SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK & TOPIC

1 - 2. Unsaturation hydrocarbon- Alkene, Unsaturation in Alkyne, Aromatic Hydrocarbon , Alkanols:

Types and classes of alkanols, laboratory and Industrial Production of Alkanols, physical propertie of
alkanols, chemical properties of alkanols, laboratory test and uses of alkanols.

3. Alkanols: Types and classes of alkanols, laboratory and Industrial Production of Alkanols,
physical propertie of alkanols, chemical properties of alkanols, laboratory test and uses of
alkanols.
4. Alkanoicacids – sources, nomenclature, structure, preparation, properties and uses. Alkanoates,
general molecular formular, nomenclature, preparation, properties and Uses.

5. Alkanoates: sources, nomenclature, preparation and structure,

physical and chemical properties and uses

6. Fat and Oil as higher Esters, sources, properties and Uses.

7. Detergents and Soaps – Structure, their mode and action.

8. Natural and synthetic polymers, polymerization(additional and condensation), plastics –

Thermoplastic and Thermosetting polymers, Resins.

9. Carbohydrates – sources, general molecular formular, classification, properties and uses. Test for
carbohydrates.

10. Proteins – sources, structure, properties and uses, tests for proteins.

11. Amines and Amides, general molecular structure, preparation, properties and Uses.

12. Revision.

Week 1

Saturated Hydrocarbon - Alkanes

Content:
Alkanes e.g. methane (CH4)

• Preparation - properties - Uses

Isomerism

• IUPAC Nomenclature

Period 1

Saturated hydrocarbons

A saturated hydrocarbon, also known as an alkane, is a type of organic compound that consists of
only carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms in the molecule are bonded to each other in a
straight or branched chain, and each carbon atom is bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms possible. This results in a molecule that is saturated with hydrogen atoms, hence the name
saturated hydrocarbon.

The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2, where "n" represents the number of carbon atoms in
the molecule. Examples of saturated hydrocarbons include methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and
propane (C3H8). These compounds are commonly found in natural gas and petroleum. Saturated
hydrocarbons are known for their relatively low reactivity and are often used as fuels due to their
high energy content. Examples of the first 10 members are

1. Methane

2. Ethane

3. Propane

4. Butane

5. Pentane

6. Hexane

7. Heptane

8. Octane

9. Nonane

10. Decane
IUPAC Numenclature Of Hydrocarbon
The IUPAC nomenclature of hydrocarbons follows a set of rules established by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to systematically name and classify organic
compounds. The basic IUPAC nomenclature for hydrocarbons involves the following steps:

1. Identify the total number of carbon atoms in the molecule:

- 1 carbon atom: Meth-

- 2 carbon atoms: Eth-

- 3 carbon atoms: Prop-

- 4 carbon atoms: But-

- 5 carbon atoms: Pent-

- 6 carbon atoms: Hex-

- 7 carbon atoms: Hept-

- 8 carbon atoms: Oct-

- 9 carbon atoms: Non-

- 10 carbon atoms: Dec-

2. Identify any substituent groups or functional groups attached to the carbon chain. These groups
are named separately and have their own set of naming rules.

3. Determine the type of hydrocarbon:

- Alkanes: These are hydrocarbons with only single bonds. They are named by adding the suffix "-
ane" to the stem name based on the number of carbon atoms. For example, an alkane with 4 carbon
atoms is called "butane".

- Alkenes: These are hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond. The parent chain
is identified, and the suffix "-ene" is added to the stem name. The location of the double bond is
indicated by a numerical prefix. For example, an alkene with a double bond between the second and
third carbon atoms in a 6-carbon chain is called "2-hexene".

- Alkynes: These are hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The parent chain is
identified, and the suffix "-yne" is added to the stem name. The location of the triple bond is
indicated by a numerical prefix. For example, an alkyne with a triple bond between the first and
second carbon atoms in a 5-carbon chain is called "1-pentyne".

4. If there are multiple substituent groups or functional groups, they are named using prefixes and
the appropriate functional group suffixes.

