the story) to the left end (end of the story).
The learners can also follow and briefly explain the events of the story by touching
each picture and moving in the left-to-right direction.
• ‌Ask learners to place their forefingers on the left end of their book, for instance where
the bird is, and follow their finger on the arrow to the right end of the book where
the bird’s nest is. These practice exercises will help learners to learn that when they
read a book they must first point on the left and read through to the right. When they
write in a book they must begin at the left end of the book page and write through
to the right end of the line on the page.
• ‌Give learners various tracing activities (as shown below) to practise direction from
right to left. Begin in Grade 1 and use in Grades 2 and Grade 3 (as required) to sup-
port learners who may be experiencing a problem with directionality.

Picture 3: Trace from left to right (Source: Shutterstock)

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Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other activities to support learners who experience problems with
directionality that affect both reading and writing?

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Note them down

Use these activities in your classroom.

3.5.1.3 ‌Identifying learners who experience barriers regarding laterality

Laterality refers to our sense of balance in relation to objects, and so forth. We rely to
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cross the imaginary midline that runs through the centre of the body which balances our
right and left functions. When learners are unable to cross this midline, they experience
problems with both reading and writing.

You will know that a learner is experiencing problems with laterality when you observe
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the following symptoms:

• A right-handed learner may only be concentrating on reading or writing on the right

side of a page or book. The learner turns the page over and reads or writes only on
the right side of the page or turns and adjusts his or her body to function more on
the right to avoid crossing this midline. The left side of the page or book is usually
overlooked when reading, or it remains blank when writing.
• A left-handed learner may only be concentrating on reading or writing on the left
side of a page or book. The learner turns the page over and reads or writes only on
the left side of the page or turns and adjusts his or her body to function more on
the left to avoid crossing this midline. The right side of the page or book is usually
overlooked when reading, or it remains blank when writing.

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201 Provisions for support

Once you have observed that a learner is experiencing problems with laterality, you should
202

try to support the learner to cross the midline. Here are some intervention strategies for
you to practise with the learners. Practice these activities as often as possible.

Take note!

The trace activities for directionality as used above are also very effective for supporting
learners who have problems with laterality.

• During physical activities, ask learners to use their right hand to touch their left knee,
toe, ear, and so on. Ask learners to use their left hand to touch their right knee, toe,
ear, and so forth.
• Ask learners to put their right hand over their left shoulder and reach to touch the
centre of their back. Ask learners to put their left hand over their right shoulder and
reach to touch the centre of their back.
• Ask learners to turn their head to the right and look over their right shoulder. Ask
learners to turn their head to the left and look over their left shoulder.
• Ask learners to rub the chalkboard from the right end through to the left end.

Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other midline activities to support learners who may experience prob-
lems with laterality?

Note them down

Use these activities in your classroom.

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3.5.1.4 I‌ dentifying learners who experience barriers regarding position in space and
spatial relationships
Position in space and spatial relationships also refer to our perception of how we see
203

objects and so forth in relation to ourselves, very much so as we learnt in directionality

and laterality.

Take note!

The activities for directionality and laterality are also effective to support learners who
experience problems with position in space and spatial relationships.

Additional to not understanding their position in the space around them, learners who
204

experience problems with spatial relationships also experience problems with visual
discrimination (sight) and auditory perception (hearing). They confuse letters and letter-
sound relationships, which affect both reading and writing.

You will know that a learner is experiencing problems with spatial relationships when
205

you observe the following symptoms:

• The learner confuses letter-sounds when reading or writing, and reads or writes
(b for d), (b for p), (p for d), (g for d), and so forth.
• The learner is unable to grasp letter-sound relationships.
• The learner recognises letters upside down and reads or writes (u for n), (m for w),
and so on.
• The learner misjudges the position of letters in a sequence of letters. The learner
swops the positioning of the beginning and end letters (that look similar) and reads or
writes (was for saw), (deb for bed), (but for tub), (god for dog), (bad for dad), and so on.
• The learner experiences difficulty ordering words in sentences and reads or writes
(“I sick was.” instead of “I was sick.”).

206 Provisions for support

Once you have observed that a learner is experiencing problems with spatial relationships,
207

you should try to support the learner. Here are some intervention strategies for you to
practise with the learners. Practise these activities as often as possible.

• ‌ sk learners to pick out the correct letter from letter-cards, b and d. Sound the letters
A
with them several times. Demonstrate to learners that the c is turned backwards and
joins on the right side of the l to form the b. The c joins on the left of the l to form
the d. Ask learners to write the letters several times in their workbooks to reinforce
the difference.

b
209

208
d
210

• ‌ sk learners to match the letter-card to the correct blend to complete the word.
A
Provide picture clues to help them make the association.

