RWAE Chapter 1-2

OBJECT
(OOMD)ORIENTED MODELLING & DESIGN
RESEARCH WRITINGS AND

ETHICS
An Introduction
Dr. Deepu R
deepur@pes.edu
Dept of Computer Science and Engineering
RESEARCH WRITINGS & ETHICS
An Introduction
Objectives
1)Meaning of Research
2)Objectives of Research
3)Motivation in Research
4)Types of Research
5)Research Approaches
6)Significance of Research
7)Research Methods versus Methodology
8)Research and Scientific Method
9)Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
10)Research Process
11)Criteria of Good Research
12)Problems Encountered by Researchers in India (Self Study)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY : An Introduction
Meaning of Research
● Research is composed of two terms combined:

○ a prefix re
○ a verb search
● Re means again, a new, over again
● Search means to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, to probe
● The two words form a noun to describe a careful and systematic study in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
● Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions

Meaning of Research
● A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new

facts in any branch of knowledge
● Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to
gain new knowledge.”
● A movement from the known to the unknown
● It is voyage of discovery
Meaning of Research
● Clifford Woody -
1) Defining and redefining problems,
2) formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
3) collecting, organising and evaluating data;
4) making deductions and reaching conclusions;
5) carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
● D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social

Sciences -
● “The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
Objectives of Research
● To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
● To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group.
● To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else.
● To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
Motivation for Research
1) Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2) Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
3) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4) Desire to be of service to society;
5) Desire to get respectability
Types of Research
1) Descriptive vs Analytical
2) Applied vs Fundamental
3) Quantitative vs Qualitative
4) Conceptual vs Empirical
1) Descriptive Research Vs Analytical Research

Major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present (ex post facto Research)
Characteristic: The researcher has no control over the variables - he can only
report what has happened, or what is happening;
e.g.: frequency of shopping, preferences of people
Methods used: Comparative and Correlation.

In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
2) Applied Vs Fundamental Research
Applied Research
● Immediate problem facing a society or an industrial business organization aimed at

conclusions
● Example : Market research, design, safety, health, pollution, societal, environmental,
industrial, pharmaceutical, etc.
Fundamental Research
● Mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory
3) Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research
● Based on the measurement of quantity or amount

● Controlled, rather easy to carry-out
● Objective and repeatable
● Easy to draw conclusions and decisions
Qualitative Research
● is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., involving quality or kind
● aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour; attitude or
opinion research (how people feel or think about a particular subject or
institution).
● difficult job; should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
4) Conceptual Vs Empirical Research

Conceptual Research
● Related to some abstract idea(s) or theory; generally used by philosophers and

● thinkers to develop new concepts or to re-interpret existing ones
Empirical Research
● Relies on experience or observation alone, without due regard for system and
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment.
● Characterised by the experimenter's control over the variables under study and
his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered

to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Other Types of Research

1. One Time Research
2. Longitudinal Research
3. Field Research
4. Laboratory Research
5. Simulation Research
6. Clinical Research
7. Diagnostic Research
8. Exploratory Research
9. Historical Research
10.Conclusion Oriented Research
11.Decision Oriented Research
Research Method Vs Methodology

Method – Technique / method adopted to conduct Research.
Can be put in 3 groups-

● Data Collection Methods
● Statistical Techniques – establish relationships between data and
unknowns
● Evaluation Methods for accuracy of results.
Methodology – Way in which research problem is solved systematically.

Research Process
Research Process
The order/sequence concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:
1) Formulating the research problem

2) Extensive literature survey
3) Developing the hypothesis
4) Preparing the research design
5) Determining sample design
6) Collecting the data
7) Execution of the project
8) Analysis of data
9) Hypothesis testing
10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
1) i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
OBJECT
THANK YOU
Dr. Deepu R
deepur@pes.edu
OBJECT
Research Writings & Ethics

An Introduction
Prof. Priya Badarinath

priyab@pes.edu
An Introduction to RM
Priya Badarinath.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Introduction to Research Methodology
Contents:
I. Research Process
II. Criteria for Good Research
Research Process
Research Process
The order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research process:
1) Formulating the research problem;

2) Extensive literature survey;
3) Developing the hypothesis;
4) Preparing the research design;
5) Determining sample design;
6) Collecting the data;
7) Execution of the project;
8) Analysis of data;
9) Hypothesis testing;
10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., format write-up of
conclusions reached.
1) Formulating Research Problem
2 steps for formulating

research problem
● Understanding the
research problem
thoroughly
● Re-phrasing same in
meaningful terms.
2) Extensive Literature Survey
● Abstracting and indexing journals and published /

unpublished biographies.
● Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books, etc..
● Earlier studies similar to research topic in hand.
● Good Library.
● Internet to search articles.
● Search Engines – Google / Google Scholar
● http://scholar.google.com
● ChatGPT
3) Development of Working Hypothesis
● Working Hypothesis - Temporary assumption made in

order to draw out and test its logical consequences.
● They affect the manner in which tests are conducted.
● Process to go about developing Hypothesis.
● Discussion with colleagues and experts about problem.
● Examination of data and records concerning to the
problem.
● Review of similar studies in the area.
● Exploratory personal investigation which involves – field
interviews.
4) Preparing the Research Design
● Preparation of research
design involves following
consideration.
○ Obtaining Information
○ Availability and skills of
researcher and his staff
Explanation
○ Time available for research
○ Cost Factor relating to
research – finance available.
5) Determining the Sample Design
● Simple random sampling.
● Systematic sampling.
● Stratified sampling.
● Quota sampling.
● Cluster sampling and area
sampling.
● Multi stage sampling.
● Sequential sampling.
6) Collection of Data
● Data in hand is inadequate. So need to collect

appropriate data
● Ways to collect data
● Primary Data – Observation and Surveys
● Observation
● Personal Interview
● Telephonic interview
● Mailing of questionnaires
● Through Schedules.
Collection of Data
7) Analysis of Data
● Coding
● Editing
● Tabulation
● Computation of percentage coefficients
● Statistical tests
● Statistical measures
Hypothesis -- Meaning
● A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific
hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base
scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the
available scientific theories. ~ Wikipedia
●
8) Hypothesis Testing
● Various tests like Chi-square, t-test, f-test have

been developed by statisticians.
● Hypothesis may be tested through use of one or
more such tests depending on nature and object of
research.
● Result – either accepted or rejected.
9) Generalization and Interpretation
● Real value of research lies

in its ability to arrive at
certain generalization.
● If researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his
findings on basis of some
theory – Interpretation.
10) Preparation of Report / Thesis
● Preliminary pages – date,

acknowledgement,
foreword.
● Main text – introduction,
summary of findings, main
report, conclusion.
● End – appendices,
bibliography – list of books,
journals, reports, etc...
● Report should be concise.
● Charts and illustrations –
clearly and forcibly
Criteria for a Good Research
1) Purpose should be clearly defined.

2) Procedure used should be described in sufficient detail.
3) Design of research should be carefully planned to yield
result as objective.
4) Report – complete frankness, flaws in procedural design.
5) Analysis should be sufficiently adequate, method of
analysis should be appropriate.
6) Conclusion should be confined to those justified by data
of research.
● Good research is systematic

○ Research should be structured with specified steps to be
taken in specified sequence.
● Good research is logical
○ Research is guided by rules of logical reasoning and logical
procedure of induction and deduction.
● Good research is empirical
○ Research related to basically to one or more aspect of real
situation and deals with concrete data.
● Good research is replicable
○ Allows research results to be verified by replicating the study
and thereby building on sound basis of decision.
OBJECT
THANK YOU

An Introduction
OBJECT

Defining the Research Problem

priyab@pes.edu
Ch. 2: Defining the Research Problem

Chapter 2:
Contents –
1. What is a Research Problem?
2. Selecting the Problem
3. Necessity of Defining the Problem
4. Techniques in Defining a Problem
What is a Research Problem
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in
knowledge that you will aim to address in your research.
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved,

a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in
theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and
systematic investigation.
Difficulty which a researcher experiences in a context of either theoretical or

practical situation and wants to obtain the solution to overcome the same.
What is a Research Problem
Textbook Definition:
“Research Problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.”
A RP does exist if the following conditions are met:
I = Individual
N = eNvironment (def by uncontrolled variables, Yj)
C1, C2 = two Courses of action
O1, O2 = two Outcomes
P(Oj | I, Cj, N) = Probability
P(O1 | I, C1, N) != P(O1 | I, C2, N)
The choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.
Topic, Problem, Purpose & Questions
General Topic Online Learning
Research Lack of students in the

Problem online classes
Deductive
Process Purpose To study why students
Statement do not attend
online education classes
Research Whether technology deters

Question students from enrolling in an
Specific
online education class?
The 5 Elements of Problem Statement
Topic Subject area
Social Work
Issue A concern / problem needing solution
Evidence for • Evidence from literature

the Issue • Evidence from practical experience
What is missing in evidence? Deficiencies

What do we need to know more? in the Evidence
How the solution helps: Remedy of

Researchers; educators; policy makers; Deficiencies
persons in the field It helps whom?
Sources of Research Problems
Experience
Previous
Consultation Research
with experts
Sources of Existing
theory
Research
Exposure to field
situations Problem
Intuitions Social
Brainstorming issues
Selecting of a Research Problem
1. Subject which is not overdone is chosen

2. Controversial subject should be avoided
3. Avoid vague problem
4. Subject should be familiar and feasible
5. Selection of problem must be preceded by preliminary study
Necessity of Defining the Problem
Clearly stated research problem is half solved:
1. What data are to be collected?

