Sampling

Probability/Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling: Typically, this procedure is intended to produce a representative sample. The
process draws subjects from an identified population in such a manner that every unit in that population
has precisely the same chance (probability) of being included in the sample.

The most basic type of probability sampling is the simple random sample, where each subject, element,
event, or unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. If a subject or unit is drawn from
the population and removed from subsequent selections, the procedure is known as random sampling
without replacement—the most widely used random sampling method. Simple random sampling with
replacement involves returning the subject, element, or unit to the population so that it has a chance of
being chosen another time. Sampling with replacement is often used in more complicated research
studies such as nationwide surveys.

Advantages 1. Detailed knowledge of the population is not required.

2. External validity may be statistically inferred.

3. A representative group is easily obtainable.

4. The possibility of classification error is eliminated.

Disadvantages 1. A list of the population must be compiled.

2. A representative sample may not result in all cases.

3. The procedure can be more expensive than other methods

Systematic Random Sampling: The use of a systematic sample provides a convenient way to draw a
sample from a large identified population when a printed list of that population is available. In
systematic sampling, every nth name is selected from the list. Usually the interval between names on
the list is determined by dividing the number of persons desired in the sample into the full population.
For example, if a final sample of 80 was desired and the population list contained 2,560 names, the
researchers would divide 2,560 by 80. The resulting 32 becomes the interval between names on the list.
It is important, however, to begin the list at some random starting place. Frequently, researchers select
a number between 1 and 20 (usually taken from a random number table) and begin at that location on
the list and then stop at every nth name—in our example, at every thirty-second name on the list.

Similar in some ways to simple random sampling is a procedure called systematic random sampling, in
which every nth subject, unit, or element is selected from a population.

Systematic samples are used frequently in mass media research. They often save time, resources, and
effort when compared to simple random samples. In fact, since the procedure so closely resembles a
simple random sample, many researchers consider systematic sampling as effective as the simple
random procedure. The method is widely used to select subjects from lists such as telephone directories
or directories of organizations or groups. The accuracy of systematic sampling depends on the adequacy
of the sampling frame, or the complete list of members in the population.
One major problem associated with systematic sampling is periodicity—the arrangement or order of the
items in a population list may introduce bias into the selection process.

Advantages 1. Selection is easy.

2. Selection can be more accurate than in a simple random sample.

3. The procedure is generally inexpensive

Disadvantages 1. A complete list of the population must be obtained.

2. Periodicity (arrangement or order of list) may bias the process.

Stratified Random Sampling: A stratified sample is used whenever researchers need to ensure that a
certain sample of the identified population under examination is represented in the sample. The
population is divided into subgroups (strata), and independent samples of each stratum are selected.
Within each stratum, a particular sampling fraction is applied in order to ensure representativeness of
proportions in the full population. Thus, sampling fractions in some strata may differ from those of
others in the same sample Stratified samples can be used only when information is available to divide
the population into strata Data Storage Retrieval and Analysis.

In some projects, researchers want to guarantee that a specific subsample of the population is
adequately represented, and no such guarantee is possible using a simple random sample. A stratified
sample is the approach used to get adequate representation of a subsample. The characteristics of the
subsample (strata or segment) may include almost any variable: age, gender, religion, income level, or
even individuals who listen to specific radio stations or read certain magazines. The strata may be
defined by an almost unlimited number of characteristics; however, each additional variable or
characteristic makes the subsample more difficult to find, and costs to find the sample increase
substantially. Stratified sampling ensures that a sample is drawn from a homogeneous subset of the
population—that is, from a population that has shared characteristics. Homogeneity helps researchers
to reduce sampling error.

Advantages 1. Representativeness of relevant variables is ensured.

2. Comparisons can be made to other populations.

3. Selection is made from a homogeneous group.

4. Sampling error is reduced

Disadvantages 1. Knowledge of the population prior to selection is required.