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Pictures 4 and 5: Clues to complete the words (Source: Shutterstock)

211

________
212 ed _______ ad
• ‌Ask learners to circle all the m letter-sounds

213 w m n m

214 n m

• ‌Ask learners to circle all the u letter-sounds

215 u n n u

216 u m

• ‌Ask learners to circle all the p letter-sounds

217 b p d p

218 d p

• ‌ ive learners added activities to mould letters, paint letters, draw pictures for letters,
G
and so forth which they are having difficulty with – to give them more practice and
reinforce the shape and sound of the letters.
• ‌Give learners activities to identify beginning, end, and middle letters in words. For
example, in the word sat, ask learners to identify the beginning sound s, the end
sound t, and the middle sound a.
• ‌Give learners practice exercises which involve pointing to each word as they read. Cut
cardboard and use it to write simple sentences to make sentence strips for learners
to read and recognise each word in a sentence. Ask learners to point at each word
and read aloud so that they do not omit or add any word in the sentence.

219 Here is an example:

220

221 Dad sat on the bed.

77
After the reading reinforcement, cut (segment) the sentence strip into individual words.
222

Show the learners each word and how it comes together to make a sentence. Then jumble
the words and ask learners to put the words in its correct order to make the sentence.
Here is an example:

223 Jumbled sentence

224

on
225 229 Dad 226 the bed.
227 228 sat

230 Ordered sentence

231

232 Dad 236 sat 235 on 234 the 233 bed.

237 You can practise with many other simple sentences in the same way.

Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other activities to support learners who experience problems with
spatial relationships?

Note them down

Use these activities in your classroom.

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Activity 3.1

Read the following case study carefully and then answer the questions that follow.

Helen, a year 2 primary school teacher says:

“Another thing as well, all the pressures you get from publishers, the types of books that
are coming out and courses that are pushed in schools over and over again. ‘These are
the resources you must have.’ Teachers do feel pressure from that and want to buy those
things that ‘will’ save their children from failure. Pressure is coming in that way as well.
They are hearing about these methods, when they may not know the background behind
them, have done no research but take them on board because they think ‘This is what I
must do.’. There are whole groups of teachers from a range of age phases who tend to
adopt every single initiative, scheme and document because they are frightened to let go
of them. This material becomes like a safety blanket now because I think they have lost
their values, they have had them taken away. I can see why too and I understand; but as
professionals we must approach this material with a critical eye.”
This case study was extracted from Goouch & Lambirth (2007:82).
In the case study above the pressure on teachers to accept “every single initiative,
scheme and document” to facilitate teaching is highlighted. Do you think the teachers’
attitudes displayed in the case study support the building of an inclusive education
and training system? Substantiate your answer in a paragraph.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

In your response you were expected to include the following information:

y Say whether or not you think the teacher’s attitudes support the building of an inclu-
sive education and training system.
y Access of the publishers to schools
y The role of the LTSM committee

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y Lack of management in school
y The teacher’s lack of knowledge of the curriculum needs
y The teacher’s lack of knowledge of diversity
y Implementation of teaching methods with little background or research to measure its
effectiveness
y Lack of training of the teachers to select appropriate LTSM and teaching methods.
y The teacher’s belief that buying many resources will save the children from ‘failure’

3.5.2 ‌Writing
There is a distinction between writing and handwriting. Handwriting relates to a person
238

forming alphabet letters, numbers, and so forth, while writing relates more to a person’s
thoughts for communication which he or she puts down on paper (Joubert, Bester, Meyer,
Evans and Phatudi 2015). For the sake of identifying barriers in the foundation phase to
determine learner support needs, we focus our attention to and use the words “writing”
and “handwriting” interchangeably to depict form. Developing the learners’ skill to write
in the foundation phase is important for onward writing achievement. Learning to write
is a developmental process which begins during the infant years when children learn to
grasp a crayon; to the stage where they develop confidence and steadiness, and are able
to grip their pencil using a dynamic tripod grasp for legible handwriting (Gunning 2013).
To write successfully in school, learners must first develop their handwriting skills. In fact,
the foundation phase places much emphasis on the skills the learner “must acquire to
master handwriting techniques and procedures” (Joubert et al 2015:176).

Learners are taught to formally write at the beginning of Grade 1 in the Home Language
239

(DBE 2011b). In Grade 1, learners begin to form letters and gradually learn to write
individual words, and captions for pictures; and to construct single sentences. As learners
progress, they engage in cloze procedure exercises which require a single word or
phrase to complete a sentence or question, shared writing activities, transcription of
sentences, completing phrases, ordering words in sentences, using keywords to build
sentences, to finally composing their own sentences (DBE 2011b). These steps in writing
are all part of the writing development process.

Formal writing, however, begins with pre-writing skills (DBE 2011b). These skills are taught
240

in Grade R and are aimed at developing the learners’ visual discrimination, gross and fine
motor skills, hand-eye coordination, body image, and so forth. To begin to write, learners
have to be taught to hold their pencils properly (pencil control). They also have to learn
about the size and shape of letters, how to form letters, where to begin in a book, spacing
between letters and eventually spacing between words. Handwriting implies learning
how to form letters. This requires the learner to visualise the letter, memorise its image
and reproduce and write the image (Joubert et al 2015).

The following are the handwriting developmental stages learners typically go through,
241

which prepares them for writing readiness.

242

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Picture 6: Handwriting developmental stages (Source: kidlink.net.au)

243

The typical expected age and pencil grasp level of the learner to write is shown above.
244

However, if the learners’ gross and fine motor skills are not adequately developed, they
will experience problems with writing.

