SQL

1. SQL ─ Overview

SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion, fetching

rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
standard language, but there are many different versions of the SQL language.

What is SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating
and retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres
and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.

Also, they are using different dialects, such as:

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,

 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Why SQL?
SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages:

 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.

 Allows users to describe the data.

 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.

 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries &
pre-compilers.

 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.

 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.

 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

A Brief History of SQL

 1970 – Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational
databases. He described a relational model for databases.

 1974 – Structured Query Language appeared.

 1978 – IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named
System/R.

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 1986 – IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and standardized
by ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which
later came to be known as Oracle.

SQL Process
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the
best way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in this process.

These components are –

 Query Dispatcher
 Optimization Engines
 Classic Query Engine
 SQL Query Engine, etc.

A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't
handle logical files.

Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture:

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SQL Commands
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be classified into the following
groups based on their nature:

DDL - Data Definition Language

Command Description

CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the

database.

ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the

database.

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Command Description

SELECT Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.

INSERT Creates a record.

UPDATE Modifies records.

DELETE Deletes records.

DCL - Data Control Language

Command Description

GRANT Gives a privilege to user.

REVOKE Takes back privileges granted from user.

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2. SQL ─ RDBMS Concepts

What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL,
and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and
Microsoft Access.

A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system

(DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.

What is a table?
The data in an RDBMS is stored in database objects which are called as tables. This table
is basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous columns and
rows.

Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational
database. The following program is an example of a CUSTOMERS table:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

What is a field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS
table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.

A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every
record in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table. For
example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following is a single row of
data or record in the CUSTOMERS table:
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 SQL

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a
specific field in a table.

For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents location
description and would be as shown below:

+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+

What is a NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means a field
with a NULL value is a field with no value.

It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a
field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank
during a record creation.

SQL Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to limit the
type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data
in the database.

Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied
only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire table.

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Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL:

 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.

 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all the values in a column are different.

 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.

 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database table.

 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy
certain conditions.

 INDEX: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Data Integrity
The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS:

 Entity Integrity: There are no duplicate rows in a table.

 Domain Integrity: Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the
type, the format, or the range of values.

 Referential integrity: Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.

 User-Defined Integrity: Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall
into entity, domain or referential integrity.

Database Normalization
Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There
are two reasons of this normalization process:

 Eliminating redundant data. For example, storing the same data in more than one
table.

 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.

Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a series of
guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure.

Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the format or
the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to organize the
database structure, so that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second
normal form and finally the third normal form.

It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal form and
so on, but in general, the third normal form is more than enough.

 First Normal Form (1NF)

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4. SQL – Syntax

SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives
you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax.

All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the statements end with a semicolon
(;).

The most important point to be noted here is that SQL is case insensitive, which means
SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements. Whereas, MySQL makes
difference in table names. So, if you are working with MySQL, then you need to give table
names as they exist in the database.

Various Syntax in SQL

All the examples given in this tutorial have been tested with a MySQL server.

SQL SELECT Statement

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL DISTINCT Clause

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL WHERE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL AND/OR Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;

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 SQL

SQL IN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);

SQL BETWEEN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;

SQL LIKE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };

SQL ORDER BY Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};

SQL GROUP BY Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;

SQL COUNT Clause

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

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 SQL

SQL HAVING Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

SQL DROP TABLE Statement

DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);

SQL DROP INDEX Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

SQL DESC Statement

DESC table_name;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

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 SQL

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename)

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)

VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);

SQL UPDATE Statement

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];

SQL DELETE Statement

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE {CONDITION};

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

DROP DATABASE database_name;

SQL USE Statement

USE database_name;

SQL COMMIT Statement

COMMIT;

SQL ROLLBACK Statement

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5. SQL ─ Data Types

SQL Data Type is an attribute that specifies the type of data of any object. Each column,
variable and expression has a related data type in SQL. You can use these data types while
creating your tables. You can choose a data type for a table column based on your
requirement.

SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use which are listed below −

Exact Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

bigint -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

smallint -32,768 32,767

tinyint 0 255

bit 0 1

decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807

smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

Approximate Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308

real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

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Date and Time Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999

smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079

date Stores a date like June 30, 1991

time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note − Here, datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1
minute accuracy.

Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

char Maximum length of 8,000 characters.( Fixed length non-

Unicode characters)

varchar Maximum of 8,000 characters.(Variable-length non-Unicode

data).

varchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length non-

Unicode data (SQL Server 2005 only).

text Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of

2,147,483,647 characters.

Unicode Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

nchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed length Unicode)

nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)

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Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).(

nvarchar(max)
Variable length Unicode)

Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. ( Variable length

ntext
Unicode )

Binary Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

binary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data )

varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)

Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only). (

varbinary(max)
Variable length Binary data)

Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable length

image
Binary Data)

Misc Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types,

sql_variant
except text, ntext, and timestamp.

Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every

timestamp
time a row gets updated

uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a

xml
variable (SQL Server 2005 only).

cursor Reference to a cursor object

table Stores a result set for later processing

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 SQL - CREATE TABLE
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-create-table.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data
type.

The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do. In this case, you
want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier for the table follows the CREATE TABLE
statement.

Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data type it is.
The syntax becomes clearer with an example below.

A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE TABLE statement
and the SELECT statement. You can check complete details at Create Table Using another Table.

Example:
Following is an example, which creates a CUSTOMERS table with ID as primary key and NOT NULL
are the constraints showing that these fields can not be NULL while creating records in this table:

SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the message displayed by
the SQL server, otherwise you can use DESC command as follows:

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Now, you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use to store required
information related to customers.
 SQL - INSERT QUERY
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-insert-query.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.

Syntax:
There are two basic syntaxes of INSERT INTO statement as follows:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);

Here, column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in the table into which you want
to insert data.

You may not need to specify the columns name in the SQL query if you are adding values for all
the columns of the table. But make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the
columns in the table. The SQL INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

Example:
Following statements would create six records in CUSTOMERS table:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

You can create a record in CUSTOMERS table using second syntax as follows:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS

VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );

All the above statements would produce the following records in CUSTOMERS table:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
 SQL - UPDATE QUERY
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-update-query.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.

You can use WHERE clause with UPDATE query to update selected rows otherwise all the rows
would be affected.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of UPDATE query with WHERE clause is as follows:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would update ADDRESS for a customer whose ID is 6:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to modify all ADDRESS and SALARY column values in CUSTOMERS table, you do not
need to use WHERE clause and UPDATE query would be as follows:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
 SQL - DELETE QUERY
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-delete-query.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.

You can use WHERE clause with DELETE query to delete selected rows, otherwise all the records
would be deleted.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of DELETE query with WHERE clause is as follows:

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would DELETE a customer, whose ID is 6:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID = 6;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to DELETE all the records from CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use WHERE
clause and DELETE query would be as follows:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.