Journal of Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy, Spring 2020, 126, 5–10

OPINION

Standardizing indications for episiotomy: a narrative

review of contemporary clinical evidence
K. Papadakis
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Royal Alexandra Hospital, Paisley, UK

S. Myriknas
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London,
UK

Abstract
As an intrapartum intervention with uncertain indications, benefits and outcomes,
episiotomy has long been a subject of debate. The controversy surrounding its use
is reflected in the worldwide variation in current obstetric practice. The most recent
guidelines support restrictive rather than routine episiotomy, something that is not
always implemented by healthcare professionals. This narrative review explores
the relevant clinical trends, presents data from different countries and summarizes
the most up-­to-­date protocols. Additionally, via content analysis, the authors aim
to investigate when episiotomy should be an option, and whether this aligns with
the existing care offered to parturient women. Finally, they discuss the potential of
a universally accepted optimal proposal, with a view to encouraging best practice
and preventing serious perineal trauma during vaginal birth.
Keywords: best practice, episiotomy, maternal morbidity, obstetric anal sphincter injuries,
perineal trauma.

Introduction absolute indications to perform an episiotomy

Globally, the majority of women give birth with are limited, the advantages of this liberally used
minimal medical interference, and without any practice remain unclear and conflicting, and there
major complications. Obstetric involvement in is some evidence that these procedures may, in
this dynamic physiological process is warrant- fact, cause serious perineal lacerations, rather
ed when intrapartum concerns arise. A cautious than prevent them.
approach needs to be taken when attempting In particular, UK practice is for an episiotomy
to improve the quality of obstetric care during to be mediolateral. This is because a midline
childbirth. This is because interventions such as episiotomy, a common procedure in the USA,
an episiotomy can be associated with concomi- is a strong independent risk factor for anal in-
tant risks. continence and obstetric anal sphincter injuries
An episiotomy is traditionally used to expe- (OASIS). In addition, it has been found that epi-
dite vaginal delivery when foetal distress is sus- siotomy increases the risk of second-­degree tears
pected, and for facilitating instrumental deliv- in subsequent deliveries, and compared with
ery. Moreover, since extensive perineal trauma spontaneous lacerations, it may be related to a
can encompass the anal sphincter complex, with decrease in pelvic floor strength, more perineal
potentially severe maternal morbidity, an episi- pain and also dyspareunia (Sartore et al. 2004;
otomy is often employed in an attempt to mini- Alperin et al. 2008).
mize such an injury. Apart from the fact that the On the other hand, a recent meta-­analysis of
observational data concluded that mediolateral
Correspondence: Dr Konstantinos Papadakis, Specialist episiotomy may reduce OASIS, and should not
Registrar in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Department of be withheld, especially in nulliparous women
Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Queen Elizabeth University
Hospital, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow G51 4TF, UK (e-­mail: (Verghese et al. 2016). After adjusting for con-
k.papadakis@nhs.net). founding factors, mediolateral episiotomy has
© 2020 Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy 5
K. Papadakis & S. Myriknas
been shown to result in a significant reduction Shanghai, China, episiotomy rates are as high as
in the development of lacerations in primiparous 65–93% (Qian et al. 2001; Graham et al. 2005).
women compared with no episiotomy (Verghese Retrospective data indicate that episiotomy
et al. 2016). rates were 16.4% in England, 21.1% in Scotland
Overall, despite episiotomy being habitually and 14.2% in Wales in 2002–2003 (DH 2004). In
performed, it entails a certain degree of possi- the same year, the rates in Germany, Finland and
ble harm, and therefore, its benefits need to be Portugal were 30.8%, 32.1% and 75.8%, respec-
balanced against the reported risks. There is a tively (Wildman et al. 2003). In the Netherlands,
consensus about trying to reduce its prevalence these rates varied between 7.6% and 42% in spon-
since the evidence has failed to establish the pro- taneous term deliveries (Wildman et al. 2003). In
posed significant reduction in maternal morbidity, Argentina, the total episiotomy rate in 1995 was
especially when it is used in an unrestricted fash- between 33% and 62.5% (Althabe et al. 2002).
ion and outside well-­defined criteria. Therefore,
distinct protocols should be in place to promote
Cochrane evidence