Stop and reflect!

Can you think of some barriers to writing that learners are likely to experience, or which
you have observed during a writing lesson?

Note them down

81
Picture 7: Correct seated position (Source: Shutterstock)

245

To begin with, the teacher should ensure that the learner is seated in the correct position
246

that will allow the learner to write properly.

The teacher ensures that the learner sits in the correct position, with
247

248 his or her feet flat on the ground

• a 90 degree angle at the knees

• a 90 degrees angle of chair and hips right back
• the shoulders and upper back correct
• the hands in the correct position (distance – hand to eye)
• his or her head in midline
• the head tilted down

Remember that the whole arm should be used, not only the hand to write. The learner’s
249

book should be placed on the table in front of the learner, slightly to the right of the
centre of the body of the learner at approximately a 45-degree angle. Remember to also
make adjustments to cater for the learner who writes using the left hand.

3.5.2.1 I‌ dentifying learners who experience common barriers to writing, with

provisions for support ‌Poor pencil control due to inadequate motor
development
It is important for learners to have good pencil control when writing, to form letters more
250

accurately without putting pressure on the arm or finger muscles. Pencil control refers
to the way a learner uses a pencil to write or draw. The way the learner holds the pencil
and coordinates the movement of the hand, wrist, and arm while drawing or writing is
important. When learners have poor pencil control, it is usually due to their inadequate
motor development.

You will know that a learner is experiencing problems with pencil control due to inadequate
251

fine motor development when you observe that the learner has the following symptoms
when he or she is writing:

• The learner grips the pencil properly but struggles to control the pencil.
• The learner closes the web space between the thumb and index finger, which restricts
the movement of the fingers to form letters.

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• The learner bends the wrist in unusual or abnormal ways.

• The learner frequently adjusts the book to his or her body.
• The learner grips the pencil tightly or presses hard on the pencil. The learner may
also press the pencil down with force on the page (this may result in the learner
becoming tired quickly from writing, breaking the pencil lead often, or making holes
and tearing the page).
• The learner writes either too fast or too slow, with inaccurate or inconsistent writing
patterns.
• The learner’s work is untidy.

252 During letter formation the learner

• struggles to form letters accurately

• struggles to write on the page line or keep within the page line
• is unable to trace accurately on letters or patterns
• produces distorted forms
• reverses letters
• is unable to write even-size letters or leave even spaces between letters

Take note!

Intervention programmes to overcome barriers to learning arising from disability and

developmental delays should occur in a “systematic and concentrated manner” (DBE
2014:34).

253 Provisions for support

Once you have observed that a learner is experiencing problems with pencil control and
254

handwriting, you should try to support the learner. Before learners master the tripod grip,
they need to develop their fine motor skills. Here are some intervention strategies for you
to practise with the learners. Practise these activities as often as possible.

• ‌ sk learners to tear up old newspapers and telephone directories, for instance, into
A
paper strips and then squash the paper strips together to make paper balls.
• ‌Tie a string across the classroom and ask learners to peg up pictures or paintings.
Opening pegs with their thumb and index finger will help to strengthen their pincer
grip (the pincer grip is the ability to grasp small objects with the thumb and forefinger).
• ‌Ask learners to pinch the Plasticine.
• ‌Ask to build models of objects and items using interlocking blocks.
• ‌Provide learners with plenty of threading exercises to develop their fine motor skills.
Fine motor skills refer to the small muscles in the fingers to develop movement and
strength. This activity requires concentration and focus, and enhances the hand-
eye coordination skills of the learners. Learners learn to draw their attention to and
concentrate on finer details. This helps them to pay closer attention to detail when
writing.

83
Pictures 8 and 9: Threading activities (Source: Shutterstock)

255

The above pictures depict activities which involve threading. Ask learners to thread
256

macaroni through the plastic rod as depicted in the picture on the left. Ask learners to
thread a string into holes on a cardboard to complete the flower pattern as depicted in
the picture on the right. Practise with threading activities help to strengthen the finger
muscles and build the learners’ fine motor skills.

• ‌Introduce learners to pencil grip holders to enhance a dynamic tripod grip.

Picture 10: Using a pencil with a grip holder (Source: Shutterstock)

257

The above picture shows a learner using a pencil with a grip holder. The grip holder
258

helps the learner to grip and control the pencil more steadily. As the learner becomes
more confident with the dynamic tripod grip, the holder will no longer be required and
should be removed. The teacher can also use crayons, shorter and wider pencils, as well
as triangular pencils to encourage the learner to hold the pencil correctly as depicted in
the following picture.

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Picture 11: Tripod grip (Source: Shutterstock)

259

The picture above demonstrates the correct tripod grip using a thick crayon. The teacher
260

should try to achieve this grip with every learner to ensure that they write steadily and
precisely.

• ‌ ive learners plenty of handwriting practice activities to strengthen their grip and
G
to learn pencil control. Select activities that give learners the opportunity to focus
on trace lines and keep within spaces. These types of activities (depicted in picture
12 and picture 13) prepare learners to write more steadily to form letters and keep
within page lines when writing.