2. What characteristics of data are relevant?
3. What relations are to be explored?
4. What techniques are to be used for this purpose?
Technique Involved in Defining a Problem
1. State the problem in a general way

2. Understand the nature of the problem
3. Survey the available literature
4. Develop ideas through discussions
5. Rephrase the research problem
Technique Involved in Defining a Problem
a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used

in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated.
c) The criteria for the selection of the problem should be provided.
d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available
must also be considered.
e) The scope of the investigation (or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied) must be mentioned explicitly.
In Conclusion
● The task of defining a research problem follows a sequential pattern —

● the problem is stated in a general way, the ambiguities are resolved,
● thinking and rethinking process results in a more specific formulation of
the problem so that it

● may be a realistic one in terms of the available data and resources and
● is analytically meaningful.
● All this results in a well defined research problem that is

● meaningful from an operational point of view,
● paves the way for the development of working hypotheses and
● means of solving the problem.

OBJECT
THANK YOU

Prof. Priya Badarinath.

priyab@pes.edu
OBJECT

Literature Review

priyab@pes.edu
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
Literature Review
Prof Priya Badarinath

Research Writings & Ethics : Literature Review
Chapter Objectives:
1)Review of Literature (RoL)

● What, Importance, Why/Purpose, Goal
2)Sources of Literature
3)Technique of Reviewing
4)Organization
5)Writing LR
6)Good LR Properties
REVIEW OF LITERATURE (RoL)

A broad, comprehensive, in-depth, systematic, and critical
review of scholarly publications.
A Literature Review
surveys, summarizes, and links together research (a.k.a., literature) in a given
field
RoL
• Important step in Res. Process; laborious but essential
• An account of what is already done/known about the issue
• Describe, summarize, evaluate.
• Clarify & integrate the content of primary reports

Research Writings & Ethics: Literature Review
What is Review of Literature?
It is a CRITICAL EVALUATION of available literature on the topic of

research to be carried out
Provides an overview of the problem to be studied
Continued….
Importance of Review of Literature?
• Identification, development, refinement of RQ’s
• Identification of gaps/inconsistencies
• Strength and weaknesses of designs/methods /instruments used in research work
• Development of plan – research methodology
• Development of Research Hypothesis

Why Review of Literature?
Purpose
For the chosen Research Problem, RoL Determines :
1. Design/Md. of study – Instruments, data collection, analysis
2. Replication needed
3. What is till date known
4. Gaps / inconsistencies & consistencies
5. Unanswered questions
6. Strengths / weaknesses
7. Refinement of research problem
8. Hypothesis
9. Justification
Function of RoL
The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the
work that you are carrying out.
• To provide background information

• To establish importance
• To demonstrate familiarity
• To “carve out a space” for further research
Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary source: Secondary source:
is written by a person(s) who developed is written by a person(s) other than the
the theory or conducted the research individual who developed the theory or
conducted the research
Reasons for using secondary sources:

1. Primary sources is literally NOT available
2. A secondary source can provide different ways of looking at an issue or
problem
Secondary sources should not be overused

Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary source: Example Secondary source: Example

An original qualitative on patient A literature review on patients
experiences in the ICU: experiences in the ICU:
Feeling safe the psychosocial needs Patient experiences of being in an

of ICU patients. intensive care unit
Hupcey, J. E. (2000). Stein-Parbury, J. & Mckinley,S. (2000)

Journal of Nursing Scholarship, : a select literature review.
32:361-367 American Journal of critical care, 9:20-
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com 27 www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
Sources for RoL
• Electronic data-bases
• Journals
• Research Reports - thesis
• Books
• Conference Papers
• Magazines/newspapers
• Encyclopedias and dictionaries
When you read an article:

Questions to consider:
• Has the author clearly defined the problem/issue?
• How good is the study design?
• How valid are the results?
• Are there flaws in the logic of the discussion?
• What problems has the author avoided or ignored?
TECHNIQUE
OF REVIEWING OF LITERATURE
Key words / refined / focused
Shortlist articles – basis, ABSTRACT
Data base / s
Latest first & backwards - year
Table – authors, place, year, Journal
Methods (Expt. Details)
Data collection, analysis
Findings, results, inference
Organize (acc. to time / theme / method)
Transition – linking
Intro. - Body – Conclusion (justify)
Comprehensive, Cohesive, Concise Write-up

B E F O R E W R I T I N G RoL
Sketch of Scheme
Organize
Organize
🖑Consider organization
🖑You've got a focus, and you've narrowed it down to a
thesis statement.
🖑Now what is the most effective way of presenting the
information?
🖑What are the most important topics, subtopics, etc.,
that your review needs to include?
🖑And in what order should you present them?
How to organize studies
Chronological
– By publication date
– By trend
Thematic
– A structure which considers different themes
Methodological
– Focuses on the methods of the researcher,
– e.g., qualitative versus quantitative approaches
21
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY : Literature Review
What should you write?
🖑 the accepted facts in the area
🖑 the popular opinion
🖑 the main variables
🖑 the relationship between concepts and variables
🖑 shortcomings in the existing findings
🖑 limitations in the methods used in the existing findings
🖑 the relevance of your research
🖑 suggestions for further research in the area.
A F T E R W R I T I N G RoL
Read for coherence
Logical
Use critiquing Criteria - Checklist
When you read your RoL:

CRITIQUING CRITERIA
1. Uncover gaps, inconsistencies & consistencies

2. Relevant concepts & variables included
3. Reveal components of study of design (Expt.)
4. Strengths, weaknesses & conflicts depicted (in rel. to current area)
5. Conceptual & Data based literature included
6. Summary and synthesis done (Integration)
7. Follow a logical sequence (Time, theme, method, trend..)
8. Signify what to be researched (Justification & lead to HYPOTHESIS)
Organization of literature review

• A general organization looks like a funnel
– Broader topics
– Subtopics
– Studies like yours
27
A Good Literature Review is:
Focused - The topic should be narrow. Present ideas and report on studies
that are closely related to topic.
Concise - Ideas should be presented economically
Logical - logical progression from one idea to the next
Developed - Don’t leave the story half told
Integrative - What commonality among articles? How are some studies

different?
Your paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.
Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting edge of
your topic
OBJECT
THANK YOU
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Literature Review
Prof. Priya Badarinath.

priyab@pes.edu
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
OBJECT
Research Design

priyab@pes.edu
Ch. 3: Research Design

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Ch. 3: Research Design
Contents – Chapter 3
3.1 Meaning of Research Design

3.2 Need for Research Design
3.3 Research Design Breakdown
3.4 Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
3.5 Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
3.6 Important Experimental Designs
i) Informal Experimental Designs
ii) Formal Experimental Designs
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design is the preparation of the design of the research project.
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
Design decisions revolve around the following questions:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
1. It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research

operations.
2. Making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
3. We need a research design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our research project.
4. Research design stands for
● advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting
the relevant data and

● the techniques to be used in their analysis,
● keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money.

RESEARCH DESIGN-BREAK DOWN
1. The sampling design

○ Deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study.
2. The observational design
○ Relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made.
3. The statistical design
○ Concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed.
4. The operational design
○ Deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
• A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible,

appropriate, efficient, economical and so on.
• Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of
the data collected and analysed is considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be
the best design in many investigations.
• A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.
Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A
design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one
respect or the other in the context of some other research problem. One
single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Dependent and Independent Variables

2. Extraneous Variable
3. Control
4. Confounded Relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis- Testing Research
7. Experimental and Control Groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10.Experimental Unit(s)
Dependent and Independent Variable

Variable: A concept which can take on different quantitative values.
For example, concepts like weight, height, income,
etc.
Continuous variables – phenomena which can take on quantitatively
different values even in decimal points.
For example, age.
Discontinuous or Discrete variables – If some variables can only be
expressed in integer values.
For example, no. of children.
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it

is termed as dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as independent variable.
Dependent and Independent Variable
CONTINUOUS
VARIABLE
DISCRETE
VARIABLE
All variables are not continuous.

