Letters

Letters
Letters
Numbers
Types of Lines
Dimensioning
Dimensioning
To Divide a Line into Any Number of Equal
Parts

• Let AB be the given line to be divided into

seven equal parts
• Draw a line AC of any length inclined at some
convenient angle to AB
• From A and along AC, cut-off with compass
seven equal divisions of any convenient
length
• Draw a line joining B and 7
• With the help of set-square/mini-drafter
draw lines through 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 parallel to
B7 intersecting AB at points 1’,2’,3’,4’,5’ & 6’
To Trisect a Right Angle

• Let ABC be the given right angle

• With center B and any radius, draw an
arc cutting AB at D and BC at E
• With the same radius and center D &
E, draw arcs cutting the arc DE at
points Q and P.
• Draw lines joining B with P and Q
• BP and BQ trisect the right-angle ABC
To Construct Regular Polygon

• Let the number of sides of the polygon be seven (i.e. Heptagon)

• Draw a line AB equal to given length

• At B, draw a line BP perpendicular to AB and equal to AB
• Draw a line joining A and P
• With B as center and AB as radius draw arc AP
• Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB to intersect the line AP at 4 and
arc AP at 6
• Mark the mid-point of 4 and 6 as 5
• Mark point 7 as 6 as center as 5-6 as radius
• Mark point 8 as 7 as center as 6-7 as radius and so on
• With 7 as center and A-7 as radius draw a circle

• Starting from B, cut it into seven equal parts with radius equal to AB
• Draw lines BC, CD, DE, EF, FG & GA
• Regular polygons of any number of sides can be drawn by this method.
To Draw a Common Tangent on Two Given Circle of Unequal Radii (External
Tangent)

• Draw the given circle with center O and P of Radii R 1 and

R2 respectively as shown in figure
• Draw the line joining O and P
• With O as center and radius as (R1-R2) draw a circle
• Locate the bisector point of OP i.e. O1
• Draw a semi-circle O1 as center and OO1 as radius
• Mark point T (intersection of third circle and semi-
circle)
• Draw line OT and extend it up to A
• Draw tangent PT
• Trough P, draw a line PB parallel to OA
• Draw the line through A and B
To Draw a Common Tangent on Two Given Circle of Unequal Radii (Internal
Tangent)

• Draw the given circle with center O and P of Radii R 1 and

R2 respectively as shown in figure
• Draw the line joining O and P
• With O as center and radius as (R1+R2) draw a circle
• Locate the bisector point of OP i.e. O1
• Draw a semi-circle O1 as center and OO1 as radius
• Mark point T (intersection of third circle and semi-
circle)
• Draw line OT and mark point A
• Draw tangent PT
• Trough P, draw a line PB parallel to OA
• Draw the line through A and B
Scale

• Scale is a measuring instrument by figure of certain ratio of any actual

object can be obtained.
• when a big object is shown in a small figure on paper then use scale is
known as reducing scale.
• when a very small object like gear of wristwatch are drawn in a big size
on paper then used scale is known as increasing scale or enlarging scale.
• when the object is shown in same size on paper in its drawing then used
scale is known as full size scale
Representative Fraction (R.F.)

• It is the ratio between the length of drawing of any object and the actual
size of the object
• R.F. = (Length of Drawing)/ (Actual Length of Object)
Types of Scale

There are so many types of scales like:

• Plain scale,
• Diagonal scale,
• Isometric scale,
• Comparative skill,
• Vernier scale and
• Chord scale
Plain Scale

• Plain scale consists of a line divided into

suitable number of equal parts.
• The first part is subdivided into smaller
parts
• Plain scale represents two units or a unit
and its subdivision
• The zero should be pleased at the end of
the first main division
• From the zero mark the unit should be
numbered on the right and its subdivision to
the left.
• The name of the units and the subdivision
should be stated clearly below or at the
respective ends
• The name of the scale or its R.F. should be
mentioned below the scale
Diagonal scale

• A diagonal scale is used very small distance such as 0.1 mm etc. are to
be accurately measured,
• when measurement is required in three units, for example dm, cm and
mm
Principle of diagonal scale

• to obtain the division of given short line AB

in the multiple of 1/10 of Its Length, e.g. 0.1AB,
0.2AB, 0.3AB etc.
• At end B Draw line perpendicular to AB and
along it is step off 10 equal divisions of any
length starting from B and ending at C,
• number the division points 9 ,8,7,6…….1.
• join AC
• through the point 1, 2, 3 etc. draw lines
parallel to AB they cutting AC add 1’. 2’, 3’ etc.
• Now 99’= 0.9AB, 77’=0.7AB similarly
C5=0.5BC.
Scale of Chord

Scale of chord Is used to measure or set out angles when protector is not
available it is based on the length of chords off different angle measured
on same arc
construction

• Draw the line AP Of any length. At P

draw a perpendicular AB Equal to AP
• then draw the arc AB
• angle APB is right angle
• Divide arc AB in three equal parts
• Again, divide each part In three equal
parts by hit and trial method
• Now with A as a center Transfer each
chord on the line AC as shown in figure
• in figure degrees are shown in
multiple of 5 degree
A road 8 km long is shown in map by 2 cm line. Construct a plain scale to read 600 hectometer. Mark
a distance of 340 hectometer on it.