Picture 12: Handwriting practice activity (Source: Shutterstock)

261

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Picture 13: Handwriting practice activity (Source: Shutterstock)

262

Picture 12 and picture 13 above depict activities which involve tracing on the lines as well
263

as joining the dots to form patterns and give learners practice with left-to-right movement
for writing readiness. As a support teacher you should ensure that you first demonstrate
the trace activities to the learners. These activities should be teacher guided where the
teacher works “hands on” with the learners. Check on and correct the learners’ pencil
grip. Keep in mind that learners require the support of the teacher to learn and develop.

Take note!

The handwriting practice activities above also teach directionality, which was discussed
under “Reading”.

• ‌ hen beginning with formation of letters, give learners a writing template to guide
W
them to write within the lines on a page – to prepare them to write in their exercise
books. Introduce one letter-sound at a time. Learners should be given repeated
writing opportunities to form the same letter-sound. Learners should also be given
plenty of handwriting practice activities to improve their writing skills and learn to
form letters accurately. Use other letters in the same way until learners have devel-
oped their handwriting skills.

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Picture 14: Letter formation practice activity (Source: Shutterstock)

264

Stop and reflect!

Can you think of other activities to develop the fine motor skills of learners?

Note them down

Use these activities in your classroom.

87
Activity 3.2

Plan and give Grade 1 learners a writing activity which involves the formation of a letter-
sound on a writing template. Demonstrate the activity first and then allow the learners
to do the activity themselves. As the learners are writing, observe them for any potential
symptoms that may indicate to you that a learner/s may be experiencing a problem with
pencil grip or pencil control. Write down your findings below.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................................
Now try to support the learner by attaching a pencil grip to the learner’s pencil, or alter-
natively give the learner a triangular pencil to use, and practice the same letter formation
with the learner a few times before you allow the learner to continue to write on his or
her own. What have you noticed? Did your intervention show any signs of improvement
in the learner’s pencil grip or formation? If yes, indicate how your intervention assisted
the learner. If no, indicate what you think you should do differently.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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Feedback

The student’s own experiences are presented here. However, the teacher’s goal at all times
should be to continue to support the learner to achieve success. The teacher should also bear
in mind that support is ongoing and sometimes it requires using different techniques and a
longer period of time to overcome a barrier, depending on the learner’s learning style and
ability to respond to and process information.

3.5.3 ‌Spelling
The learners’ ability to spell words correctly relies heavily on their knowledge of phonics
265

and their acquisition of decoding skills. The learners’ oral foundation also serves as a
springboard for correct spelling. Spelling is understood as the practical application of the
learners’ ability to recognise letter-sounds, letter-sound relationships, blends, syllables
in words, and so on. Reading and spelling are closely linked. To spell correctly, Adoniou
(2013) suggests that learners need to understand what words mean. Reading a word and
understanding it is important for spelling development.

Often learners are given words but have no idea what they mean and therefore find it
266

difficult to learn to spell the word. For Adoniou (2013), sending a word list home for the
learner to learn spelling, is not teaching. Spelling has proven to be the most persistently
tested aspect in language; yet, very often the skill to spell words and teach the meaning
of words is overlooked and often replaced by oral drill. While sounds and phonics have
their place in learning to spell, the meaning of the word is equally important. Spelling
tests also mainly benefit the good spellers. The poor spellers experience barriers before
the test and still experience barriers after the test, which correlates with what Adoniou
(2013) points out – that testing is not teaching.

Picture 15: Writing and spelling barriers (Source: Internationaleps.com)

267

The above picture shows deficits in writing and spelling skills. The strengths of the learner
268

indicate that the learner understands letters and is able to write on the line. However,
the learner is struggling with accurate letter formation. Although the learner has some

89
knowledge of phonics, the learner is struggling to spell and uses invented spelling (invented
spelling relies heavily on sounds to spell). There is also irregular spacing between the letters.

3.5.3.1 I‌ dentifying learners who experience common barriers to spelling – with

provisions for support
The most common barrier learners experience when spelling is their inability to identify
269

syllables in a word. The phonic and decoding skills which are learnt during the teaching of
reading are crucial to develop spelling. Learners practise spelling words they are familiar
with by cutting them into their letter sounds (b-a-d), blends (b-ad), or word groups (cr-
own). Spelling is a process that develops very much like reading: the more you practise
reading, the better you get at reading (Vacca JL, Vacca RT, Gove, Burkey, Lenhart & McKeon
2012). Similarly, the more you practise spelling, the better you get at spelling. Whether
spelling the word orally, or writing it down, the learner’s visual perception and memory
recall ability plays an important role in recapping and recognising letter patterns.

Activity 3.3

Consider the following sentence written by Sihle, a Grade 3 learner.

Itink shiiz at dastashun rding.

Read the sentence out aloud. What do you notice about Sihle’s sentence? Write down
your findings and concerns.

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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What can you do to support Sihle?