2. The procedure can be costly and time consuming.

3. It can be difficult to find a sample if incidence is low.

4. Variables that define strata may not be relevant.

Cluster sampling: To select the sample in groups or categories; this procedure is known as cluster
sampling. ; this procedure is known as cluster sampling. For example, analyzing magazine readership
habits of people in Wisconsin would be time-consuming and complicated if individual subjects were
randomly selected. With cluster sampling, the state can be divided into districts, counties, or ZIP code
areas, and groups of people can be selected from each area.

Cluster sampling creates two types of errors: errors in defining the initial clusters and errors in selecting
from the clusters.

Advantages 1. Only part of the population need be enumerated.

2. Costs are reduced if clusters are well defined.

3. Estimates of cluster parameters are made and compared to the population.

Disadvantages 1. Sampling errors are likely.

2. Clusters may not be representative of the population.

3. Each subject or unit must be assigned to a specific cluster

In-depth interview (KII)

How to Conduct In-Depth Interviews:

Research Objective and Question: Clearly define your research objective and the specific questions or topics you want to explore through the
interviews.

Participant Selection: Purposefully select interview participants who have knowledge or experiences relevant to your research. Consider factors
such as expertise, diversity, and the ability to provide rich insights.

Informed Consent: Prior to the interview, obtain informed consent from each participant, explaining the purpose of the interview, its duration,
and how the data will be used and anonymized.

Interview Guide: Prepare an interview guide that includes open-ended questions and prompts related to your research topic. The guide should
be flexible to allow for probing and follow-up questions.

Conduct the Interview: During the interview, create a comfortable and open atmosphere for the participant. Ask open-ended questions and
actively listen to their responses. Use probing techniques to encourage them to elaborate and provide rich details.

Recording: Record the interview with the participant's permission. This can be done through audio recording or detailed note-taking.

Transcription: If you recorded the interview, transcribe it verbatim. Transcriptions are essential for data analysis.

Data Analysis: Analyze the interview transcripts. Use qualitative analysis methods such as thematic analysis or content analysis to identify
patterns, themes, and insights in the data.

Data Validation: Consider techniques like member checking, where you share the findings with participants to ensure accuracy and validity.

Reporting: Present the results of the in-depth interviews in a clear and organized manner in your research report, using quotes and examples to
illustrate key points.

How to Select Interviewees:

Purposeful Sampling: Use purposeful sampling to select interviewees who can provide the most relevant and informative data for your research
question. This might involve identifying experts in the field or individuals with specific experiences.
Diversity: Consider including a diverse range of participants to capture different perspectives and experiences related to your research topic.
Diversity can enhance the richness of your data.

Sampling Continuation: Continue sampling until you reach a point of data saturation. Data saturation occurs when new interviews are no longer
yielding substantially new information or insights.

Expert Consultation: Consult with experts in your field or colleagues who are experienced in qualitative research to help identify potential
interviewees.

Recruitment: Approach potential interviewees through various channels, such as email, social media, professional networks, or organizations
related to your research topic.

Informed Consent: Ensure that all selected interviewees provide informed consent to participate in the interviews, and respect their right to
decline participation.

Remember that the quality of your in-depth interviews largely depends on your preparation, the rapport you establish with interviewees, and
your ability to actively listen and probe for deeper insights. These interviews can provide valuable qualitative data that enhances your
understanding of complex issues and phenomena.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

It is a focus group is a qualitative data collection method which is an adaptation of the interview technique. The change is that the focus group
(as the name implies) departs from the one-to-one interview and becomes a group interview.

Although it is difficult to generalise, focus groups usually consist of between 5 and 13 par- ticipants plus a facilitator and often a recorder or
note taker. Importantly, members are usu- ally selected to participate (see below and B5) and the group is made up of people who have
something in common which links them to the topic of the focus group. Typically, mem- bers of a focus group take part in one organised
discussion lasting between one and two hours, often based on a single specified topic. Indeed, it is an intrinsic feature that such groups must
have (at least) a focus or objective and, in addition, are often expected to un- dertake specific tasks, for example, ranking a number of
alternatives.