Note: R.F.= 2 cm/8 km = 1/400000 Length of Scale = (1/400000)x600x100x100= 15 cm

Construct plane scale of R.F.=1/40 To show meter and decimeter. it is long enough to measure 7
meter and mark distance of 4.7 meter on it
Construct a diagonal scale of 3: 200 Showing meters decimeters and centimeters and to measure up
to 6 meters show distance of 4.56 on it.

Note : Length of Scale = (3/200) X 6 X 100= 9 cm

Construct angle of 470 and 1250 by means of scale of chords.
Projection of Points
• Any point may be situated in space in any one of the four-quadrant
formed by two principle plane of projection or may lie in any one of
them.
• Its projections are obtained by extending projectors perpendicular to
the planes.
• One of the planes is then rotated so that the first and the third
quadrants are open out.
• The projectors are shown on a flat surface in their respective positions
either above or below or in XY line.
A Point is Situated in First
Quadrant

• If point A is situated above HP and in

front of VP i.e. in first quadrant
• a’ is its front view and a is the top
view.
• After rotation of the plane this
projection will be seen as shown in
figure.
• The front view, a’ is above XY line
and the top view a below XY line.
• The line joining a’ and a is called a
projector
A Point is Situated in Second
Quadrant

• A point B as shown in figure is

above HP and behind VP i.e. in the
second quadrant.
• b’ is the front view and b is the top
view.
• When the horizontal plane rotated
both views are above XY line
A Point is Situated in Third
Quadrant

• A Point C is situated as
shown in figure is below
HP and behind VP so that it
is in the third quadrant.
• It's front view c’ is below
XY line and top view c is
above XY line
A Point is Situated in Fourth
Quadrant

• Point E is below HP and in

front of VP i.e. in fourth
quadrant.
• Here both the projections
are below XY line
Question: A point “A” is 2 cm below the H.P. and 3 cm behind
the V.P. draw its projection.
Questions
• Draw the projections of the following points on the same ground line, keeping the projectors 25 mm apart.
A, in the H.P. and 20 mm behind the V.P.
B, 40 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
C, in the V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P.
D,25 mm below the H.P. and 25 mm behind the V.P.
E, 15 mm above the H.P. and 50 mm behind the V.P.
F, 40 mm below the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
G, in both the H.P. and the V.P.
• State the quadrants in which the following points are situated:
a. A point P; its top view is 40 mm above xy; the front view, 20 mm below the top view.
b. A point Q, its projections coincide with each other 40 mm below xy.
• Two points A and B are in the H.P. The point A is 30 mm in front of the V.P., while B is behind the V.P. The
distance between their projectors is 75 mm and the line joining their top views makes an angle of 45° with xy.
Find the distance of the point B from the V.P.
• A point P is 20 mm below H.P. and lies in the third quadrant. Its shortest distance from xy is 40 mm. Draw its
projections.
Projection of Straight Lines

Straight line is that shortest distance between two points. Hence the
projection of straight line maybe drawn by joining the respective
projection of its ends which are points.
The projection of straight line maybe described with respect to the two
reference plane it may be
• Parallel to one or both the plane
• Contained by one or both the planes
• Perpendicular to one of the planes
• Inclined to one plane and parallel to other
• Inclined to both the plane
Line Parallel to One or Both the Plane
Line Contained by One or Both the Planes
Line Perpendicular to One of the Planes
Line Inclined to one Plane and Parallel to Other
Plane
Line Inclined to Both the Plane
The front view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. The line is parallel to the
H.P. and one of its ends is in the V.P. and 25 mm above the H.P. Draw the
projections of the line and determine its inclination with the V.P.
Questions
1. A 100 mm long line is parallel to and 40 mm above the H.P. Its two ends
are 25 mm and 50 mm in front of the V.P. respectively. Draw its
projections and find its inclination with the V.P.
2. A 90 mm long line is parallel to and 25 mm in front of the V.P. It’s one end
is in the H.P. while the other is 50 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections
and find its inclination with the H.P.
3. The top view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. The line is in the
V.P., its one end being 25 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections.
4. The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while the length
of its front view is 50 mm. It’s one end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front
of the V.P. Draw the projections of AB and determine its inclinations with
the H.P. and the V.P.
The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while the length of its front
view is 50 mm. It’s one end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the
projections of AB and determine its inclinations with the H.P. and the V.P.
Projection of Planes