.............................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback

Were you able to read the sentence correctly? This is known as invented spelling. Invented
spelling is phonetically motivated. Learning to spell is not a matter of memorising words but
a developmental process that culminates from understanding the language and the relation-
ships between letters and groups of letters. Spelling requires practice. Vacca JL et al (2012:123)
posits that with “experience and guidance, children gradually become more sophisticated in
their invented spellings”.

You probably were able to make sense of the sentence using phonetics. It is clear that Sihle was
trying to use his sound sense to write the above sentence. He knew exactly what he wanted
to communicate! However, Sihle lacks proper encoding skills and adequate knowledge of
graphemes (letters) and phonemes (letter-sounds) and their relationships to communicate his
thoughts clearly. As a result, what he is trying to say may be distorted. Sihle’s other language
abilities such as writing, spelling and sentence construction are also lacking. In addition, his
spacing between letters and words are irregular. In order for Sihle to communicate his ideas
accurately in written form, he has to learn how to encode and spell words. Sihle also needs
to learn to leave even spacing between letters and words so that the sentence can be read
with ease.

Sihle’s sentence should have read as follows:

270 I think she is at the station reading.

y ‌ sk learners to write words in the air using their index finger.

A
y ‌Provide opportunities for learners to use beans, beads, and so forth to practise letter
formation. Moulding letters using Plasticine also enhances memory recall.

91
3.5.4 ‌Comprehension
Comprehension is the ability to understand what we see, hear or read. It is how we perceive
271

the world to be, and our ability to understand the world depends heavily on how we
understand and interpret everything around us. Learners who struggle with reading are
usually poor at comprehension as they misread words. Often learners cannot comprehend
what they read as they do not understand the meaning of words. Memory recall also
plays a vital role in comprehension.

Listening comprehension: refers to what we listen to. Listening carefully is important to

272

give the correct response. Vacca JL et al (2012) maintain that in order to comprehend oral
language, “children need to pay attention and listen with purpose.” Listening to stories
or a recording, following instructions or directions, or carrying a message, are all part of
listening comprehension. The learners’ listening skills are comprehensively developed
in Grade R during phonemic awareness when they listen for sounds and sound patterns.
Learners who experience difficulty listening carefully will have difficulty responding
appropriately.

Picture interpretation: refers to “reading” and understanding a picture. The learners’

273

ability to read a picture is enforced formally from Grade R. Whether looking at pictures
for clues, patterns, comparisons, to tell a story, or for description purposes, are all part
of picture interpretation. Signs are also a very important part of picture interpretation.
Learners who experience difficulty “reading” and interpreting warning signs, could very
well land themselves in danger.

Reading comprehension: refers to understanding what is read. Understanding words

274

and sentences is important to extract meaning and give meaning to written texts. The
teacher always asks questions during comprehension to assess if learners have fully
understood what they have read. The teacher may also ask the learner to draw a picture
of a story to assess what their perception of the story is. When learners are unable to
respond appropriately to questions based on a text, they may be experiencing a problem
with reading comprehension.

3.5.4.1 I‌ dentifying learners who experience common barriers to comprehension, with

provisions for support
You will know that a learner is experiencing problems with comprehension when you
275

observe the following symptoms during comprehension:

• The learner does not give a correct response to questions asked.

• The learner struggles to understand age-appropriate stories.
• The learner is unable to retell a story correctly.
• The learner is unable to give his or her views and opinions on a story.
• The learner is unable to draw a picture to support a story.
• The learner struggles to correctly sequence pictures depicting the events of a story.

276

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277Provisions for support

• ‌ se simple comprehension passages like the one below, with a picture, a simple
U
story and few short questions based on the story. Develop the learners’ vocabulary
as preparation to reading the passage. Gunning (2013) agrees that revising vocabu-
lary words before reading improves comprehension. Read the story to and with
the learners several times. Discuss the story. Read the questions to them. If learners
are unable to write the answers, allow them to give you the answers orally. Do not
forget to ask learners for their views on the story. You may also ask the learners to
retell the story.

Picture 16: Comprehension passage (Source: http://armiane.info/ )

278

• T‌ ell the learners a simple story and ask them to retell the story using their own words.
• ‌Ask learners to identify the omissions, similarities and differences in the following
pictures. This activity is effective to enhance the learners’ visual perceptual and
visual discrimination skills. Ask learners to trace and colour the pictures according to
the completed picture. Encourage learners to pay careful attention to detail.

93
Picture 17: Visual discrimination (Source: Shutterstock)

279

Activity 3.4

In what way do you think finding similarities and differences in pictures will help learners
to develop their visual perceptual and visual discrimination skills?

.............................................................................................................................................................................

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Feedback

Looking for similarities and differences in pictures draws the learners’ attention to and develops
their awareness of smaller details. This includes recognising differences between the shapes and
sizes of letters, particularly with regard to letters and words that look similar – for example, the
words was and saw, which learners easily confuse. Developing the learners’ visual perceptual
and discrimination skills help them to improve their spelling, reading and comprehension.