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method that involves a small group of participants engaging in a structured, facilitated
discussion to explore their opinions, attitudes, perceptions, and experiences related to a specific topic or research question. FGDs are used to
gather rich, multi-dimensional insights and can be a valuable tool in qualitative data collection. Here's how they are formed and the duties of a
moderator:

Formation of a Focus Group:

Define Research Objective: Clearly define the research objective or the specific research question you want to explore through the focus group
discussion.

Participant Selection: Purposefully select participants who have knowledge or experiences relevant to the research topic. Participants should
represent different perspectives or demographics to ensure diversity.

Group Size: Typically, a focus group consists of 6 to 10 participants. This size allows for a dynamic discussion while ensuring that everyone has
the opportunity to contribute.

Recruitment: Approach and recruit participants through various channels, such as invitations, advertisements, or through pre-existing
networks.

Informed Consent: Obtain informed consent from each participant, explaining the purpose of the focus group, its duration, and how the data
will be used and anonymized.

Duties of a Moderator in a Focus Group Discussion:

The moderator plays a crucial role in facilitating a productive and insightful focus group discussion. Their duties include:

Facilitating the Discussion: The moderator guides the discussion, ensuring that it stays on track and covers the relevant topics. They introduce
the research topic, set the agenda, and encourage participation.

Creating a Comfortable Environment: The moderator creates a safe and comfortable atmosphere in which participants feel free to express their
opinions. They establish ground rules for respectful dialogue and actively manage any conflicts or disruptions.

Asking Open-Ended Questions: The moderator uses open-ended questions and prompts to stimulate discussion. These questions encourage
participants to share their thoughts and experiences in their own words.

Probing and Clarifying: Moderators use probing techniques to delve deeper into participants' responses. They ask follow-up questions to
explore ideas, motivations, or contradictory statements, helping to uncover richer insights.

Managing Time: The moderator keeps the discussion on schedule to ensure that all planned topics are covered within the allocated time.

Balancing Participation: The moderator ensures that all participants have an opportunity to contribute and that no single participant dominates
the discussion. They may invite quieter participants to share their views.

Recording and Documentation: The moderator or an assistant records the discussion, either through audio or video recording or detailed note-
taking. This documentation is crucial for later analysis.

Summarizing Key Points: Towards the end of the discussion, the moderator may summarize key points and themes discussed by the group to
validate understanding and seek participant agreement.

Maintaining Neutrality: The moderator should remain neutral and avoid expressing personal opinions or biases to maintain the integrity of the
discussion.

Data Analysis: After the focus group, the moderator often plays a role in analyzing the data, along with other research team members. They
help identify themes and insights from the discussion.

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) typically consists of the following key members:

Participants:

Participants are individuals who have been selected to take part in the focus group discussion. They are chosen based on their relevance to the
research topic or question.

Participants should represent diverse perspectives, experiences, or demographics related to the topic of interest. This diversity allows for a
range of viewpoints and insights.

Moderator:

The moderator is a skilled facilitator responsible for guiding the focus group discussion.

Their role includes introducing the research topic, asking open-ended questions, managing the discussion, probing for deeper insights, and
ensuring that all participants have an opportunity to contribute.

Moderators need to create a comfortable and open atmosphere where participants feel free to share their opinions and experiences.

Assistant or Note-Taker:

An assistant or note-taker may be present to record the discussion. They can document the conversation through detailed note-taking, audio
recording, or video recording.

This person helps ensure that the content of the discussion is accurately captured for later analysis.

Observers or Researchers (optional):

In some cases, researchers or observers may be present to watch and listen to the focus group discussion. They do not actively participate but
take notes on group dynamics, non-verbal cues, and any other relevant observations.

Observers can help provide additional context and insights during the analysis phase.