Overall, the IUPAC nomenclature of hydrocarbons involves identifying the carbon chain length, any
substituent groups, and the type of hydrocarbon (alkane, alkene, or alkyne) in order to give a
systematic and unambiguous name to the compound.
 General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes

Some of the important methods of preparation of alkanes in the laboratory are discussed below:

From alkyl halides

Alkanes can be prepared from alkyl halides by the following two methods:

1. Wurtz reaction: When alkyl halide is treated with sodium in dry ether, symmetrical alkane (for the
same alkyl halide) or a mixture of products (different alkyl halide) is obtained.

Reduction of alkyl halides

Alkyl halides on reduction with suitable reducing agents get converted into alkane.

reduction of alkyl halides, preparation of alkane

From carboxylic acids

Alkanes can be prepared from carboxylic acids by the following methods:

Decarboxylation reaction

When sodium salt of monocarboxylic acid is heated with soda lime, alkane is obtained with the
removal of a CO2 molecule, and hence is a decarboxylation reaction.

Reduction of carboxylic acids

When carboxylic acids are reduced with hydriodic acid in the presence of red phosphorus, alkanes
are produced.

Preparation Of Methane
Methane gas can be made in the laboratory by heating a mixture (1:4 ratio) of anhydrous sodium
acetate and soda-lime. Here, CaO is employed as a dehydrating agent, NaOH is a deliquiscent solid,
and the reaction involves decarboxylation.

Physical Properties Of Methane

1. Molecular formula: CH4

2. Molecular weight: 16.04 g/mol

3. State at room temperature: Methane is a gas at room temperature.

4. Color and odor: Methane is colorless and odorless in its pure form, but it often has a distinct odor
due to impurities.

5. Melting point: -182.5°C (-296.5°F)

6. Boiling point: -161.5°C (-258.7°F)

7. Density: The density of methane is 0.717 kg/m3 at 0°C and 1 atmosphere of pressure.

8. Solubility: Methane is only slightly soluble in water. Its solubility increases with decreasing
temperature and increasing pressure.

9. Conductivity: Methane is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

10. Flammability: Methane is highly flammable. It can form explosive mixtures with air at
concentrations between 5% and 15% by volume.

Chemical Reactions

1. Combustion: On the application of a flame or electric spark, methane burns or explodes in air with
a pale, non-luminous flame. The products of combustion is steam, carbon(IV) oxide and enormous
heat.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

2. Reaction with chlorine - methane reacts slowly at ordinary temperature with chlorine in the
presence of light to form a mixture of products - light acts as catalyst (the reaction is photocatalysis).

Different products are possible:

First products:

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

Chloromethane

Second products (with excess of chlorine):

CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)

Dichloromethane

Third products (with excess of chlorine):

CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2 CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)

Trichloromethane

Fourth and final products (with excess of chlorine):

CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) CCl4(g) + HCl(g)

Uses of Methane

1. Used as fuel - for domestic and industrial heating. Methane is advantageous as fuel because it is
nonpoisonous, has no smell and leaves no residue (i.e. it is environmentally friendly).

2. Used for the production of certain important compounds. Example, carbon black, hydrogen,
alkynes, carbon disulphide, hydrochloric acid, trichloromethane (also called chloroform) and
tetrachloromethane.

Uses of Halogenated Products of Methane

1. Methyl chloride (chloromethane), CH3Cl, a gas, used chiefly in the production of silicone resins
and rubbers. Most of it is made from methanol and hydrogen chloride:
CH3OH(l) + HCl(aq) H2O(l) + CH3Cl(g)

2. Methylene chloride (dichloromethane), CH2Cl2, is a liquid, used in paint and varnish removers and
as a solvent for aerosol paints.

3. Chloroform (trichloromethane), CHCl3 - the chief use of chloroform is for the production of
chlorodifluoromethane (Freon-22). Also used in surgical operations as anaesthetic.

4. Tetrachlorometane or carbon tetrachloride, CCl4. This is the most important of the chlorinated
methanes. The industrial usefulness of this compound is based largely on its conversion to
dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon-12), trichlorofluoromethane (Freon- 11), and tetrachloroethylene.
Also used as solvent and for removal of grease in the industry

Period 2

Isomerism

Isomerism is a phenomenon in organic chemistry where different compounds have the same
molecular formula but different structural arrangements and chemical properties. This occurs when
molecules have the same number and types of atoms, but the atoms are arranged in different ways.
Isomers can be classified into different types including structural isomers, stereoisomers, and
functional group isomers.