3.6 ‌ADMINISTERING ASSESSMENTS TO DETERMINE LEARNER

SUPPORT NEEDS
Assessments are referred to as a continuous, planned process of collecting information,
280

either formally or informally, to assess a learner’s performance using a variety of assessment

tools (Department of Basic Education [DBE] 2011c). Furthermore, the DBE (2011c) and
Joubert et al (2015) agree that the purpose of conducting assessments is to assist the
teacher to recognise, track, and monitor the learners’ strengths and challenges for future
planning. It is also important to use a variety of assessment techniques that suits the
learner’s ability level in order to offer learner support. It is important for the teacher to
differentiate regular assessments to meet the needs of all learners (DBE 2011c).

3.6.1 ‌ uidelines for assessing learners who may experience potential

G
language barriers
The three types of alternative assessments, as provisions to assess learners who experience
281

barriers to learning, based on attainment of knowledge, modified attainment of knowledge

and grade level attainment of knowledge (involving content, concepts and skills) (DBE
2011c) has been outlined in learning unit 2 of this guide.

In addition to these provisions, the following concessions should be granted to support

282

learners who experience barriers to learning:

• Extra time: the teacher should grant extra time to those learners who process infor-
mation slowly and work at a reduced pace, to complete their assessments. Extra time
allows the learners enough time to complete their assessment without developing
anxiety about time limitations.
• Reading of assessment scripts: the teacher should read the assessment script for
those learners who are experiencing reading barriers.
• Spelling flags: as long as the sentence or what the learner is trying to communicate
makes sense, and is the correct answer, spelling should be overlooked when mark-
ing assessments.
• Oral assessments: where learners are unable to read, spell or write adequately, the
teacher should administer oral assessments.
• Time-out: Teachers should allow a five-minute break during assessments to those
learners who lose concentration easily, get restless, and are unable to sit for too long.

95
These learners usually experience behavioural problems associated with hyperactiv-
ity and attention.

The above concessions should be granted to learners on the basis of their barriers to
283

learning. The national protocol for assessment policy maintains that “every learner should
have access to the standard of assessment that is suited for his or her needs” (DBE 2011c:22).
Furthermore, every effort should be made by the teacher to ensure that the learner is
given a non-discriminatory and fair assessment which seeks access, equity, quality and
social justice for all learners (DoE 2001).

Take note!

The assessment tools that follow are only a suggestion and are not meant to be prescriptive.

3.6.2 ‌Checklist to determine potential visual barriers

Visual barriers refer to interferences with our sight and may affect reading, writing, spelling
284

and comprehension. Below is an example of a checklist which is intended to be used

while the learner reads. One or more of the following symptoms could suggest that the
learner may be experiencing a visual barrier, in which case the teacher should ask the
parent to take the learner for an eye test.

Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential visual barriers

Name of learner: Grade:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
Holds book too close to the eyes
Holds book too far from the eyes
Constantly adjusts the distance of the book from the eyes
Blinks frequently
Looks cross-eyed at the page
Tilts head to one side
Rubs eye frequently

Source: Adapted from “The Educator’s Guide to Vision Problems at school” – Eagle Eye.

3.6.3 ‌ ssessing learners to determine potential barriers related to

A
speech sound awareness
Barriers experienced with speech sound awareness prevent learners from recognising
285

sounds and cause interferences with reading and spelling. Below is a suggested checklist

96
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

which is intended to be used at the end of Grade R or at the beginning of Grade 1. One or
more of the following symptoms could suggest that the learner may be experiencing a
speech sound awareness barrier, in which case the teacher should ask the parent to take
the learner to see a health professional who specialises in speech and language therapy.
If problems with speech sound awareness are not attended to early, the learner may also
experience problems with spelling.

Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential speech sound awareness
barriers
Name of learner: Grade:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
Does not understand and enjoy rhymes
Does not easily recognise that words begin with the
same sound
Experiences difficulty clapping hands or feet in rhythm
with songs and/or rhymes
Has difficulty clapping to syllables in names
Demonstrates problems learning sound-letter
associations
Has difficulty hearing and identifying sounds

Source: Adapted from: Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills, 2nd edition.

3.6.4 ‌ ssessing learners to determine potential reading barriers – using

A
the Burt word reading test
Background: The Burt word test (1974 revision) is a standardised test that was revised in
286

1974 and is still used widely by schools to assess learners’ word recognition skills in order
to provide an approximate “reading age” against their actual age. The test comprises 110
graded words (from easy to difficult). It is suitable for learners aged 6 years and 4 months
and older, and should not be given to learners who are younger.

Administration: The Burt word reading test is administered individually to the learner.
287

The teacher does not prepare the learner for the test nor shows the learner the words
prior to taking the test. The test is untimed but usually takes approximately five minutes
to administer. Allow the learner to read through as many words as he or she can. The
learner reads from left to right and top to bottom. The teacher stops the learner when
the learner reads 10 consecutive words incorrectly.

Scoring and limitations: The score from the test is measured against the reading age
288

norms to determine the approximate reading age of the learner. A limitation of the test
could be that some of the words may be outdated or not used frequently. The Burt word

97
test should not be re-administered to a learner within a period ofsix months. The reading
age is compared to the actual age of the learner to determine learner support needs.