Only if they are expressed in integer values they are non
continuous variables.
Extraneous variable
Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a

result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as ‘experimental error’.
Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a

relationship between student working hours and exam performances. In
this case student working hours is an independent variable and exam
performances is a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the exam performances, but since it is not
related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be
termed as an extraneous variable.
CONTROL :
The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study

minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
Research Hypothesis
● When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is

termed as ‘research hypothesis’.
● The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.
● Usually, a research hypothesis must contain at least, one independent and one dependent
variable.
● For example, “e-Learning enhances teaching learning experience”. Here, the dependent
variable is “teaching learning experience”, whereas “e-Learning” is the independent
variable.
● Listening to music lowers blood pressure level.
Experimental and Non-experimental
Hypothesis-Testing Research
● Purpose = Test Research Hypothesis:
1) Experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable is manipulated
2) Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable NOT manipulated
Example:
Effectiveness of a training programme on the student’s performance-level:
● Researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a
course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to
Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies
programme.
● At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the
effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s performance-level.
● (Exp Hypothesis testing) Why? The type of training programme is manipulated.
Experimental and Non-experimental
Hypothesis-Testing Research
● Purpose = Test Research Hypothesis:
1) Experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable is manipulated
2) Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable NOT manipulated
Example:
For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects

reading ability for a group.
of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not
manipulated.
Treatment
Experimental unit(s):
The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments

are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units
must be selected (defined) very carefully.
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental

designs:
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local Control
Important Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and
as such there are several experimental designs.
We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories :-

Informal Experimental Designs:
1. Before-and-after without control design.
2. After-only with control design.
3. Before-and-after with control design
Formal Experimental Designs:

1. Completely Randomized Design (C. R. Design)
2. Randomized Block Design (R. B. Design)
3. Latin Square Design (L. S. Design)
4. Factorial Designs
Important Experimental Designs
[A] Completely Randomized Design
(1) Two Group Simple Randomized Design
(2) Random Replications Design
[B] Randomized Block Design
[B] Randomized Block Design
[C] Latin Square Design
FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,
usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
OBJECT
THANK YOU
Research Design

priyab@pes.edu
Case study of how to select a problem
for the Research
By
Dr. Deepu R
Department of Computer Science & Engineering.
The process of selecting a research problem
involves identifying a broad area of interest,
conducting a literature review, narrowing down
the focus, and ensuring the problem is relevant,
feasible, original, and ethical. By following these
steps, you can select a research problem that is
not only interesting but also contributes
meaningfully to your field.
• 1. Identify Your Broad Area of Interest
Step: Begin by identifying a broad area of interest that aligns with your expertise, resources, and
future career goals.
Casework Example: As a professor in Computer Science & Engineering with a focus on
underwater robotics, your broad area of interest might be autonomous underwater vehicle
(AUV) navigation.
• 2. Conduct a Literature Review

Step: Review the existing literature to understand the current state of research in your area of
interest. Identify gaps, unresolved questions, and areas where more work is needed.
Casework Example: Through a literature review, you discover that while significant work has
been done on AUV navigation in open waters, there is limited research on AUV path planning in
complex underwater environments like coral reefs or shipwrecks.
• 3. Narrow Down the Research Area

Step: Focus on a more specific aspect of the broad area that is both interesting and feasible for
you to explore, given your resources and constraints.
Casework Example: You decide to narrow down your research to path planning for AUVs in
cluttered underwater environments.
• 4. Identify Practical Relevance and Impact
Step: Consider the practical relevance of the research problem. Is it
addressing a significant issue? Will the results have a meaningful impact
on the field or industry?
Casework Example: You realize that improving AUV navigation in cluttered
environments could enhance marine exploration, underwater
archaeology, and environmental monitoring, making the research highly
relevant.
• 5. Assess Feasibility
Step: Evaluate the feasibility of the problem. Consider the availability of
data, required equipment, time, funding, and your own expertise.
Casework Example: You have access to a small-scale underwater testing
facility and simulation tools, making the problem of path planning for
AUVs in cluttered environments feasible for you to tackle.
• 6. Define the Research Question
Step: Formulate a clear, concise, and focused research question that guides your study. It should be
specific enough to be manageable but open enough to allow for exploration.
Casework Example: Your research question might be: “How can we improve the efficiency and
accuracy of path planning algorithms for AUVs navigating cluttered underwater environments?”
• 7. Consider the Research Methodology
Step: Think about the methodology you will use to answer your research question. This includes
the data you will collect, the tools you will use, and the analytical methods you will apply.
Casework Example: You decide to use a combination of simulations and real-world experiments to
test different path planning algorithms in a controlled underwater environment.
• 8. Evaluate the Originality and Contribution
Step: Ensure that the research problem is original and contributes new knowledge to the field. It
should not simply replicate previous studies but should offer new insights or approaches.
Casework Example: Your research on improving path planning for AUVs in cluttered environments
offers originality by addressing a less-explored aspect of underwater navigation, potentially
contributing new algorithms or techniques to the field.
• 9. Seek Feedback and Refine
Step: Discuss your research problem with peers, mentors, or experts in the field. Their feedback
can help refine your research question and approach.
Casework Example: After discussing with colleagues and attending a few conferences, you refine
your focus to developing a hybrid algorithm that combines machine learning and traditional path
planning techniques for AUVs.
• 10. Define the Scope and Objectives

Step: Clearly define the scope of your research and set specific, measurable objectives that you aim
to achieve.
Casework Example: You set objectives such as: (1) Develop a hybrid path planning algorithm; (2)
Test the algorithm in simulated and real-world environments; (3) Compare its performance against
existing algorithms.
• 11. Ensure Ethical Considerations
Step: Consider the ethical implications of your research, including the environmental impact if
applicable, and ensure that your study complies with ethical standards.
Casework Example: You assess the potential environmental impact of your underwater
experiments and ensure that your study adheres to ethical guidelines for marine research.
Research Ethics
By
Dr. Deepu R
Professor in CSE
What is Research Ethics?
Research ethics provides guidelines for the
responsible conduct of research. In addition, it
educates and monitors scientists conducting
research to ensure a high ethical standard.
Research ethics are the norms and guidelines that

guide researchers in conducting their studies with
integrity, respect for life, and adherence to
human rights. They are also known as research
integrity and are critical in the scientific
community.
Some examples of research ethics include:
• Voluntary participation
• Informed consent: The person who is invited to be part of the research
should understand both the benefits and the risks involved.
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality: A core principle of research ethics and a standard practice
in social research. Breaching confidentiality may expose informants to
harm.
• Potential for harm
• Results communication: Scientists, as well as the general public, believe
that the findings and theories are accurately reported and earnestly
discussed.
Some Ethical Principles
• Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate,
falsify, or misrepresent data.
• Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
• Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
• Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work
of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
• Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
• Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Some Ethical Principles…….
• Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel
records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
• Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.
• Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their
own decisions.
• Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
• Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
• Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
• Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education
and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
• Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
• Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
• Human Subjects Protection:

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;
respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
Seven main principles to guide the conduct of
ethical research:
• Social and clinical value.
• Scientific validity.
• Fair subject selection.
• Favorable risk-benefit ratio.
• Independent review.
• Informed consent.
• Respect for potential and enrolled subjects.
Social and clinical value
• Every research study is designed to answer a specific question. The answer should be important
enough to justify asking people to accept some risk or inconvenience for others. In other words,
answers to the research question should contribute to scientific understanding of health or improve
our ways of preventing, treating, or caring for people with a given disease to justify exposing
participants to the risk and burden of research.
Scientific validity
• A study should be designed in a way that will get an understandable answer to the important
research question. This includes considering whether the question asked is answerable, whether
the research methods are valid and feasible, and whether the study is designed with accepted
principles, clear methods, and reliable practices. Invalid research is unethical because it is a waste
of resources and exposes people to risk for no purpose
Fair subject selection
• The primary basis for recruiting participants should be the scientific goals of the study — not
vulnerability, privilege, or other unrelated factors. Participants who accept the risks of research
should be in a position to enjoy its benefits. Specific groups of participants (for example, women or
children) should not be excluded from the research opportunities without a good scientific reason
or a particular susceptibility to risk.
Favorable risk-benefit ratio
• Uncertainty about the degree of risks and benefits associated with a clinical research study is
inherent. Research risks may be trivial or serious, transient or long-term. Risks can be physical,
psychological, economic, or social. Everything should be done to minimize the risks and
inconvenience to research participants to maximize the potential benefits, and to determine that
the potential benefits are proportionate to, or outweigh, the risks.
Independent review
• To minimize potential conflicts of interest and make sure a study is ethically acceptable before it
starts, an independent review panel should review the proposal and ask important questions,
including: Are those conducting the trial sufficiently free of bias? Is the study doing all it can to
protect research participants? Has the trial been ethically designed and is the risk–benefit ratio
favorable? The panel also monitors a study while it is ongoing.
Informed consent
• Potential participants should make their own decision about whether they want to participate or
continue participating in research. This is done through a process of informed consent in which
individuals (1) are accurately informed of the purpose, methods, risks, benefits, and alternatives to
the research, (2) understand this information and how it relates to their own clinical situation or
interests, and (3) make a voluntary decision about whether to participate.
Respect for potential and enrolled participants
• Individuals should be treated with respect from the time they are
approached for possible participation — even if they refuse enrollment in
a study — throughout their participation and after their participation
ends. This includes:
• respecting their privacy and keeping their private information confidential
• respecting their right to change their mind, to decide that the research
does not match their interests, and to withdraw without a penalty
• informing them of new information that might emerge in the course of
research, which might change their assessment of the risks and benefits of
participating
• monitoring their welfare and, if they experience adverse reactions,
unexpected effects, or changes in clinical status, ensuring appropriate
treatment and, when necessary, removal from the study
• informing them about what was learned from the research
Research misconducts?
• (a) Fabrication - making up data or results and

recording or reporting them.
• (b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or
changing or omitting data or results such that the
research is not accurately represented in the research
record.
• (c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's
ideas, processes, results, or words without giving
appropriate credit.
• (d) Research misconduct does not include honest error
or differences of opinion.
Thanks
Legislative Framework of
IP Administration
Legislative Framework of IP Administration
Department of IP &P covers
The Patents Act, 1970 (as amended in 2005)
The Patents Rules, 2003 (as amended in 2006)
The Designs Act, 2000
The Designs Rules, 2001 (as amended in 2008)
The Trade Marks Act 1999
The Trade Marks Rules 2002
The Geographical Indications of Goods
(Registration & Protection) Act, 1999
The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration &
Protection) Rules, 2002,
Department of Education covers
The Copyrights Act 1957 (amended in 1999)
CONTROLLER GENERAL OF PATENTS, DESIGNS
AND TRADEMARKS
(CGPDTM)
IPTI ,NIIPM,
PATENT OFFICE T M REGISTRY G.I. REGISTRY
P.I.S. Nagpur
Head Office
Head Office DESIGN OFFICE CHENNAI
MUMBAI
KOLKATA
Branch DELHI
DELHI KOLKATA
Branch KOLKATA
CHENNAI
Branch CHENNAI
MUMBAI
A’BAD
Law and Regulations
• Patents Act, 1970
– Amended in
• 1999
• 2002
• 2005
• Patents Rules, 2003
– Amended in
• 2005
• 2006
Legislative Measures -Patents
• From 1.1.1995
– Mail-Box for pharmaceutical and agrochemicals products
– Exclusive Marketing Rights
• From 1.1.2000
– Patent term increased to 20 years
– Definition of invention – inclusion of inventive step
– Reversal of burden of proof – on the infringer
– Mandatory compulsory licence provision for food, drugs
and chemicals removed
– Right of patentee (importation also included)
• From 1.1.2005
– Product patents for food, chemical and pharmaceutical
We have met our international commitments