1. Structural Isomers: These are isomers that have the same molecular formula but different
connectivity of atoms. They differ in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the main chain, presence
or absence of branches, and position of functional groups. Examples of structural isomers include n-
pentane and isopentane, which both have the molecular formula C5H12 but differ in the
arrangement of carbon atoms.

2. Stereoisomers: These are isomers that have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in the
spatial arrangement of atoms in three-dimensional space. The main types of stereoisomerism are
geometric isomerism and optical isomerism.

a) Geometric Isomerism: Geometric isomers have the same molecular formula and connectivity but
differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or a ring. The most common
example is cis-trans isomerism, where the spatial arrangement of substituents is either on the same
side (cis) or on the opposite sides (trans) of a double bond. For example, in cis-2-butene, the two
methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond, whereas in trans-2-butene, they are on
opposite sides.
 b) Optical Isomerism: Optical isomers are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. This
occurs when a molecule has a chiral center, which is a carbon atom bonded to four different groups.
Two optical isomers are known as enantiomers, and they rotate the plane of polarized light in
opposite directions. Enantiomers have identical physical and chemical properties, except for their
interaction with other chiral molecules. One enantiomer may be biologically active while the other
may be inactive or even toxic. An example is D-glucose and L-glucose, which have the same
molecular formula but differ in their spatial arrangement around the chiral center.

3. Functional Group Isomers: Functional group isomers have the same molecular formula,
connectivity, and spatial arrangement of atoms, but differ in the functional group attached to the
main carbon chain. For example, ethanol and dimethyl ether are functional group isomers, as both
have the molecular formula C2H6O but differ in the functional group attached to the carbon chain.
EVALUATION

1. Define organic chemistry

2. Explain the following I) homologous series ii) functional group iii) alkyl group

3. Explain what the alkane cannot undergo additional reaction

4. Explain combustion reaction of alkane

Week 2

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon ( Alkene)

Contents

1. Numenclature
2. Preparation
3. Property

Period 1:

Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Unsaturated hydrocarbons, specifically alkenes, are a class of organic compounds that contain one
or more carbon-carbon double bonds. They are a subset of hydrocarbons and have the general
molecular formula CnH2n.
Preparation of Ethene
Ethene, also known as ethylene, is a hydrocarbon that can be prepared through various methods.
Here are three common methods for the preparation of ethene:

1. Dehydration of Ethanol: Ethene can be prepared by dehydrating ethanol, which is achieved by

removing a molecule of water from ethanol. This can be done by heating ethanol in the presence of
an acidic catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid. The reaction can be
represented as follows:

2. Thermal Cracking of Petroleum: Ethene is also obtained as a by-product of the cracking process
during the refining of petroleum or natural gas. This method involves heating hydrocarbons, such as
long-chain alkanes, at high temperatures (500-900°C) in the absence of oxygen. The cracking
reaction breaks down the larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones, including ethene.
Example: Cracking of butane

3. Steam Cracking of Hydrocarbons: Another method for the preparation of ethene is steam
cracking. In this process, hydrocarbons, usually light alkanes like methane or ethane, are reacted
with steam at high temperatures (800-900°C) in the presence of a catalyst, such as alumina or silica.
This leads to the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds and the formation of smaller molecules, including
ethene.
 Physical Properties of Alkenes

1. Physical State: Alkenes are generally gases or liquids at room temperature, depending on the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

2. Boiling Point: Alkenes have lower boiling points compared to alkanes of similar molecular weight
due to the presence of double bonds, which introduces polarity and increases intermolecular forces.

3. Solubility: Alkenes are relatively insoluble in water but are soluble in nonpolar solvents such as
benzene and toluene.

Chemical properties of Alkene

The presence of a double bond in alkenes makes them more reactive than alkanes. Some important
reactions of alkenes include:

1. Addition Reactions: Alkenes readily undergo addition reactions, where atoms or groups react with
the double bond, resulting in the formation of a single product. Examples include hydrogenation,
halogenation, hydration, and hydrohalogenation.

2. Polymerization: Alkenes can undergo polymerization, where the double bond breaks and
monomers join together to form a polymer chain. This process is used to produce various plastics
and synthetic materials.
3. Combustion: Alkenes can be burned in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
water, releasing a significant amount of energy.