289 Access to the test: To get a copy of the Burt word test and the norms (Copyright @1974,
2007 – The SCRE Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Glasgow), visit www.readingtest.
co.uk/burt-test/.

3.6.5 ‌Assessing learners to determine potential writing barriers

290 Give learners the activity below to assess their writing skills. Ask the learners to trace over
the letter (l) and sentence (l is for “lion”) on the template provided.

Picture 18: Assessment: Trace writing for Grade 1 (Source: Shutterstock)

291

Use the following checklist to assess the above activity.

292

Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential writing barriers

Name of learner: Grade:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
Tracing is consistent
Formation is accurate
Writes on the trace lines and between the lines
provided
Traces sentence correctly

98
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

Picture 19: Assessment: Writing transcription for Grade 2 and Grade 3

293 Ask the learners to transcribe the sentence below onto the lines provided.

294 The fox jumped over the moon.

295 __________________________________________________________

296 __________________________________________________________

297

The following is a checklist for learners for the preceding activity. One or more of the
298

following symptoms could suggest that the learner may be experiencing difficulties with
writing, in which case the teacher should design an intervention programme to support
the learner to develop his or her writing skills.

Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential writing barriers

Name of learner: Grade:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
Spacing between letters are consistent
Spacing between words are consistent
Forms each letter accurately
Reverses letters
Omits letters or words
Adds letters or words
Writes on the line and between the spaces provided
Copies sentence correctly

Take note!

Symptoms may overlap with multiple barriers. Learners who experience difficulty writing
may also experience visual barriers.

3.6.6 ‌Assessing learners to determine potential spelling barriers

The following is a checklist for learners who struggle with spelling. One or more of the
299

following symptoms could suggest that the learner may be experiencing a spelling

99
barrier, in which case the teacher should design an intervention programme to support
the learner with spelling skills.

Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential spelling barriers

Name of learner: Age:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
1. C
an hear the differences between consonants,
e.g. m and n, b and d
2. C
an hear the differences between vowels, e.g.
pig and peg
3. C
an remember the order of sounds, e.g. in the
word “cat”, the learner indicates whether the t
is at the beginning or the end
4. Can match sounds with letters
5. C
an remember different shapes of letters, e.g.
p, d, b, and g
6. C
an remember combination of letters that stand
for one sound, e.g. –gh, and –tion
7. C
an picture whole words in the mind, e.g. the
word “write”
8. C
an remember words that look different,
although they sound the same, e.g. night and
knight
9. C
an concentrate on writing and spelling at the
same time
10. H
as good handwriting skills
11. K
nows the meaning of words

Source: Adapted from: All Children Can Learn: Gisela Winkler, 1998.

3.6.7 ‌ ssessing learners to determine potential barriers to spelling –

A
using the Schonell spelling test
Background: The Schonell spelling test is the work of Orton-Gillingham and is a
300

standardised test that is used widely by schools to assess learners’ spelling ability. The
test provides an accurate measure of a learner’s spelling ability according to the sequence
most spelling programs would follow to provide an accurate “spelling age” against the
learner’s actual age. The test consists of 100 graded words (from easy to difficult), and is
suitable for learners between the ages of 5 years and 15 years.

Administration: The Schonell spelling test is usually administered to a group of learners.

301

The teacher does not prepare the learner for the test nor shows the learner the words
prior to taking the test. The learners are seated at their tables in a quiet space. The

100
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

learner is given a page with lines and numbers on it. The teacher calls out each number
and dictates each word in turn, saying the word individually, then dictating the word
in a sentence, and repeating the word again. For example, fun ……. we had fun at the
party …… write the word fun. The teacher dictates slowly and clearly and repeats the
words as many times as possible before moving on to the next word. The test is untimed.
However, the teacher stops the learner when the teacher observes that the learner has
misspelt 10 consecutive words.
Scoring and limitations: The score from the test is measured against the spelling age
302

norms to determine the accurate spelling age of the learner. A limitation of the test
could be that some of the words may not be used frequently. The Schonell spelling test
should not be re-administered to a learner within a period of six months. The spelling
age is compared to the actual age of the learner to determine learner support needs.
Access to the test: To get a copy of the Schonell spelling test and the age norms, visit
303

https://cdn.learningstaircase.co.nz or https://smartachievers.com.au.

3.6.8 Assessing learners to determine potential comprehension barriers

The following is a checklist for learners who struggle with comprehension. One or
304

more of the following symptoms could suggest that the learner may be experiencing
a comprehension barrier, in which case the teacher should design an intervention
programme to support the learner with comprehension.
Nature of assessment: to assess if the learner is experiencing potential comprehension barriers
Name of learner: Age:
Name of teacher: Date:
Symptoms Yes No Teacher’s comment
1. O
nly responds to part of an instruction
2. R
equests multiple repetitions of instructions/
directions, with little improvement
in comprehension
3. Relies heavily on context to understand what is said
4. Has difficulty understanding questions
5. F ails to understand age-appropriate stories
6. H
as difficulty making inferences or drawing
conclusions
7. H
as difficulty giving on opinion on the text
8. Struggles to predict outcomes in a story or scenario
9. L acks understanding of spatial terms (left/right;
front/back)
10. H
as good handwriting skills
11. K
nows the meaning of words

Source: Adapted from: Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills, 2nd edition.