Patent Law - Salient Features
• Both product and process patent provided

• Term of patent – 20 years
• Examination on request
• Both pre-grant and post-grant opposition
• Fast track mechanism for disposal of appeals
• Provision for protection of bio-diversity and
traditional knowledge
• Publication of applications after 18 months
with facility for early publication
• Substantially reduced time-lines
6
Safeguards in the Patent Law
• Compulsory license to ensure availability
of drugs at reasonable prices
• Provision to deal with public health
emergency
• Revocation of patent in public interest and
also on security considerations
7
Scope of Patentability Under
The Patents Act
What is an Invention?
Sec.2(1)(J)
“Invention” means a new product or
process involving an inventive
step and capable of industrial
application
Patentable subject matter
Invention must
relates to a Process or Product or
both
be new (Novel)
involves an inventive step
be Capable of industrial application
not fall under Section 3 and 4
“NEW”
MEANS
Invention must not be
Published in India or elsewhere
In prior public knowledge or prior public
use with in India
Claimed before in any specification in
India
Inventive step
A feature of an invention that
involves technical advance as
compared to the existing knowledge
or
have economic significance or both
and
makes the invention not obvious to
a person skilled in the art
Industrial application means
Invention is capable of
being made or used
in any kind of
industry
Section 3 exclusions
Section 3(a)
• Frivolous inventions
• Inventions contrary to well
established natural laws
Examples
➢ Machine that gives more than 100%
performance
➢ Perpetual machine
Section 3(b)
Commercial exploitation or primary use
of inventions, which is
➢Contrary to
➢public order or
➢Morality
Examples
– Gambling machine,
– Device for house-breaking ,
Section 3(b)
Commercial exploitation or primary use
of inventions , which
➢Causes serious Prejudice to
➢ health or
➢ human, animal, plant life or
➢ to the environment
Examples
▪ Biological warfare material or device,
weapons of mass destruction
▪ Terminator gene technology,
▪ Embryonic stem cell
Checks and Balances
Section 3(b)
Excludes patents on
• GMOs – exploitation of which could be
contrary public order or morality or
prejudicial to human, animal or plant life or
health or to the environment
Effect : Only genetically modified micro-
organisms (GMOs) which do not fall under
section 3 (b) are patentable.
Section 3 ( c )
• Mere Discovery of a Scientific Principle or
• formulation of an Abstract Theory or
• discovery of any living thing or
• discovery of non–living substance occurring in
nature
Examples
Newton’s Laws
Superconducting Phenomenon as such
Property of certain material to withstand
mechanical shock
Discovery of micro-organism
Discovery of natural gas or a mineral
Checks and Balances
Section 3(c)
Excludes patents on
•Naturally occurring Micro-organisms
Effect
Genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs)
are however, patentable.
Section3 (d)
The mere discovery of a new form of a
known substance which does not result
in the enhancement of the known
efficacy of that substance
Section3 (d) Explanation
For the purposes of this clause,
• salts, esters, ethers, polymorphs,
• metabolites, pure form, particle size,
• isomers, mixture of isomers,
• complexes, combinations and other derivatives of known substances
shall be considered to be the same substance, unless they
differ significantly in properties with regard to efficacy.
Examples
– Crystalline forms of known substance
Checks and Balances
Section 3 (d) Explanation
Effect
Salts, esters, ethers, polymorphs, metabolite, pure
forms, particle size, isomers, complexes,
combinations and derivatives of a known substance
with enhanced efficacy are patentable
Section3 (d)
Mere discovery of any new property
or new use for a known substance or
of the mere use of a known process,
machine or apparatus, unless such
known process results in a new
product or employs at least one new
reactant.
Examples
– New use of Aspirin for heart ailments,
– Mere new uses of Neem
Section 3(e)
Substance obtained by mere admixture resulting only in
the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof or
a process for producing such substance
Examples
➢ Combiflam [Paracetamol (Antipyretic) + Brufen (analgesic)]
➢ Solution of sugar and color additives in water to form a soft
drink
However,
A mixture resulting into synergistic properties of
mixture of ingredients however, may be patentable
- Soap, Detergents, lubricants etc
Checks and Balances
Section 3 ( e )
Effect
➢ Substance obtained by mere admixture
resulting only in the aggregation of the
properties of the components thereof or
➢ a process for producing such substance
are not patentable
However
Synergistic formulations are patentable
Section 3 ( f )
Mere arrangement or re-arrangement
or duplication of known devices, each
functioning independently of one
another in a known way
Examples
▪A Bucket fitted with torch,
▪ An Umbrella with fan
▪ A Clock and radio in a single cabinet
▪ A flour-mill provided with sieving
Section 3(h)
Method of Agriculture or Horticulture
Examples
▪ Cultivation of algae ,
▪ Producing new form of a known plant,
▪ Preparation of an improved soil
However,
Agricultural Equipments are patentable
Section 3(i)
Any process for medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic,
diagnostic, therapeutic or other treatment of human beings
or a similar treatment of animals to render them free of
disease or to increase their economic value or that of
their products
Examples
➢ Removal of cancer tumor
➢ Removal of dental plaque and carries
➢ Surgical processes
➢ Processes relating to therapy
➢ Method of vaccination,
➢ Blood transfusion
However ,
▪Treatment performed on tissues or fluids permanently removed from the body
▪Surgical,therapeutic or diagnostic Apparatus or instruments
are patentable
Section3 exclusions
Section 3(j)
Plants & animals in whole or any part
thereof other than microorganisms,
but including seeds, varieties an d
species and essentially biological
process for production or propagation
of plants & animals
Section 3(j)
• Plants & animals in whole
• Parts of plants & animals
• Seeds
• Varieties & species
• Essentially biological processes
for propagation or production of
the animals & plants
Checks and Balances
Section 3(j)
Excludes patents on
• Plants and animals in whole or any parts
thereof, …… including seeds, varieties and
species and essentially biological processes
for production or propagation of plants and
animals
Examples
– Clones and new varieties of plants
– A process for production of plants or animals
if it consists entirely of natural phenomena
such as crossing or selection
– Essentially biological Process
Section 3(k)
* mathematical method or
* business method or
* algorithms or
* computer programme per se
Examples
– Computer program by itself or as a record on a
carrier
However
– New calculating machine
– combination of hardware and software
is patentable
Section 3(l)
A literary,dramatic, musical or artistic work or any
other aesthetic creation including cinematographic
work and television productions
These subject-matters fall under the

copyright protection
Section 3(m)
A mere scheme or rule or method of performing mental
act or method of playing game
Examples
•Scheme for learning a language
•Method for solving a crossword puzzle,
•Method of learning a language
•Method of teaching /learning
However,
•Novel apparatus for playing game or carrying
out a scheme is patentable
Section 3 (n)
Presentation of information
Examples
➢ Any manner or method of expressing
information whether by
➢spoken words
➢Visual display
➢symbols
➢diagrams
➢Information recorded on a carrier
Section 3 (o)
Topography of integrated
circuits.
Examples
Mask works - circuits layout
Section 3 (p)
Inventions which are
Traditional Knowledge or an aggregation or duplication of known
properties of traditionally known component or components
Examples
Traditional Knowledge already in public domain
- Wound healing property of Haldi
However,
Any value-addition using Traditional Knowledge leading to
a new process or product ,which is novel with inventive
step and industrial applicability,
Extraction of Azadirachtin from Neem
can be patented
Non Patentable inventions
Section 4
Inventions falling within Section 20(1)
of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 are not
patentable
Effect
Inventions relating to compounds of Uranium, Beryllium, Thorium,
Plutonium, Radium, Graphite, Lithium and more as notified by Central
Govt. from time to time.
Stages from filing to grant
of a patent
Obtaining a patent
• File an application for patent
– With one of the patent offices based on territorial
jurisdiction of the place of office or residence of the
applicant /agent
– Pay the required fee
• Information concerning application form and
details of fee available at www.ipindia.nic.in
• Guidelines for applicants also available on this
website
Formality Check
• An Examiner checks the formal
requirements before accepting the
application and the fee – this is done
immediately
• Issue of application number and the cash
receipt – this is done the same day
• In case of receipt of application by post,
cash receipt, application number is sent by
post within 2-3 days
Publication
• Application is kept secret for a period of 18
months from the date of filing
• In 19th month, the application is published in the
official journal – this journal is made available on
the website weekly
• Applicant has an option to get his application
published before 18 months also
• In that case, application is published within one
month of the request
Request for Examination
• Application is examined on request
• Request for examination can be made
either by the applicant or by a third party
• A period of 48 months, from the date of
filing, is available for making request for
examination
Examination
• Application is sent to an Examiner within
1 month from the date of request for
examination
• Examiner undertakes examination w.r.t.
– whether the claimed invention is not
prohibited for grant of patent
– whether the invention meets the criteria of
patentability
Issue of FER
• A period of 1 to 3 months is available to
Examiner to submit the report to the
Controller
• 1 month’s time available to Controller to
vet the Examiner’s report
• First Examination Report (FER) containing
gist of the objections is issued within 6
months from the date of filing of request
Response from the Applicant
• 12 months’ time, from the date of issue of
FER, is available to the applicant to meet
the objections
• If objections are met, grant of patent is