Nomenclature:

Alkenes are named using the IUPAC system. The longest carbon chain containing the double bond is
identified, and the suffix "-ene" is used to indicate the presence of a double bond. The position of
the double bond is indicated by a numerical prefix before the parent chain's name.

Isomerism:
Alkenes exhibit both structural and geometric isomerism. Structural isomers have the same
molecular formula but differ in the connectivity of atoms. Geometric isomers, on the other hand,
have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in the arrangement of substituents around the
double bond.

Uses:

Alkenes and their derivatives have various industrial and practical applications. Some common uses
include:

- Production of plastics, synthetic fibers, and elastomers.

- Manufacture of solvents, detergents, and adhesives.

- Development of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.

- Production of gasoline and other fuels.

EVALUATION

1. Write all the possible isomers of hexene

2. What do u mean by halogenation reaction

3. Why is alkene regarded as unsaturated hydrocarbon?

Period 2:

THE ALKYNES

The alkynes are a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbon series of molecular

formula of CnH2n -2 where n starts from 2

The examples of the first five members of the alkynes series are shown below.

Chemical Formula Name Structural Formula

 C2 H 2 Ethyne H-C≡C-H

C3 H 4 Propyne H-C ≣C-CH3

C4 H 6 Butyne H─C≡C─CH2─CH3

C5 H 8 Pentyne H3─C─CH2─CH2─C≡C─H

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHYNE

Ethyne is prepared in the laboratory by the action of cold water on calcium carbide as
shown in the diagram above. The process is exothermic
Equation for the Reaction

CaC2(s) + 2H2O (l) →

Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)

Physical Properties
1. It is a colourless gas with sweet smell
2. Sparingly soluble in water
3. Slightly less dense than air.
4. Unstable and may explode if compressed to liquid
a. Chemical Properties: Like any other alkyne, ethyne undergoes combustion, addiotion
and reactions. Ethyne also undergoes polymerization reactions and substitute reactions.
1. Polymerization reaction Ethyne

3C2H2(g) →
C6H6(L)

2. Combustion reaction of ethyne. Ethyne burns in oxygen to form CO 2 and steam.

2C2H2(g) + 5O2 →
4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

3. Addition reaction of Ethyne

a. Ethyne reacts with hydrogen to form.

i. C2H2(g) + H2(g) →
C2H4(g)

ii. C2H2(g) + 2H2(g) →

C2H6(g)

b. With halogens e.g with chlorine

C2H2(g) + 2Cl2(g) →
C2H2Cl4

c. With hydrogen halides

C2H2(g + 2HCl2(g) →
C2H2Cl2

4. Substitution Reaction: Since ethyne is a terminal alkyne, it can react with ammoniacal
solutions of copper(i)chloride and silver trioxonitrate(v) at room temperature as shown
below:
a. With ammonical copper(i)chloride solution a reddish-brown precipitate is formed

C2H2(g) + 2CuCl(aq) →
Cu2C2(s) + 2HCl(aq)

b. With ammonical solution of silvertrioxonitrate(v) solution a yellowish white

precipitate is formed

C2H2(g) + 2AgNO3(aq) →
Ag2C2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

USES OF ETHYNE
1. As fuel in lamps such as miner’s camps
2. Ethyne is mixed with oxygen to produce a very hot frame called oxy-ethyne flame used
for cutting and welding metals.
3. Ethyne is a source of ethanol, and solvents used in industry and in dry cleaning e.g 1,1,2 –
trichloroethen and 1,1,2,2 - tetrachloroethene .

AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (BENZENE)

Benzene is obtained from the destructive distillation of coal and also from Naptha.

Structure: August Kekule proposed the structure of benzene in 1865 to be

In 1945, the concept of resonance was used to explain the structure of benzene

Resonance occurs when two equivalent forms of a compound are in equilibrium.

The real structure of benzene is represented as a regular hexagon with an inscribe circle,
indicating that the double bonds are shifting at all times. The ring also shows that the six
electrons involved in the double bonds are moving around the six carbon atoms in benzene.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Benzene is a colourless liquid with a sweet smell.

2. It is insoluble in water.

3. It has a boiling point of 800C

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Benzene undergoes substitution reaction e.g. when Benzene reacts with chlorine

2. Benzene also undergoes addition reaction e.g Cyclohexane is formed when a mixture
of benzene vapour and hydrogen are passed over a nickel catalyst.