the best clinical practice, and prevent unneces-
The most recent Cochrane systematic review
sary episiotomies, while minimizing perineal
(Jiang et al. 2017) analysed 12 randomized con-
trauma.
trolled trials (RCTs) involving a total of 6177
women, and compared selective (or restrictive)
Episiotomy rates around the world against routine (or liberal) use of episiotomy.
Published studies have revealed that there are The studies that were included were carried out
considerable differences among healthcare sys- in a wide range of locations in Europe, America
tems, and although there is a decreasing trend in and Asia. Eight RCTs selected only primiparous
most countries, rates of episiotomy remain high women, and four involved both primiparous and
overall (Wildman et al. 2003; Graham et al. multiparous women.
2005; Friedman et al. 2015). Except for East Maternal outcomes with respect to short-­term
Asia, where these rates are persistently elevat- morbidity revealed low-­ quality evidence sug-
ed, the number of total episiotomy procedures gesting that a policy of selective/restrictive epi-
around the world appears to be dropping (Clesse siotomy may reduce by 30% severe perineal and
et al. 2018). vaginal trauma, mainly OASIS, as compared
The optimum rate of warranted episiotomies with routine or liberal episiotomy in spontane-
is uncertain. Some authors state that episiotomy ous vaginal births. Additionally, excluding episi-
rates above 30% cannot be medically justified otomy repair, the evidence indicated that a selec-
while others imply that a rate of 20% may be tive episiotomy policy may reduce the need for
more appropriate (Henriksen et al. 1992; AETCG perineal suturing.
1993; WHO 1996). Subgroup analysis by parity suggested that
In general, episiotomy numbers tend to be the episiotomy policy might not make a differ-
lowest in English-­speaking and some European ence to perineal/vaginal trauma in multigravidas.
countries. Episiotomy rates that include both pri- Both selective and routine episiotomy may make
miparous and multiparous women range from little or no difference to blood loss at delivery,
as low as 4.9% in Denmark to nearly 100% rates of perineal infection and the use of pain
in Taiwan and Guatemala. In 2010, episiotomy relief 10 days after birth. Similarly, there was
rates were recorded at 19.4% in England, 23.6% little or no difference in sexual dysfunction, uri-
in Scotland and 20.1% in Wales (EPP, SCPE & nary incontinence and genital prolapse at 3 years
EUROCAT 2010). Episiotomy rates vary from postpartum.
3% to 31% in Canada, from 27% to 38% in the Other outcomes relating to long-­ term effects
USA, from 9.9% to 20.9% in Australia and from such as urinary fistula, rectal fistula and faecal
10% to 11% in New Zealand (MoH 2003; Laws incontinence were not reported. Women’s prefer-
& Sullivan 2004). The reported rate is 6.6% in ences and satisfaction, the initiation of breastfeed-
Sweden, 24.1% in Finland, 26.9% in France, ing, and the number of days spent in hospital after
27.7% in Germany and Switzerland, 67.5% in birth were also not described. Foetal and neona-
Poland, and 72.9% in Portugal (EPP, SCPE & tal outcomes such as perinatal hypoxia-­ischaemia
EUROCAT 2010). In Latin America, nine in and the effect on infants of an Apgar score of
every 10 primiparas can still expect to receive less than 7 at 5 min were of very low certainty,
an episiotomy (Althabe et al. 2002). Similarly, in mainly because of the small sample size.
6 © 2020 Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy
 Standardizing indications for episiotomy
The evidence related to severe trauma was de- perineal laceration has already begun, or there is
rived mainly from RCTs employing a mediolater- an imminent threat of perineal tear or urgency in
al incision technique. Individual trials of midline delivering the baby (Nassar et al. 2017).
incisions produced inconsistent results; however,
severe trauma occurred more frequently in these
National Institute for Health and Care
studies.
Excellence recommendations
There appears to be no evidence supporting the
The National Institute for Health and Care
need for routine episiotomy in any clinical situa-
Excellence (NICE) proposes that episiotomy
tion. The published findings on the effects of the
should not be carried out routinely during spon-
selective/restrictive use of episiotomy, compared
with no episiotomy, reported no differences in taneous vaginal birth. It also suggests that rou-
any maternal or perinatal outcomes. According tine episiotomy should not be offered to mul-
to Jiang et al. (2017, p. 23), “Based on the logic tiparous women who have previously sustained
framework, routine episiotomy appears to offer OASIS. The clinical indications in which an epi-
no advantages or benefits.” siotomy is recommended are instrumental birth
Overall, there was moderate bias in the RCTs or suspected foetal compromise (NICE 2014).