101
3.7 ‌LESSON PLANNING FOR MULTILEVEL TEACHING
Accommodating learners in the learning process can be a difficult task if the teacher is
305

not aware of the reading ability levels of the learners. Tiering of learners into ability level
groups was discussed in learning unit 2 of this guide. The teacher should ensure that the
learners are carefully observed before placing them into their same or corresponding
ability-level groups with similar response levels. Remember to regroup learners as they
show improvement and make progress. To ensure that all learners are part of the learning
process, the teacher plans the lesson to cater for ability-level learners by including activities
with varying levels of difficulty and engaging in multilevel teaching.

306 An example of a simple lesson plan for multilevel teaching

Subject English
Grade 2
Topic Story telling
Time/duration 1 hour
Outcomes of the lesson • Learners will be able to sequence the events of a story
• Learners will be able to tell a story
• Learners will be able to share their views and opinions on a
story
Grouping Elected activities Resources Assessment
Whole- class • Recaps story • story of “The three • Shared participation
activity development of “The Bears” in discussion
three bears” • chalkboard for
• Discussion on brainstorming ideas
elements of a story
Group 1 • Sequences picture • picture pieces • Correct sequencing
pieces following of pictures
events to tell a story • Oral presentation of
story is clear
Group 2 • Draws pictures to • chart paper • Pictures relate to
capture events and • crayons story
tell a story • Oral presentation of
story is clear
Group 3 • Sequences sentences • sentence strips • Correct sequencing
to capture events of sentences
and tell a story • Reading presentation
of story is accurate
Group 4 • Writes own • chart paper • Elements of story are
simple story using • Koki pen / black clear
contextual clues crayon • Evidence of story
• contextual clues development
• junior personal • Reading presentation
dictionary of story is accurate
• Explains idea behind
the story

102
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

Whole-class • Learners return to • Learners (views and • Shared participation

concluding their own seats and a opinions) in discussion
activities discussion follows on • Ability to give own
the different stories views and opinions
that were presented.
Teacher reflection

Follow-up activity to reinforce elements of a story

3.8 ‌CONCLUSION
As a potential teacher you should remember that teaching is something that is larger
307

than yourself. Teaching goes beyond the classroom. Young learners are entrusted in your
care to nurture them psychologically and educationally. They take home with them a
little of you each day, as do they bring a little of their culture and home experiences to
the classroom each day. Learners who experience barriers to learning are particularly
vulnerable and delicate and require you to handle them with care. They need daily support
and encouragement to achieve success. Embracing their unique abilities, different learning
styles, and attitudes will make all the difference to keep them motivated. While some
learners begin to progress adequately and overcome their learning barriers, other learners
do not. The National Academies Press (1998) posits that learners may need intervention in
the upper grades as well. In fact, learners who experience barriers to learning may need
support throughout their learning in order to achieve, and they should receive it too!

Take note!

The mainstream school is an inclusive centre of learning, care and support that provides
relevant quality education for a range of learning needs (DoE 2001:6).

3.9 ‌REFERENCE LIST

Adoniou, M, 2013. Why some kids can’t spell and why spelling tests won’t help.
The Conversation Africa, Inc. https://theconversation.com/why-some-
kids-cant-spell-and-why-spelling-tests-wont-help-20497.
Birsh, J. R. 2005. Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills. 2nd edition. United States:
Brookes Publishing Co.

103
Department of Basic Education. 2011a. Guidelines for Responding to Diversity in the Classroom
through Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements. South Africa: Department of
Basic Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2011b. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement:
Foundation Phase Grades R–3. South Africa: Department of Basic Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2011c. National Protocol for Assessment: Grades R–12. South
Africa: Department of Basic Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2014. Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and
Support. South Africa: Department of Basic Education.
Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education: Building
an inclusive education and training system. South Africa: Department of Education.
Goouch, K & Lambirth, A. 2007. Understanding Phonics and the Teaching of Reading: Critical
Perspectives. London: Open University Press.
Gunning, T.G. 2013. Creating Literacy Instruction for All Children in Grades Pre-K to 4. 2nd
edition. United States: Pearson Education, Inc.
Joubert, I (ed.), Bester, M, Meyer, E, Evans, R, & Phatudi, N. 2015. Literacy in the Foundation
Phase. 2nd edition. South Africa: Van Schaik.
The National Academies Press Open Book: Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children (1998). Chapter 8: Helping Children with Reading Difficulties in Grades 1 to
3. Available at https://www.nap.edu/read/6023/chapter/13 (Accessed 07/08/2019).
Vacca, J.A.L, Vacca, R.T, Gove, M.K, Burkey, L.C, Lenhart, L.A, McKeon, C.A. 2012. Reading
and Learning to Read. 8th edition. Boston: Pearson Education.
Winkler, G. 1998. All Children Can Learn: A South African Handbook on Teaching Children
with Learning Difficulties. South Africa: Francolin Publishers.

104
IFP3701/1/2020–2022

105

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