EVALUATION:
1. State three physical properties of ethyne
2. Show how you will distinguish between these gases: ethane, ethane and ethyne
3. Describe the method of preparation of ethyne
4. What is resonance? Explain using the structure of Benzene
5. Name the derivatives of benzene and draw their structures

WEEK: 3
TOPIC: ALKANOLS
CONTENT:
1. CLASSES AND TYPES OF ALKANOLS
2. LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS,
3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS
4. LABORATORY TEST AND USES OF ALKANOLS.
PERIOD 1:
CLASSES AND TYPES OF ALKANOLS
CLASSES OF ALKANOLS
There are three classes of alkanols – primary, secondary and tertiary.
1. Primary (1o ) alkanols: These have only one alkyls group attached to the carbon atom that
carries the hydroxyl group e.g. C2H5OH, C4H9OH etc. Example: C2H5OH,
2. Secondary (2o) alkanols: These have two alkyls attached to the carbon that carries the

hydroxyl group e.g. Example: CH3 CH2 CH (OH) CH3 (Butan - 2- ol)

3. Tertiary (3o ) Alkanols: These have three alkyl group attached to the carbon atom that
carries the hydroxyl group. Example: 2-methylpropan-2-ol.

2. TYPES OF ALKANOLS
1. Trihydric alkanols: These are alkanols with three (3) OH groups per molecule e.g.
propane-1, 2, 3-triol
2. Dihydric alkanols: These contain 2 OH groups per molecule e.g. ethane-1, 2-diol

3. Monohydric alkanols: These contain only one (1) OH group per molecule e.g. ethanol,
C2H5OH, etc.

They have the general molecular formula CnH2n+1OH. This is sometimes written as ROH.
Where R stands for an alkyl group
Examples of the first five members of the group are:
2. Dihydric alkanols: These contain 2 OH groups per molecule e.g. ethane-1, 2-diol

3. Monohydric alkanols: These contain only one (1) OH group per molecule e.g. ethanol,
C2H5OH, etc.
They have the general molecular formula CnH2n+1OH. This is sometimes written as ROH.
Where R stands for an alkyl group
Examples of the first five members of the group are:

Chemical Formula Name Structural Formula

CH3OH Methanol

C2H5OH Ethanol

C3H7OH Propanol

C4H9OH Butanol
 C5H11OH Pentanol

LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS

Ethanol is prepared by the following methods.
1. Hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate in hot, dilute potassium hydroxide.

2. Hydrolysis of monochloroethane in the presence of dilute sodium hydroxide.

3. Hydration of ethene. A mixture of ethene and steam with tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid as a
catalyst is heated to a temperature of 600 o C and a Pressure of 100 atmospheres.

4. Reduction of ethanal with nascent hydrogen

CH3CHO + 2[ H ] → CH3CH2OH
Ethanal Ethanol
The reaction takes place in the presence of platinum catalyst.
PERIOD 2:
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS (ETHANOL) BY FERMENTATION
1. Fermentation is the slow decomposition by micro –organisms of large organic molecules
(such as starch) into smaller molecules (such as ethanol).
Preparation of Ethanol by Fermentation
Process: The starch granules from any starchy food e.g. rice, maize, yam etc are extracted by
crushing and pressure cooling.
1. They are then treated with malt at 500C to 600C for an hour.
2. Malt which contains enzymes DIASTASE is added. Diastase converts starch to maltose
3. Yeast which contains enzymes maltase and zymase is added at room temperature.
Enzymes maltase converts maltose to glucose. zymase decomposes glucose to ethanol and
carbon (IV) oxide

Fractional distillation of the ethanol obtained by fermentation is carried out for further
concentration and purification.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
Ethanol
1. is readily soluble in water;
2. is has no effect on litmus;
3. is colourless and volatile;
4. is liquid at room temperature;
5. Smells characteristically and tastes sharply; and
6. boil at a temperature of 78o c

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS

1. Combustion reaction: Alkanols undergo combustion reaction to form CO2 and steam.
C2H5OH (aq) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)
2. Esterification reaction: Alkanols react with alkanoic acid to produce esters and water.
The process is reversible and is catalyzed with concentrated H2SO4 acid e.g.
3. Oxidation reaction: (a) primary alkanol react with oxidizing agents to form alkanals
oxidizing agents are acidified KMnO4 (aq) or K2Cr2O7 (aq)
 Oxidation of primary alkanols with excess oxidizing agen gives alkanoic acid. Oxidation of
ethanol in the presence of excess acidified KMnO4(aq) gives ethanoic acid.