included, although several had a high risk of bias If an episiotomy is performed, the advocated
with respect to incomplete outcome data (Carroli technique is a mediolateral episiotomy originat-
& Mignini 2009; Amorim et al. 2017). In sum- ing at the vaginal fourchette, which is usually
mary, there seems to be no justification for the directed to the right side, after the provision of
belief that a selective episiotomy policy results effective analgesia. The angle to the vertical axis
in harm to mother or baby, or that routine episi- should be between 45° and 60° (Stedenfeldt et al.
otomy reduces perineal trauma. 2012; Rusavy et al. 2016).
Further research involving standardized out- Episiotomies should be performed in the ex-
come assessment methods may help to clarify pulsive phase of the second stage of labour, when
whether routine episiotomy is useful in women the presenting part of the baby is bulging the
who are scheduled to undergo an instrumental perineum during efforts to bear down. Clinicians
delivery. The rationale commonly used to justify should avoid performing an episiotomy before
routine episiotomy is currently not supported by crowning; this is because the procedure is associ-
any evidence from RCTs. ated with increased vaginal trauma, longer aver-
age incision length and greater average estimated
blood loss.
Current official recommendations
The World Health Organization (WHO) regu-
larly disseminates comprehensive guidelines that Royal College of Obstetricians and
are intended to improve intrapartum care, and Gynaecologists guidelines
establish an environment supporting a positive The Royal College of Obstetricians and
childbirth experience. It recommends a policy Gynaecologists (RCOG) recommends consider-
of avoiding routine or liberal use of episiotomy ing a mediolateral episiotomy in operative vagi-
in women undergoing spontaneous vaginal birth nal deliveries. However, its guidelines empha-
(WHORHL 2018). size that, in the absence of robust evidence to
More specifically, the Guidelines Review support the routine use of this procedure, only
Committee analysed available data showing a restrictive rather than routine use of episiotomy,
lack of evidence for the effectiveness of episi- based on the clinician’s judgement, is supported
otomy, and stressed the need to discourage ex- (RCOG 2011, 2015).
cessive use of routine episiotomy across all set- At the same time, additional strategies have
tings. It was felt that it was important not only been evaluated to reduce both episiotomy rates
to recommend the selective/restrictive use of epi- and the incidence of perineal trauma. Digital per-
siotomy, but to also underline that routine use ineal massage applied before delivery and dur-
of episiotomy is “not recommended” (WHORHL ing the second stage of labour, and also warm
2018, p. 1). compresses on the perineum during the second
Similarly, the International Federation of stage, appear to help to decrease perineal injury.
Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) has support- Moreover, firm perineal support and clear com-
ed the restrictive use of episiotomy, where the munication seem to play a vital additional role in
procedure is limited to situations in which either reducing trauma (RCOG 2011, 2015).
© 2020 Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy 7
K. Papadakis & S. Myriknas
Practice in America interventions like episiotomy, even when such
The American College of Obstetricians and procedures are clinically indicated. This anxiety
Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends the use needs to be addressed sensitively, ideally in the
of episiotomy in the management of some de- antenatal period, and any discussions should be
liveries, but its routine use is not deemed to supplemented by written information. Informing
be necessary. The American College of Nurse-­ expectant mothers that episiotomy is performed
Midwives advocates that episiotomy should only judicially has the potential to improve positive
be employed to relieve foetal or maternal dis- intrapartum outcomes.
tress, or when the perineum is thought to be Whenever episiotomy is necessary, women
responsible for the lack of progress (AAP & should give their clear consent during the peri-
ACOG 1997). partum period, otherwise their basic human rights
Similarly, the Society of Obstetricians and are breached. Healthcare professionals should
Gynecologists of Canada (SOGC) advises that aspire to provide a positive birth experience for
episiotomy should only be used to expedite de- all women, and ensure good outcomes for both
livery in cases of foetal compromise, or maternal mothers and newborns.
distress and lack of progress. Health Canada also
recommend performing an episiotomy in cases Conclusions
in which there are foetal or maternal problems. When there are no supporting data to justify the
The advice of the Latin American Center for daily practice of nearly non-­restrictive episioto-