approved by the Controller – within a
period of 1 month
Pre-grant Opposition
• After publication, an opposition can be

filed within a period of 6 months
• Opportunity of hearing the opponent is

also available
Examination of Pre-grant
Opposition
• Opposition (documents) is sent to the

applicant
• A period of 3 months is allowed for receipt

of response
Consideration of
Pre-grant Opposition
• After examining the opposition and the
submissions made during the hearing,
Controller may
– Either reject the opposition and grant the
patent
– Or accept the opposition and modify/reject
the patent application
• This is to be done within a period of 1
month from the date of completion of
opposition proceedings
Grant of a Patent
• A certificate of patent is issued within 7
days
• Grant of patent is published in the official

journal
STAGES - FILING TO GRANT OF
PATENT
FILING OF APPLICATION
• IF P.S.IS FILED C.S. TO BE FILED WITHIN 12MONTHS
PROVNL. / COMPLETE
PUBLICATION OF APPLICATION • PROMPTLY AFTER 18 MONTHS FROM P.D.
REQUEST FOR EXAMINATION • WITHIN 48 MONTHS FROM F.D.
EXAMINATION-ISSUE OF FER 3rd Party Representation

• ALL OBJECTIONS TO BE COMPLIED WITHIN 12
MONTHS
GRANT OF PATENT
OPPOSITION
• WITHIN 12 MONTHS
Decision of
Controller
Appeal
Revocation/Amendment
Appellate Board
Renewal Fee
• To be paid within 3+6 months from date of
recording in the register [sec 142 (4) ]
• No fee for 1st and 2nd year
• Renewal fee, on yearly basis, is required to be
paid for 3rd to 20th for keeping the patent in force
• Delay upto six months from due date permissible
on payment of fee for extension of time
• Patent lapses if renewal fee is not paid within the
prescribed period
Intellectual Property Rights
Dr. Deepu R
Professor in Department of
Computer Science & Engineering
Intellectual property rights are the rights given
to persons over the creations of their minds.
They usually give the creator an exclusive right
over the use of his/her creation for a certain
period of time.
Intellectual property rights are customarily divided into
two main areas:
(i) Copyright and rights related to copyright.

The main social purpose of protection of copyright and
related rights is to encourage and reward creative
work. The rights of authors of literary and artistic
works (such as books and other writings, musical
compositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs
and films) are protected by copyright, for a minimum
period of 50 years after the death of the author.
• (ii) Industrial property.
Industrial property can usefully be divided into two main
areas: Trademarks (The protection may last
indefinitely, provided the sign in question continues to
be distinctive). The protection of such distinctive signs
aims to stimulate and ensure fair competition and to
protect consumers, by enabling them to make
informed choices between various goods and services
Patents : The protection is usually given for a finite term

(typically 20 years in the case of patents)
Websites
https://www.ipindia.gov.in/
https://iprsearch.ipindia.gov.in/PublicSearch/Pu
blicationSearch/ApplicationStatus
Thanks
Unit 2: Data collection, Survey and Metrics
By
Dr. Deepu R
Professor in Department of Computer Science &
Engineering
Unit 2
Data collection, survey and metrics
Collection of Primary Data, Observation Method,
Collection of Data through Questionnaires,
Collection of Data through Schedules, Difference
between Questionnaires and Schedules, Collection
of Secondary Data. Literature survey and
comparative analysis, Indexing databases, Citation
databases: Web of science, Scopus etc. Research
Metrics: Impact factor of journal citation report,
SNIP, SJR, IPP, cite score. Metrics: h index, g index,
i10 index, altmetrics.
Indexing databases
• Indexing databases are used to organize and list
journals and articles, and to provide access to
research analytics results, bibliometric data, and
performance improvement. They can be
organized based on factors such as disciplines,
geographic regions, and subjects.
• Database indexing is a data structure that helps
retrieve information from a database quickly. It's
used when the data is too large to search for
iteratively. Some types of database indexes
include:
• Composite indexes
Created by adding the values of two or more
fields together.
• Hash indexes
Use hashes to map each hash value to a
location in the database, where the
corresponding data is stored
• Bitmap indexes
Used on large tables with many rows, and
store one row for each key in the table
Citation databases
• A citation database allows you to access
published, peer-reviewed, high-quality material
such as journal articles, research reports,
systematic reviews, conference proceedings,
editorials, and related works.
Scopus
• Scopus is a scientific abstract and citation
database, launched by the academic publisher
Elsevier as a competitor to older Web of Science
in 2004
• JSTOR
• ScienceDirect
• Web of Science
• PubMed
• Semantic Scholar
• Google Scholar
• Directory of Open Access Journals
• MEDLINE
• IEEE Xplore
• SCI
Research Metrics
• Impact factor of journal citation report: The Journal Citation Reports (JCR) impact factor (IF) is a metric
that measures how often articles from a journal are cited in a given year: The IF is calculated by dividing
the number of times articles were cited by the number of citable items published in the previous two
years.
Meaning
• An IF of 1.0 means that, on average, articles published one or two years ago have been cited once. An IF of
2.5 means that, on average, articles published one or two years ago have been cited two and a half
times. The IF can be used to compare a journal's relative importance to others in the same field. It can also
help determine which journals may be better for a collection.
• SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper) : A SNIP of 1.0 means that a journal's articles are cited at the
average rate for all journals in the same subject area; anything over 1.0 indicates more citations than
average in the field while a SNIP of less than 1.0 is below the average.
• SJR (SCImago Journal Rank): SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) is a portal that includes the journals and country
scientific indicators developed from the information contained in the Scopus database (Elsevier).
• IPP : The impact per publication, calculated as the number of citations given in the present year to
publications in the past three years divided by the total number of publications in the past three years. IPP
is fairly similar to the well-known journal impact factor.
• CiteScore : CiteScore (CS) of an academic journal is a measure reflecting the yearly average number of
citations to recent articles published in that journal. It is produced by Elsevier, based on the citations
recorded in the Scopus database.
Metrics
• h index : Hirsch2 was of the opinion that 20 h-index is Good,40 is Outstanding and
60 is Exceptional but after 20 years of research life. He further pointed out that
approximately 84% of Physicists with Nobel Prizes had h-index of 30. The h-
index captures research output based on the total number of publications and the
total number of citations to those works, providing a focused snapshot of an
individual's research performance. Example: If a researcher has 15 papers, each of
which has at least 15 citations, their h-index is 15.
• g index: The Glasgow Index gives more weight to highly-cited articles. To calculate
the g-index: "[Given a set of articles] ranked in decreasing order of the number of
citations that they received, the g-index is the (unique) largest number such that
the top g articles received (together) at least g² citations."
• i10 index : Developed by Google Scholar, the author i10-index is the number of
articles published by an author that have received at least 10 citations.
• Altmetrics : Altmetrics let us measure and monitor the reach and impact of
scholarship and research through online interactions. Altmetrics stands for
"alternative metrics." The "alternative" part references traditional measurements
of academic success such as citation counts, journal prestige (impact factor), and
author H-index.
Thank You
Research Methodology
Data Collection
Dr. Arti Arya

Data Collection
Chapter 6
Dr. Arti Arya

Disclaimer
These slides are prepared from the prescribed text book and other reliable resources from
the Internet.
The images are imported from various sites and videos are imported from youtube.com
Data Collection
Primary data Collection :
● Fresh
● First Time
● Original in Character
Secondary data Collection :

● Already collected by some one
● Already passed through statistical process
Survey vs Experiment
Survey vs Experiment
The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is
done accurately.
Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be
the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. T
observation method has various limitations.