CH3CH2OH Excess KMnO

→
4(aq) CH COOH
3

Generally primary alkanols are oxidized to alkanals (as in equation (1) above) and then
finally to alkanoic acids (as in equation (ii) above) if excess oxidizing agent is used. Secondary
alkanols are oxidized to Alkanones e.g.

Tertiary alkanols are not oxidized at all.

3. Dehydration Reaction: Alkanols undergo dehydration reactions as follows with
concentrated H2SO4 acid. A dehydration agent removes the elements of water from a
substance and changes the chemical nature of that substance. Dehydration of alkanol at
170oC gives alkene..So, ethanol is dehydrated to ethane.

But when alkanol is in excess and the reaction is carried out at 140 oC, alkoxyalkane is
formed. For example, dehydration of excess ethanol at 140oC give ethoxyethane.

- H2 O

4. Ethanol and 2-ol alkanol (that is an alkanol that has methyl group bonded to the carbon
atom that carries the hydroxyl group) react with mixture iodine in sodium hydroxide to
give a yellow precipitate with antiseptic smell. This called iodoform test. The methyl group
is converted to tri-iodomethane(iodoform

CH3CH2OH I 2∈ NaOH
→
HCOONa + CHI3
 Propan-2-o, butan-2-ol etc give positive iodoform test. But propan-1-ol does no give
positive iodoform test because ethyl group is attached to the carbon that carries the
hydroxyl group.l
LABORATORY TEST AND USES OF ALKANOLS
TEST FOR ALKANOLS
Add ethanoic acid to the unknown solution, then add few drops of concentrated
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and heat gently. Afruity or fragrance smell indicates the presence
of alkanol in the unknown solution.
Lucas reagent can also be used to distinguish between the classes of alkanols. When Lucas
reagent (a solution of zinc chloride in hydrochloric acid) is added to alkanol, if tertiary
alkanol is present, a white precipitate is formed immediately (te solution becomes cloudy), a
secondary alkanol will give a white precipitate in five minutes while a primary alkanol will
not give a white precipitate in five minutes.
1. Useful as an important solvent to dissolve perfumes, drugs, flavoring extracts etc.
2. As fuel either by itself or mixed with petrol in racing cars or rockets.
3. As anti-freeze in automobile radiators
4. Use in alcoholic beverages e.g. brandy etc.
5. As a preservative for biological specimens.
EVALUATION
1. Use equations only to explain the process of fermentation of starchy food to obtain
ethanol
2. Write an equation to show esterification reaction of ethanol.

WEEK 4
TOPIC: ALKANOIC ACID
1. SOURCES, NOMENCLATURE AND STRUCTURE OF ALKANOIC ACID,
2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES,
3. LABORATORY TEST AND USES
PERIOD 1: SOURCES, NOMENCLATURE AND STRUCTURE OF
ALKANOIC ACID
Alkanoic acidS have carboxylic group as their functional group i.e –COOH.
The general molecular formular is CnH2n+1COOH. They occur in fats and
oils. They are pepared in the laboratory by the oxidation of primary
alkanols with excess acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (vii). The
name of any alkanoic acid ends with –ioc. The general structure is given
as

Examples

1. methanoic acid or formic acid( from insect bite) HCOOH

2. Ehanoic acid CH3COOH.

3. Propanoic acid. CH3CH2COOH

4. Butanoic acid. CH3CH2CH2COOH

EVALUATION:

1. State the general formula of alkanoic acid.

2. Draw the structural formula of 3-carboxyl-3-

hydroxylpentanedioic acid

3. draw the structural isomers of an alkanoic acid with the

formula C7H14O2

PERIOD 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Alkanoic acds are very soluble in water each alkanoic acid

forms hydrogen bond with water molecule. The solubility of
alkanoic acid in water decreases as the carbon atom increases.
Threrefore, lower members are more soluble in water.

2. They have high boiling and melting points.their two pairs of

hydrogen bond per molecule of alkanoic acid. The boiling and
melting points increase as the carbon chain increases.
3. they turn blue litmus paper red.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Reaction with active metals

Alkanoic acids react with active metals to liberate hydrogen

gas.