Perinatology and Human Development, and the my, questioning its use is a vital step towards
Pan American Health Organization is along the clinical excellence in obstetrics. The effect of an
same lines, and these organizations have cam- episiotomy on the quality of life of a woman
paigned for restrictive rather than routine use of should not be underestimated. Allied healthcare
episiotomy (SOGC 1998; PHAC 2000). professionals, physiotherapists and midwives of-
ten encounter women who have had problems
with making a recovery after delivery. While
Discussion
the selective practice of episiotomy is consistent
The implementation of these recommenda-
with the up-­to-­date clinical studies, routine epi-
tions for the restrictive use of episiotomy in
siotomy could cause more harm than previously
up-­to-­
date clinical practice can be challenging.
thought.
However, educational strategies to reduce the
The first step to addressing this issue is the
number of unnecessary episiotomies have been
dissemination of evidence-­based clinical recom-
shown to be both feasible and effective. Altering
mendations in a transparent way. Avoiding rou-
the current culture of still-­high episiotomy rates
tine episiotomy implies using clinical judgement,
requires: effective communication across all
rather than withholding its use in all circumstanc-
healthcare providers responsible for parturient
es. In certain situations, it may prevent serious
women; training; and continuous clinical audits.
lacerations, and expedite the delivery of babies
A universal policy on the use of episiotomy
who are thought to be hypoxic. In such cases,
requires planning, the adaptation of local policies
clinicians should thoroughly inform women about
and a process of implementation that takes into
episiotomy, and properly obtain their consent be-
account individual health services. The WHO in-
fore performing the procedure. At optimum rates
trapartum care model is based on the best avail-
of episiotomy, a reduction in OASIS should be
able clinical evidence, and it can be transferred considered as an indicator of high-­quality care in
to intrapartum care practices worldwide. Small vaginal delivery, and our clinical practice should
modifications when necessary could be justified, aspire to achieving this.
as long as these enable behavioural changes that
are based on recent evidence.
Skilled obstetricians and experienced midwives Disclosure of competing interests
can play a vital role in reducing unnecessary in- The present authors declare that they have no
terventions, especially in a clinical environment competing interests, and have received no funds
in which fear of litigation drives a defensive for conducting this study.
model of practice.
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Myriknas S. & Papadakis K. (2018) Anterior non-­
episiotomy or natural forceps delivery: refining the
technique and improving communication as a way of
reducing obstetric anal sphincter injuries in instru- Dr Konstantinos Papadakis was born in Athens,
mental deliveries. Journal of Pelvic, Obstetric and and studied medicine at the National and
Gynaecological Physiotherapy 122 (Spring), 50–55. Kapodistrian University of Athens. He worked
© 2020 Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy 9
K. Papadakis & S. Myriknas
in various training posts in London, the East and 2 years of research in neurophysiology at
of England, Wessex and the East of Scotland University College London. Stelios then stud-
Deanery. Konstantinos is currently in the spe- ied medicine and graduated from St George’s
cialty training programme in obstetrics and Hospital, University of London. After complet-
gynaecology at the West of Scotland Deanery. ing his 2 foundation years in South London, he
He works at the Royal Alexandra Hospital in worked for 7 years as a trainee in obstetrics and
Paisley. Konstantinos has a special interest in gynaecology in the Oxford Deanery. Over the
minimally invasive gynaecological surgery and past 3 years, he has worked as a clinical fellow
operative obstetrics. He is also passionate about in obstetrics and gynaecology at Chelsea and
academic clinical research projects, and simula- Westminster Hospital. Stelios is currently com-
tion training in both advanced endoscopy and pleting his training in the specialty, through the
innovative acute intrapartum care. advanced training skills modules in labour ward
Dr Stelios Myriknas was also born in Athens, leadership and maternal medicine. He is keen to
Greece, and moved to London, UK, soon after minimize injury to the perineum and pelvic floor
completing high school. After taking his A lev- during instrumental deliveries through promot-
els, he studied for a BSc in physiology at King’s ing his anterior non-­episiotomy forceps method
College London, which was followed by an MSc of delivery (Myriknas & Papadakis 2018).

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