Firstly, it is an expensive method.
Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively
Collection of Primary Data
1. Observation Method
2. Interview Method
a. Personal Interview
b. Telephonic Interview
3. Questionnaires
4. Schedules
5. Other methods
Observation Method
● Related to Behavioural Sciences

● Non scientific method – To observe things around us
● Scientific tool -
 systematically planned and recorded,
 subjected to checks and
 Controls on validity and reliability.
● Information is sought by way of investigators own direct

observation w/o asking respondents
Observation Method
Advantages :
1. Subjective bias is eliminated ; if observation done accurately.
2. Relates to current happenings
3. Independent of respondents
Limitations:
1. Expensive method
2. Limited information is provided.
3. Unforeseen factors interfere
4. People may not be accessible
Observation Method
While using this method researcher should keep following in mind
● What should be observed?
● How should observation be recorded?
● How can accuracy be ensured?
Few Terminologies
● Structured Observation
 Units, style, standardised conditions, pertinent data selection
 Descriptive studies
● Unstructured Observation
 Exploratory studies
● Participant Observation
● Non Participant Observation (Disguised Observation)
● Controlled and Non Controlled Observation.
Interview Method
Presentation of Oral Verbal Stimuli and reply in oral verbal

responses.
2 types
● Personal Interview
● Telephonic Interview
Personal Interview Method
● Requires person as interviewer asking questions generally F2F

contact to other person.
● Direct Personal Interview : Interviewer must collect info
personally from sources concerned.
● He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom
data has to be collected.
● Indirect Personal Interview : Interviewer cross examines other
person who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem
under investigation.
Personal Interview Method
• Structured Interview:
● Method of collecting information through personal interview usually done is
structured way.
● Predetermined set of questions.
● Rigid procedure asking the questions in form and order prescribed.
• Unstructured Interview
● Flexibility approach of questioning.
● Do not follow predetermined questions and standards
● Interviewer allowed much greater freedom to ask, ask supplementary questions,
omit certain questions.
● He may change sequence of questions
• Focused Interview
• Clinical Interview
• Non Directive Interview
Merits of Interview Method
● More information in greater depth

● Greater flexibility to restructure questions.
● Observation – applied to recording verbal answers
● Personal information can be easily obtained.
● Low non responsive
● Interviewer can easily control which person will answer
the questions.
● Language of the interview can be adopted easily,
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
Demerits of Interview Method
● Expensive – when large geographical locations are

taken as samples.
● Few respondents may not be easily approachable.
● Time consuming when sample is large.
● Presence of interviewer may stimulate respondents.
● Selecting, training and supervising field staff is

complex.
PREREQUISITES & BASIC TENETS OF INTERVIEW METHOD
● Interviewer should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.
● They should be honest, sincere and hardworking, must

possess technical competence and necessary practical
experience.
● Field checks should be made – to ensure interviewer is neither

cheating nor deviating from instructions given.
Telephonic Interview
● Method of collecting information contacting respondents over

telephone.
● Not widely used, but plays important role in industry surveys.
Merits:
1) More flexible
2) Faster than other modes
3) Cheaper than personal interview
4) Replies can be recorded.
5) Easy to call back
6) No field staff requirement
7) Higher rate of response than mailing method
8) Wider range of respondents
Demerits of Telephonic Interview
Demerits:
1) Little time given to respondents to answer
2) Extensive geographic coverage may be restricted because of cost.
3) Questions to be short, answers to the point
4) Survey is restricted to respondents with telephones
5) Not suitable for comprehensive answers.
6) Probability of bias of interviewer is relatively more
Questionnaire
● Big enquiries – economic and business surveys.

● Being adopted – private individuals, research workers, private and
public organizations, governments.
● Questions are sent (by post) to persons concerned and required to
answer and return.
● Consists of number of questions printed or typed in definite order on
a form/s.
● Questionnaire is mailed to respondent/s and who is expected to
read and understand the questions and write down their reply in
space meant for the purpose.
Questionnaire
Merits
1. Low cost even over large geographic area.
2. Free from bias of interviewer
3. Respondents have adequate time to respond
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached
conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of, results can be reliable
Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Used when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. Control over questionnaire may be lost when sent.
4. Inbuilt inflexibility – amending approach once dispatched.
5. Difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
6. Slowest of all methods.
7. Incomplete/ambiguous answers – hard to interpret.
Questionnaire
Pilot Study may be required to test the questionnaire – rehearsal of main
survey:
 Weakness of questionnaire may be identified
 Omission of questions
 Modification (reordering/rewording/rephrasing) of questions may be
required – wrong interpretation of question by respondent
Main aspects of questionnaire:

a)General form
b)Question sequence
c)Question formulation and wordings
 Very clear in construction – simple, easily understood
 Open ended questions
 Multiple choice questions, True/False
Essentials of a good questionnaire:

Questionnaire
Essentials of a good questionnaire:

1. Should be short and simple
2. Should proceed in a logical sequence
3. Personal and intimate questions should be left for the end.
4. Technical terms and vague expressions should be avoided.
5. Questions should be dichotomous or open-ended.
6. There should be some control questions to indicate the reliability of the
respondent.
7. Should always have a provision for indicating uncertainty: like “ don’t
know” etc.
Schedules
● The schedule is another data collection technique containing statements,

questions, and blank spaces to fill up the answers given by the respondents
to the enumerator or interviewer.
● A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are

asked by the interviewer or investigator personally. ... It contains direct
questions as well as questions in tabular form. Schedule include open-
ended questions and close-ended questions.
● Schedules are filled by enumerators who are appointed for this purpose.
Schedules
● These enumerators go to respondents, ask listed questions and record the

replies.
● In few instances schedules may be handed over to respondents and

enumerators may help them in recording answers.
● Enumerators should explain objectives of investigation and remove

difficulty giving appropriate clarifications.
Schedules
● Benefits:
● It is a useful method in case the informants are illiterate.
● The researcher can overcome the problem of non-response as the

enumerators go personally to obtain the information.
● It is very useful in extensive studies and
● Can obtain more reliable data
● Demerits
● Very expensive
● Enumerator selection
● Enumerators to be trained extensively
Questionnaire vs Schedules
• Both questionnaires and schedules are popularly used methods

of collecting data in research surveys.
• There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods.

From a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to
be the same.
• But from a technical point of view there is difference between

the two.
# Questionnaires Schedules
1  Filled out by the respondent. Generally filled out by the research worker or the
enumerator.
2 Relatively cheap and economical; Relatively more expensive;
no field staff required. appointing enumerators and in imparting training to
them; preparing schedules also has costs.
3 Non-response is usually high; Generally Non-response very low;
Bias due to non-response often remains Since filled by enumerators who get answers to all
indeterminate. questions;
Danger of interviewer bias and cheating exists.
4 Not always clear as to who replies, respondent Identity of respondent is known to enumerator.
or someone on his/her behalf.
5 Personal contact is generally not possible. Direct personal contact is established with respondents
by enumerator.
# Questionnaires Schedules
7 Can be used only when respondents are Respondents may be illiterate.
literate and cooperative.
8 Wider and more representative Difficulty in sending
distribution of sample enumerators over a relatively wider area.
9 Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong Relatively more accurate;
information is relatively more Generally complete and accurate as
particularly when people are unable to enumerators can remove the difficulties, if
understand questions properly. any.
10 Success lies more on the quality of the Depends upon the honesty and competence of
questionnaire itself. enumerators.
11 Physical appearance of questionnaire Not Applicable.
must be quite attractive.
12 Observation method not possible. Observation method can also be used.
Secondary Data Collecction
● Data already available – already collected and analysed by someone

else.
● Researcher should look into sources from where s/he can obtain.
● 2 forms of secondary data:
○ Published
○ Unpublished.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
Published -
a) Publication in form of central, state and local government.
b) Publication of foreign govt and international bodies.
c) Technical and trade journals
d) Books, magazines and newspapers
e) Reports and publications of various business associations,
industries, banks, stock exchanges, etc.
f) Reports prepared by universities, scholars, economists
g) public records and statistics, historical documents,
h) websites - Ex : RBI, NSE, etc.
Unpublished
■ diaries, letters, biographies, autobiographies, also made
available with scholars and workers, trade associations, etc.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
Caution before using secondary data to see following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data:
● Who collected the data?
● What were the sources of data?
● Were they collected using proper methods?
● At what time were they collected?
● Was it achieved?
2. Suitability of data:
● Data suitable for one enquiry may not be suitable for another.
Hence if the data is found unsuitable it should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data:
● If the level of accuracy is found to be inadequate, it should not
be considered for research.
THANK YOU
Dr. Arti Arya

artiarya@pes.edu
Data Collection
Dr. Arti Arya

Data Collection
Chapter 6
Dr. Arti Arya

Disclaimer
These slides are prepared from the prescribed text book and other reliable resources from
the Internet.
The images are imported from various sites and videos are imported from youtube.com
Data Collection
Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry:
2. Availability of funds:
3. Time factor:
4. Precision required:
Case Study Method (Data Collection)
 A very popular form of qualitative analysis
 Involves a careful and complete observation of a

social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an
institution, a cultural group or even the entire
community.
 It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.

The case study places more emphasis on the full
analysis of a limited number of events or conditions
and their interrelations.
Case Study Method (Data Collection)
 The case study deals with the processes that take

place and their interrelationship.
 case study is essentially an intensive investigation of

the particular unit under consideration.
Case Study Method
A case study is an in-depth examination of a

particular instance, individual, group,
organization, event, or phenomenon to
explore its complexities and nuances in a real-
world context.
Case studies are widely used in various fields,
including business, education, social sciences,
medicine, and law, to gain insights into
complex issues and to illustrate theories and
concepts.
Case Study Method: Characteristics
1. The researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his
study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same
comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute

details. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain
the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for
drawing correct inferences.
3. We make complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this
method we try to understand the complex factors that are operative within a
social unit as an integrated totality.
4.
Case Study Method: Characteristics
4. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not
quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every
possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of
life.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the

mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning unit
is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.
7. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data
which may be helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the generalised
knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalised social
science may get handicapped.
Case Study Method: Assumptions
(i) The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of

the fact that human behaviour may vary according to situations.
(ii) The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit

concerned.
(iii) The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Example of Case Study
•Genie: Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation.
The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language
could be taught even after critical periods for language development had
been missed. Her case also served as an example of how scientific
research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of
vulnerable individuals.
Genie – Advantages
Uniqueness of study – Being able to study a feral child is a rare
occurrence.
Genie – Disadvantages
Ethics - The lead researcher David Rigler provided a home for Genie, and
was paid for being a foster parent. This is often seen as unethical,
since Rigler had a financial interest in Genie and her case.
https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-write-a-psychology-case-study-2795722
Another Example
Gehringer, Edward F., and Barry W. Peddycord III. "The inverted-lecture model: a case
study in computer architecture." In Proceeding of the 44th ACM technical symposium
on Computer science education, pp. 489-494. 2013.
Abstract: This paper reports on an experience in using the inverted-lecture model ("flipping the classroom") in computer architecture. The first
author concurrently taught two courses in computer architecture. One of these courses was CSC/ECE 506: Architecture of Parallel
Computers, an introductory Graduate-level course, taught via lecture both residentially and distance-ed. The other was the CSC 456:
Computer Architecture and Multiprocessing, a senior-level undergraduate course which was "flipped." Students in the inverted-lecture class
exhibited high levels of engagement. Their performance on exams was not quite up to the level of the students in the graduate class, but the
difference was not wide. From this experience, we offer observations and suggestions about inverted classes in general.
Find out more such examples in your respective

branch of study!!!
Major Phases involved
1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon
to be investigated or the unit of attention.
2. Collection of data, examination and history of the given

phenomenon.
3. Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for

remedial or developmental treatment.
4. Application of remedial measures i.e., treatment and therapy(this

phase is often characterised as case work).
5. Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment

applied.
Advantages of case Study
1.Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal
experiences which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive
him to action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.
2. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task
of constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough
knowledge of the concerning universe.
3. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be studied
along with the nature of the universe. This is the reason why at times the case study method
is alternatively known as “mode of organising data”.
4. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases
his analysing ability and skill.
There are many other merits of Case Study method

Limitations of Case Study
1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies
is often not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words,
logical concepts and units of scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the
investigator.
2. Some researchers ( Read Bain etc) do not consider the case data as significant scientific data
since they do not provide knowledge of the “impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-practical,
repetitive aspects of phenomena.”
3. Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher does enter
in the collection of information in a case study.
4.The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are
followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied.
5. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure.
6. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at
times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.
THANK YOU
Dr. Arti Arya

artiarya@pes.edu
Writing and Doing Literature Review

Dr. Arti Arya
Literature Review
Dr. Arti Arya

Disclaimer
These slides are prepared from the prescribed text book

and other reliable resources from the Internet.
The images are imported from various sites and videos are
imported from youtube.com
Literature Review ( A quick Review)
• A critical analysis of existing research in your field; it

highlights both the strengths and weaknesses of existing
research
• Allows you to gain a critical understanding of your field
• Opportunity to think about what has been done in your field;

opportunity to think about the similarities, patterns, trends
and also differences across the existing research
• By identifying strengths and weakness, you will be able to

think about what has not/needs to be done in your field
• The gap in the literature is your justification for your research

Much more than just a Chapter in your Project Report or Dissertation
A literature review is a process as well as an outcome!
Literature review as an outcome: appears in the final

draft of your thesis as part of your introduction or as a
separate chapter.
Literature review as a process: critical engagement

(thinking, reading and writing) with relevant research on
your topic. It is a crucial and formative stage of your
thesis journey.
Critical Thinking as a Student
Undergraduate level: backing your points up with

appropriate, authoritative sources
Masters Level: demonstrating that you

understand how knowledge is created
PhD Level: demonstrating that you can

create new, original knowledge
Professional academic: peer review,

building a coherent body of work of
your own and assuring others’ work
Why is it so important to write critically?
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Synthesis/Creation
Evaluation
Analysis
Application
Understanding
Knowledge
Reading Literature Critically
Think about:
✔ What were the research aims of the paper/book?

✔ Is the research aim achieved? If so, how did they do it?
✔ Are there any problems with their methodology?
✔ Was it a strong or a weak research model?
✔ How will this research help with your own research?
✔ What can you take from it?
✔ What needs to be avoided?
✔What are you doing differently?

Critical Thinking: A 3-yr-old’s guide
❑ Why?
❑ How does that work?
❑ What’s that made of?
❑ What’s that for?
❑ What does that mean?
❑ But X says…
❑ How do you know?
❑ So what?
❑ Says who?
❑ What happens if…
What critical thinking means in terms of Literature Review
Understanding research on its own

terms – testing its viability
Understanding research in relation to

other arguments
Critiquing research in relation to what

you want to do
Think about your literature review
o Who are the key players in my field? This could be anything from
academics, medics, governing bodies, schools of thought etc.
(Sources!)
o What are the main ideas/debates in my field?
o How have these ideas changed over time?
o What are some of the problems with these ideas/debates? Is there a

problem with the methodology?
o What are you going to do differently?

Key Players and Sources
Ask yourself:
❑What research and theory is there on my topic?
❑What are the key sources (books, articles) on my topic?
❑Who are the main theorists and researchers in this area?
❑How has the topic/problem been investigated over time?

Literature Review: Where to Start?
YOU DON’T NEED TO READ

EVERYTHING – you can’t!
You don’t need to read every text
You don’t need to read every word

Literature Review: one researcher vs another
Scholar X Scholar Y
• disagrees with
• agrees with (school
of thought?)
• builds on the conclusions of
• confirms the findings of
• has reservations about
Thinking Critically
When identifying the key ideas, themes and methodologies in

your field, it is important to think critically about them
This will allow you to identify a ‘gap’ in the literature
Ask yourself:
❑What are the strengths and weaknesses of these debates?
❑What evidence is lacking, inconclusive or limited?
❑What will you add to the topic? What will you do differently?
Literature Review
What’s your story?

Thinking about your Literature Review
Map your story (literature review):
❑ What is your topic?

❑ Who are the key people in your field? What are the key
resources?
❑ What are the key ideas in your field? What methodologies
have been used?
❑ What are some of the strengths and weaknesses of
existing research?
❑ What will your contribution be? How will it be different?
(NB: If you can’t answer some of these question, make a

note of this. It will come in handy later!)
Planning how to write Literature Review
฀ Planning is about organising the structure of

your literature review (your story will help with
this!)
฀ How will you organise the information?

• Chronologically?
• Thematically?
• By trends/approaches/techniques?
• Major debates/controversies?
• Probably a combination of these
Literature Review
Literature Review: Self-esteem and obesity in children and adolescents’
mindmap
Writing a Literature Review
✔Start with an overview
✔Decide on organising principles (themes, trends,

methodology, chronology, controversies – usually a
combination of some of these)
✔Use headings for the different sections of the review
✔Provide summative signposts of where your argument is

leading
✔Summarise your review/highlight ‘gap’ in research

Clarity in writing Literature Review
Tips for clear writing:

• Clear introduction: overview of topic, aim of review and
structure
• Clear paragraph structure
• Make sure the subject of your sentence is clear
• Don’t assume knowledge
• Make sure key terminology and difficult ideas are always
explained thoroughly (ask your yourself: does it make
sense?)
• Be objective and balanced
• Use signposts to orientate the reader
Signposting: Your critical views
❖ Where appropriate, begin sections and paragraphs with a

statement which synthesises or analyses, rather than just
describes
❖ Use signposting words to demonstrate how texts relate to each

other and also what you think of them
Eg. However, yet, moreover, indeed, similarly etc

Use of Citation in Literature Review
Two types of citations:

Integral: The author’s name appears in the sentence.
Example (author-date system): Lillis (2001) argues that both tutors and
students often lack explicit knowledge of the conventions governing the
construction of academic texts.
Non-integral: The author’s name appears outside sentence.
Example: Both tutors and students often lack explicit knowledge of the
conventions governing the construction of academic texts (Lillis, 2001).
Citation and writer’s voice
Whose voice is dominant - the writer’s or the original

author’s?
• The moon is made of cheese (Brie 1999).

• Brie (1999) argues that the moon is made of cheese.
• As Brie (1999) points out, the moon is made of cheese.
• According to Brie (1999), the moon is made of cheese.
However, ….
• Brie (1999) argues out that the moon is made of cheese.
However, ….
Literature Review
Adapted from Dr. Adam Potts slides from New C]astle University
THANK YOU
Dr. Arti Arya

artiarya@pes.edu
Research Writing and Ethics
Dr. M.Farida Begam

Indexing Databases
(UE21CS421AA1)
Dr. M.Farida Begam

Indexing Databases in Research
Indexing databases in research is crucial for efficiently locating and retrieving relevant
information.
Indexing: process of creating an organized structure that allows for quick retrieval of
data. In the context of research databases, it involves creating indexes that reference the
locations of documents or data entries based on specific keywords, phrases, or topics.
Types of Indexes
•Keyword Indexes: Indexes based on keywords or phrases that are relevant to the content
of the documents.
•Subject Indexes: Indexes that categorize documents based on subject headings or
categories.
•Author Indexes: Indexes that organize documents according to the authorship.
•Title Indexes: Indexes that list documents based on their titles.
•Citation Indexes: Indexes that track citations and references between documents,
helping researchers find influential papers and understand the impact of research.
Benefits of Indexing
Improved Search Efficiency
Better Organization
Enhanced Accessibility
Tracking Research Trends: Citation indexes and other types of indexes can help
identify trends and influential works in a particular field.
Research Databases
Popular Research Databases and Their Indexing