2RCOOH + Zn →
(RCOO)2Zn + H2

2CH3COOH + Zn →
(CH3COO)2Zn + H2

2. Reaction with base.

Alkanoic acids react with bases to form salt and water.

RCOOH + NaOH →
RCOONa + H2O

e.g CH3CH2COOH + NaOH →

CH3CH2COONa + H2O

3. Alkanoic acid liberate carbon(iv) oxide from metallic

trioxocarbonate (iv) or hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv)

2RCOOH + CaCO3 →
(RCOO)2Ca + H2O + CO2

4. Alkanoic acid reacts reversibly with alkanol in the presence

of tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid to form alkanoate (ester). On
heating the mixture, a fruity of fragrance aroma is observed.
Tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid serves as catalyst. this reaction is
called esterification.
+¿ ¿
H ⇌
RCOOH + R OH Heat RCOOR1 + H2O
1

In this reaction the alkyl group of alkanol replaces the acidic

hydrogen of the alkanoic acid

Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to give ethyl ethanoate.

+¿ ¿
H ⇌
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH Heat
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
5. Alkanoic acid are reduced to alkanol by lithium
tetrahydridoaluminate (iii) (LiAlH4)

RCOOH LiAlH
→
4 RCH OH
2

CH3CH2CH2COOH LiAlH 4 CH CH CH CH OH
→
3 2 2 2

TEST AND USES OF ALKANOIC ACID

Addtion of the acid to saturated solution of sodium

hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv) produces effervescence. The gas
is colourless and odourless and turns lime water milky.

USES OF ALKANOIC ACIDS

1. They make up a serie of fatty acids which are extremely

good for human health

2. Food industry uses many organic acids for the production of

soft drinks, food products etc.For example ethanoic acid is used
for making vinegar.

3. In pharmaceutical industry organic acids are used in making

drugs such as aspirin, phenacetin e.t.c.

4. ethanoic acid is used for making cellulose acetate which is

used in manufacture of synthetic fibres like rayon and artificial
silk

EVALUATION:

1. State two uses of alkanoic acid.

2. Describe the laboratory test

WEEK 5

TOPIC: ALKANOATES:

1. SOURCES, NOMENCLATURE.

2. PREPARATION AND STRUCTURE.

3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

PERIOD 1: SOURCES, NOMENCLATURE

Alkanoates are found widely in nature. Short carbon chain

simple alkanoates exist as liquids and have a characteristic
pleasant smel. They occur in essential oils, many fruits and
floers and sometimes called fruit essence because of the
pleasant odours. The general molecular formula is
CnH2n+1COOCnH2n+1. The structural formula is
The names end in-ate
EVALUATION:

1.State four sources of alkanoate

2. Give the IUPAC names of the following:

(a) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2COOC3H7

(b) HCOOC2H5

3. Draw the structures of the following”

Ethyl butanoate, propyl ehanoate, propyl propanoate.

PERIOD 2: PREPARATION OF ALKANOATE

Alkanoates are prepared bybesterification reaction between

alkanoic acid and alkanols in the presence of concentrated
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
+¿ ¿
H ⇌
RCOOH + R OH Heat RCOOR1 + H2O
1

In this reaction the alkyl group of alkanol replaces the acidic

hydrogen of the alkanoic acid

Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to give ethyl ethanoate.

+¿ ¿
H ⇌
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH Heat
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

Ethyl propanoate is prepared by the reaction between ehanol

and propanoic acid.
 +¿ ¿
H ⇌
CH3CH2COOH + CH3CH2OH Heat
CH3CH2COOCH2CH3 + H2O

Propyl ethanoate is prepared by the reaction of propan-1-ol and

ethanoic acid.
+¿ ¿
H ⇌
CH3COOH + CH3CH2CH2OH Heat
CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Short carbon chain alkanoatee have fruity smell. Those found

in waxes do not have fruity smell.

2. Lower members are slightly soluble in water but they readily

dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene e.t.c.

3. Their boiling points are lower than those of the

corresponding alkanoic acid and even alkanols because they do
not have hydrogen bonds.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1.(a) They are hydrolyzed by water to give their component

acid and alkanol.

RCOOR1 + H2O ⇌ RCOOH + R1OH

Ethyl propanoate is hydrolyzed propanoic acid and ethanol.

CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O ⇌ CH3CH2COOH + CH3CH2OH

(b) Alkaline hydrolysis of alkanoate gives salt of the acid and

alkanol.

RCOOR1 + NaOH ⇌ RCOONa + R1OH

Hydrolysis of ethyl butanoate with sodium hydroxide gives

sodium butanoate and ethanol

CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3 + NaOH ⇌ CH3CH2CH2COONa +

CH3CH2OH
2. They react with ammonia to give amide and alkanol.

RCOOR1 + NH3 →
RCONH2 + R1OH

CH3CH2COOCH3 + NH3 →
CH3CH2CONH2 + CH3OH

USES OF ALKANOATE

1. Alkanoates are used in perfumes and cosmetics

2. They are used in flavouring of foods.

3. Ethyl ethanoate is used as solvent for cellulose nitrate.

EVALUATION:

3. State two uses of alkanoates.

2. Describe the chemical properties of alkanoates

WEEK 6

TOPIC: FATS AND OILS

CONTENTS:

1. SOURCES

2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES I.E.

REACTIONS OF FATS AND OILS:

HYDROGENATION AND SAPONIFICATION

3. .USES

PERIOD 1: SOURCES

Fats and oils occur naturally in living things. There are two main
sources.

1. Tissues of Animals. Marine (water) animals, like fish,

provide fish oil and cod-liver oil, while terrestrial (land) animals
provide butter, land and fallow.
 2. Fruits and seeds of plants: they contain edible fat and oil
such as cocoa butter, fat, palm oil, coconut oil, cotton seed oil,
olive oil, corn oil, ground nut oil, sunflower seed oil, olive oil,
corn oil and soya bean oil. They are called vegetable oils.

Physical properties

(i). Pure fats and oils are coloured or white and almost
odourless.

(ii). Fats and oils do not have sharp boiling or melting points
because they are complex mixtures of two or more different
triglycerides (esters).

(iii). they are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents

e.g. alcohols

(iv). When heated to temperatures above 300 0C, fats and oils
decompose to give irritating fumes

EVALUATION

(a) Name the two sources of fats and oils

Write four examples from each source

PERIOD 2: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FATS AND OIL

(REACTIONS OF FATS AND OILS – SAPONIFICATION AND
HYDROGENATION)

1. HYDROGENATION OF OILS

Natural oils are largely triglycerides i.e. esters of unsaturated

fatty acids. They exist as liquids, which are not edible. In order
to make them edible, the unsaturated oils are usually
hydrogenated so as to make them hard and obtain saturated
edible fats.

Margarine is obtained from a refine mixture of animal fats and

vegetable oils which have been treated with activated charcoal
in order to remove the colour and odour and carefully
neutralize the free acid. The mixture is partially hydrogenated
by bubbling hydrogen gas through it at about 200 0C and within
 2-5 atmospheres using finely divided nickel as the catalyst,
until the product is fairly hard.
o
¿ .200 C
Fats/oils + H2(g) → Margarine
2 atm

The hardened oils are then mixed with salt, vitamins skimmed
milk and various fats to form margarine

2. SAPONIFICATION: this is the process in which fats or oils are

boiled with alkali to produce, as the main product, the salt of
the fatty acids called soap and a by-product 1,2,3-triol-used in
making paints. (This process can also be referred to as alkaline
hydrolysis of esters or an alkanoate).

When a natural fat or oil is boiled with a solution of sodium

hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, the product are propane-
1,2,3- triol and the corresponding sodium or potassium salts of
the fatty acids.

3. ACID HYDROLYSIS OF FATS AND OILS

When natural fats or oils are boiled with water in the presence
of concentrated H2SO4, the products obtained are propane-
1,2,3-triol (a trihydric alkanol, glycerol) and a mixture of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids which can be separated
by fractional distillation
 USES OF FATS AND OILS

1. Fats and oils are widely distributed in foods. When eaten, they
provide nutrients for body building and are oxidized in the body
to provide energy for metabolic processes, which are
accompanied by a release of CO2.
2. Commercially used in the production of soaps, propanetriol
(glycerol) and margarine
3. As solvents for paints and manufacture of candle vanishes etc.

EVALUATION

1. Explain the chemical properties of fats and oils

2. Name the two sources of fats and oils

3. Write four examples from each source