Plane figures or surfaces have only two dimensions, viz. length and
breadth. They do not have thickness. A plane figure may be assumed to
be contained by a plane, and its projections can be drawn, if the position
of that plane with respect to the principal planes of projection is known.
Types of plane:
1. Perpendicular to both the reference planes.
2. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other.
3. Perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other.
4. Oblique planes
Plane Perpendicular to Both the Reference Planes
Plane Perpendicular to One Plane and Parallel
to the Other
Plane Perpendicular to one Plane and Inclined
to the Other (Inclined to V.P.)
Plane Perpendicular to one Plane and Inclined
to the Other (Inclined to H.P.)
Oblique Planes
A regular pentagon of 25 mm side has one side on the ground. Its plane is inclined at
45° to the H.P and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its projections.
Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter, having its plane vertical and
inclined at 30° to the V.P. Its centre is 30 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the
V.P.
Questions:
1. Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25 mm side, having one of
its sides in the H.P. and inclined at 60° to the V.P., and its surface making
an angle of 45° with the H.P.
2. A square ABCD of 50 mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal
AC inclined at 30° to the H.P. and the diagonal BO inclined at 45° to the
V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.
3. Draw the projections of a regular pentagon of 40 mm side, having its
surface inclined at 30° to the H.P. and a side parallel to the H.P. and
inclined at an angle of 60° to the V.P.
4. A regular hexagon of 40 mm side has a corner in the H.P. Its surface is
inclined at 45° to the H.P. and the top view of the diagonal through the
corner which is in the H.P. makes an angle of 60° with the V.P. Draw its
projections.
Projection of Solids

A solid has three dimensions, viz. length, breadth and thickness. To represent a
solid on a flat surface having only length and breadth, at least two orthographic
views are necessary. Sometimes, additional views projected on auxiliary planes
become necessary to make the description of a solid complete.
• Projections of solids in simple positions.
• (a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
• (b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
• (c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
• 3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes and
• parallel to the other.
• (a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
• (b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
• 4. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
Projections of Solids
1. Projections of solids in simple positions.
(a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
(b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
(c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
2. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes
and parallel to the other.
(a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
(b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
4. Projections of spheres.
Types of solids
Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
Draw the projections of (i) a cylinder, base 40 mm diameter and axis 50 mm long,
and (ii) a cone, base 40 mm diameter and axis 50 mm long, resting on the H.P. on
their respective bases.
Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid, base 30 mm side and axis 60 mm
long, having its base on the H.P. and one of the edges of the base inclined at 45° to
the V.P.
A hexagonal prism has one of its rectangular faces parallel to the H.P. Its axis is
perpendicular to the V.P. and 3.5 cm above the ground. Draw its projections when
the nearer end is 2 cm in front of the V.P. Side of base 2.5 cm long; axis 5 cm long.
A square pyramid, base 40 mm side and axis 65 mm long, has its base in the V.P.
One edge of the base is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and a corner contained by that
edge is on the H.P. Draw its projections.
A triangular prism base 40 mm side and height 65 mm is resting on the H.P. on one
of its rectangular face with the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
Draw the projections of the following solids, situated in their respective
positions, taking a side of the base 40 mm long or the diameter of the
base 50 mm long and the axis 65 mm long.
1. A hexagonal pyramid, base on the H.P. and a side of the base parallel
to and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
2. A square prism, base on the H.P., a side of the base inclined at 30° to
the V.P. and the axis 50 mm in front of the V.P.
3. A triangular pyramid, base on the H.P. and an edge of the base
inclined at 45° to the V.P.; the apex 40 mm in front of the V.P.
4. A cylinder, axis perpendicular to the V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P.,
one end 20 mm in front of the V.P.
Projections of Solids

1. Projections of solids in simple positions.

(a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
(b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
(c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
2. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes and
parallel to the other.
(a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
(b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
4. Projections of spheres.
Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference
planes and parallel to the other

(a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.

(b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
Draw the projection of a pentagonal prism, base 25 mm side and axis 50
mm long, resting on one of its rectangular faces on the H.P., with the
axis inclined at 450 to the V.P.
Draw the projections of a cylinder 75 mm diameter and 100 mm long,
lying on the ground with its axis inclined at 300 to the V.P. and parallel
to the ground.
Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
A hexagonal pyramid, base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long, has an edge of its base
on the ground. Its axis is inclined at 30° to the ground and parallel to the V.P. Draw
its projections.
Draw the projections of a cone, base 75 mm diameter and axis 100 mm
long, lying on the H.P. on one of its generators with the axis parallel to
the V.P.
Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
A square prism, base 40 mm side and height 65 mm, has its axis inclined at 45° to
the H.P. and has an edge of its base, on the H.P and inclined at 30° to the V.P. Draw
its projections.
A pentagonal pyramid, base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long has one of
its triangular faces in the V.P. and the edge of the base contained by that
face makes an angle of 30° with the H.P. Draw its projections.