 PubMed: Uses MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) for indexing
biomedical literature.
 Google Scholar: Uses an algorithmic approach to indexing based on
citations and keywords.
 Web of Science: Provides citation indexes and subject-specific indexes.
 Scopus: Offers citation indexing and a broad subject coverage.
Impact Factor
The impact factor (IF) of a journal is a metric used to evaluate the relative importance or influence of a
scholarly journal within its field.
It is commonly used in academia to assess the significance of a journal based on the frequency with which its
articles are cited.
For example, if a journal has an impact factor of 3.5, it means that, on average, each article published in
the journal in the past two years has been cited 3.5 times.
How the Impact Factor is Used
 Journal Ranking: Higher impact factors often indicate that a journal is more influential and prestigious within its
field.
 Research Evaluation: Institutions and researchers may use impact factors to assess the quality of journals when
evaluating research outputs and publications.
 Funding and Career Decisions: Impact factors can influence funding decisions, promotions, and hiring processes, as
they are sometimes used as a proxy for the quality and impact of research.
Google Scholar
• Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or
metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.
• Released in beta in November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes peer-reviewed
online academic journals and books, conference papers, theses and dissertations, preprints,
abstracts, technical reports, and other scholarly literature, including court opinions and
patents.
Web of Science
• is a paid-access platform that provides

access to multiple databases that provide
reference and citation data from academic
journals, conference proceedings, and other
documents in various academic disciplines.
• It is currently owned by Clarivate, and

currently contains 79 million records in the
core collection and 171 million records on
the platform.
SCOPUS
• Scopus is a scientific abstract and citation database, launched by the academic publisher
Elsevier as a competitor to older Web of Science in 2004.
• is considered to significantly benefit their users in terms of continuous improvement in
coverage, search/analysis capabilities.
• Journals in Scopus are reviewed for sufficient quality each year according to four
numerical measures: h-Index, CiteScore, SJR (SCImago Journal Rank) and SNIP (source
normalized impact per paper).
• For this reason, the journals listed in Scopus are considered to meet the requirement for
peer review quality established by several research grant agencies for their grant
recipients and by degree-accreditation boards in a number of countries.
• Scopus also allows patent searches from a dedicated patent database, Lexis-Nexis, albeit
with limited functionality.
Metrics
 h-index: Measures the productivity and citation impact of an individual researcher’s

publications.
 CiteScore: An alternative to the impact factor, calculated by Elsevier, considering
citations from a three-year period.
 Reflects the average number of citations received in a given year by articles published in
the journal during the previous three years
 Journal Citation Indicator (JCI): A metric that measures the average citation impact of
articles published in a journal over a five-year period.
 SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper): Measures the citation impact of a
journal by normalizing for differences in citation practices across fields.
SNIP
SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper)

•Description: SNIP measures the citation impact of a journal by normalizing for
differences in citation practices across different fields.
It accounts for the fact that citation rates vary widely between disciplines.
•Calculation: It is calculated by dividing the total number of citations received by

articles published in a journal over a three-year period by the total number of articles
published in that same period. This number is then adjusted for the average citation rate
in the field.
•Purpose: To provide a normalized measure of impact that adjusts for disciplinary

differences, making comparisons between journals in different fields more meaningful.
SJR (SCImago Journal Rank)
•Description: SJR is an indicator of the scientific influence of a journal, measuring the

number of citations received by a journal’s articles over a three-year period and
weighing them based on the prestige of the citing journals.
•Calculation: It is calculated by dividing the total number of citations received by

articles published in a journal over a three-year period by the total number of articles
published. The citations are weighted according to the prestige of the citing journals.
•Purpose: To reflect the journal’s impact, considering not just the quantity but also the
quality of citations, which means that citations from highly ranked journals are given
more weight.
IPP (Impact per Paper)
•Description: IPP measures the average number of citations received per article
published in a journal within a specific period, usually two or three years.
•Calculation: It is calculated by dividing the total number of citations received by all

articles published in a journal during a specific period by the total number of articles
published in that same period.
•Purpose: To provide a straightforward measure of the average citation impact of

articles in a journal. It’s a simpler metric compared to SNIP and SJR but doesn’t adjust
for differences in citation practices or the prestige of citing sources.
CiteScore
•Description: CiteScore is an alternative to the impact factor and measures the average
number of citations received per article published in a journal over a three-year period.
•Calculation: It is calculated by dividing the total number of citations received in a

given year by articles published in the journal during the previous three years by the total
number of articles published in those three years.
•Purpose: To provide a measure of journal impact that is similar to the impact factor but
covers a three-year period and is based on citations from a broader range of sources,
including conference papers and books.
Comparison and Use Cases
•SNIP: Useful for comparing journals across different disciplines by adjusting for
differences in citation practices.
It’s helpful when you need to understand the impact relative to field-specific citation
behaviors.
•SJR: Provides a measure of journal influence that takes into account the prestige of
citing journals, making it useful for understanding the quality of citations received.
•IPP: Offers a straightforward view of average citation impact but does not adjust for
field-specific or citation quality differences.
•CiteScore: Provides a broad measure of impact similar to the impact factor but with a
three-year citation window, useful for evaluating journal performance over a slightly
longer period.
h Index
 Definition: The h-index measures both the productivity and citation impact of a
researcher’s publications. It is designed to quantify the impact of a scholar’s work
based on both the number of papers they have published and the number of citations
those papers have received.
 Calculation: A researcher has an h-index of hhh if hhh of their publications have each
been cited at least hhh times. For example, an h-index of 10 means that the researcher
has 10 papers each cited at least 10 times.
 Purpose: To balance productivity (number of publications) with impact (citations),

providing a metric that reflects both the quantity and quality of a researcher’s work.
g-index
 Definition: The g-index is a variation of the h-index that gives more weight to highly
cited articles. It was introduced to address the limitation of the h-index, which does
not differentiate between a researcher with a few highly cited papers and one with
many moderately cited papers.
 Calculation: A researcher’s g-index is the highest number ggg such that the top ggg
articles have at least g^2 citations in total. For example, if the top 5 articles have at
least 25 citations in total, the g-index is 5.
 Purpose: To provide a measure that rewards researchers with a few highly influential
papers while still accounting for the overall number of citations.
i10-index
 Definition: The i10-index is a simpler metric that measures the number of

publications with at least 10 citations each. It is used to assess the productivity and
impact of a researcher’s work.
 Calculation: The i10-index is simply the count of articles that have received at least
10 citations.
 Purpose: To provide an easy-to-understand metric that reflects the number of

influential papers a researcher has produced, without the complexity of citation-based
calculations.
Altmetrics
 Definition: Altmetrics (alternative metrics) measure the impact of scholarly work

based on non-traditional indicators, such as social media mentions, blog posts, news
coverage, and other online activities.
 Calculation: Altmetrics are aggregated from various sources, including social media
platforms (Twitter, Facebook), public policy documents, media outlets, and academic
networks. These metrics often include counts of mentions, shares, and discussions.
 Purpose: To provide a broader view of impact and engagement beyond traditional

citations.
 Altmetrics capture how research is being discussed and used in real-time, reflecting its
reach and influence in public and academic spheres.
Comparison and Use Cases
 h-Index: Useful for understanding a researcher’s overall impact and productivity. It is widely
used and accepted but may not fully capture the influence of highly cited papers or new
researchers.
 g-Index: Better for recognizing researchers with a few highly influential papers, providing a
more nuanced view than the h-index.
 i10-Index: A straightforward metric that is easy to calculate and interpret, focusing on the
number of papers that have had a significant impact (at least 10 citations).
 Altmetrics: Offers insights into how research is being engaged with and disseminated in non-
traditional ways. It is particularly useful for understanding immediate impact and public
engagement.
THANK YOU
Indexing Databases
21

RWAE Chapter 1-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RWAE Chapter 1-2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

RWAE Chapter 1-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OBJECT

(OOMD)ORIENTED MODELLING & DESIGN

RESEARCH WRITINGS AND

● Research is composed of two terms combined:

● Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions

● A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new

● D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social

1) Descriptive Research Vs Analytical Research

Methods used: Comparative and Correlation.

2) Applied Vs Fundamental Research

● Immediate problem facing a society or an industrial business organization aimed at

3) Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

● Based on the measurement of quantity or amount

4) Conceptual Vs Empirical Research

● Related to some abstract idea(s) or theory; generally used by philosophers and

Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered

Other Types of Research

Research Method Vs Methodology

Can be put in 3 groups-

Methodology – Way in which research problem is solved systematically.

1) Formulating the research problem

Research Writings & Ethics

Prof. Priya Badarinath

1) Formulating the research problem;

2 steps for formulating

● Abstracting and indexing journals and published /

● Working Hypothesis - Temporary assumption made in

● Data in hand is inadequate. So need to collect

● Various tests like Chi-square, t-test, f-test have

● Real value of research lies

● Preliminary pages – date,

1) Purpose should be clearly defined.

● Good research is systematic

Research Writings & Ethics

Research Writings & Ethics

Prof. Priya Badarinath

Ch. 2: Defining the Research Problem

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved,

Difficulty which a researcher experiences in a context of either theoretical or

A RP does exist if the following conditions are met:

P(Oj | I, Cj, N) = Probability

P(O1 | I, C1, N) != P(O1 | I, C2, N)

General Topic Online Learning

Research Lack of students in the

Research Whether technology deters

Evidence for • Evidence from literature

What is missing in evidence? Deficiencies

How the solution helps: Remedy of

1. Subject which is not overdone is chosen

Clearly stated research problem is half solved:

1. What data are to be collected?

1. State the problem in a general way

a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used

● The task of defining a research problem follows a sequential pattern —

● thinking and rethinking process results in a more specific formulation of

the problem so that it

● All this results in a well defined research problem that is

● paves the way for the development of working hypotheses and

● means of solving the problem.