Engineering Drawing

1. SCALE
SCALE

There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (eg. Aero
planes, rockets, etc) Some are vey small ( wrist watch, MEMs components)
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some objects can
be drawn to their actual size. The proportion by which the drawing of aan object is enlarged
or reduced is called the scale of the drawing.

Definition
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.

 Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing.
 It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. e.g. Buildings,
 Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
 Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at

o Full size
o Reduced size
o Enlarged size

Types of Scale :-

Engineers Scale : The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual
dimension of the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).

Graphical Scale: Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the shrinkage of
the engineer’s scale when the drawing becomes old.

Types of Graphical Scale :-

 Plain Scale
 Diagonal Scale
 Vernier Scale
 Comparative scale
 Scale of chords

Representative fraction (R.F.) :-

Plain scale :-

 A plain scale is used to indicate the distance in a unit and its nest subdivision.
 A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal units. The first unit is
subdivided into smaller parts.
 The zero should be placed at the end of the 1st main unit.
 From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and the sub-divisions to the
left.
 The units and the subdivisions should be labeled clearly.
 The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.

Diagonal Scale :-

 Through Diagonal scale, measurements can be up to second decimal places (e.g. 4.35).
 Are used to measure distances in a unit and its immediate two subdivisions; e.g. dm, cm &
mm, or yard, foot & inch.
 Diagonal scale can measure more accurately than the plain scale.

Vernier Scale

click below to view :

 Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for measuring up to second decimal.
 A Vernier scale consists of (i) a main scale and (ii) a vernier.
 The main scale is a plain scale fully divided in to minor divisions. A subdivision on the mail
scale is called the main scale division (MSD) .
 The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on the primary scale. A subdivision
on the verscale is called the vernier scale division (VSD).

Comparative Scales

 Comparative Scale consists of two scales of the same RF, but graduated to read different
unit,constructed separately or one above the other.
 Used to compare distances expressed in different systems of unit e.g. kilometers and miles,
 centimeters and inches.The two scales may be plain scales or diagonal scales or Vernier
scales.

1 Mile = 8 fur. = 1760 yd = 5280 ft

Scale of chords

Scale of chords is used to measure angles when a protractor is not available, by comparing
the angles subtended by chords of an arc at the centre of the arc.
Draw a line AO of any suitable length.
At O, erect a perpendicular OB such that OB – OA
With O as centre, draw an arc AB
Divide the arc in to 9 equal parts by the following method.

1. On arc AB, mark two arcs with centers A and B and radius – AO. By this the arc AB is
divided in to three equal parts.
2. By trial and error method, divide each of these three parts in to three equal subdivisions.
 The total length of AB is now divided in to 9 equal parts. Number the divisions as 10, 20,
30, 40 ,etc.
Transfer all the divisions on the arc to th line AO by drawing arcs with A as a centre and
radii equal to the chords A-10, 10-20, 20-30, …. AB.
Construct the linear degree scale by drawing the rectangles below AC. Mark the divisions in
the rectangle with zero below A and number the divisions subsequently as 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 ,
o o o o

….., 90o

2. Conic curves (conics)

Conic curves (conics)
Conic curves (conics)

Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a right circular cone. e.g. Parabola,
hyperbola and ellipse. Right circular cone is a cone that has a circular base and the axis is
inclined at 900 to the base and passes through the center of the base.Conic sections are
always "smooth". More precisely, they never contain any inflection points. This is
important for many applications, such as aerodynamics, civil engineering, mechanical
engineering, etc.Figure 1. Shows a right cone and the various conic curves that can be
obtained from a cone by sectioning the cone at various conditions.

 Fixed point is called Focus

 Fixed line is called Directrix

< 1 Ellipse
=1 Parabola
>1 Hyperbola

 An ellipse is obtained when a sectio plane, inclined to the axis of the cone , cuts all the
generators of the cone.

 An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane for which the sum of the distances from the two
fixed points (the foci) in the plane is constant

 An ellipse is also defined as a curve traced by a point, moving in a plane such that the sum
of its distances from two fixed points is always the same.

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/astro801/sites/www.e-
education.psu.edu.astro801/files/image/Lesson%202/312px-Elps-slr_svg.png

A Hyperbola is obtained when a section plane, parallel/inclined to the axis cuts the cone on
one side of the axis. This is illustrated in figure 1.
A Rectangular Hyperbola is obtained when a section, parallel to the axis cuts the cone on
one side of the axis.
Cycloid: Cycloid is generated by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling along a
straight line without slipping.
Epicycloid: The cycloid is called Epicycloid when the generating circle rolls along the
circumference of another circle outside it .
Hypocycloid: Hypocycloid is obtained when the generating circle rolls along the
circumference of another circle but inside it.
Involute

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/module1/lec7/images/1.png

Figure 1. Shows a right cone and the various conic curves that can be obtained from a cone
by sectioning the cone at various conditions.

Conic

Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.

This is illustrated in figure 2.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ellipse_parameters_2.svg/400
px-Ellipse_parameters_2.svg.png
 Figure 2. illustrates the directrices and foci of a conic curve.

When eccentricity

Ellipse

Referring to figure 4, an ellipse can be defined in the following ways.

Parabola

A parabola is obtained when a section plane, parallel to one of the generators cuts the cone.
This is illustrated in figure 1.

https://mathspace-production-
media.mathspace.co/media/upload/images/001_Chapter_Entries/Functions_and_Polynomial
s/conicsection.jpg

Hyperbola

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/iiLf0QKGP-I/hqdefault.jpg
 Roulettes

Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling contact of one curve or line on another curve or
line. There are various types of roulettes. The most common types of roulettes used in
engineering practice are: Cycloids, trochoids, and Involutes. Assume a wheel is rolling along
a surface without slipping. Trace the locus of a point on the wheel. Depending on the
position of the point and the geometry of the surface on which the wheel rolls , different
curves are obtained. Table 1 provides the general classification of roulettes.

An Involute is a curve traced by the free end of a thread unwound from a circle or a polygon
in such a way that the thread is always tight and tangential to the circle or side of the
polygon

3. Projection Methods
Projection Methods
Projection Methods

Universally either the 1 angle projection or the third angle projection methods is followed
st

for obtaining engineering drawings. The principal projection planes and quadrants used to
create drawings are shown in figure 16. The object can be considered to be in any of the four
quadrant.

https://www3.ul.ie/~rynnet/orthographic_projection_fyp/images/Ortho_pics/Chap08_08_00
23.jpg
 Figure 16. The principal projection planes and quadrants for creation of drawings.

First Angle Projection

In this the object in assumed to be positioned in the first quadrant and is shown in figure 17
The object is assumed to be positioned in between the projection planes and the observer.
The views are obtained by projecting the images on the respective planes. Note that the right
hand side view is projected on the plane placed at the left of the object. After projecting on
to the respective planes, the bottom plane and left plane is unfolded on to the front view
plane. i.e. the left plane is unfolded towards the left side to obtain the Right hand side view
on the left side of the Front view and aligned with the Front view. The bottom plane is
unfolded towards the bottom to obtain the Top view below the Front view and aligned with
the Front View.

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit-2-150121080607-conversion-gate02/95/angle-of-
projections-7-638.jpg?cb=1421827669
 Figure 17. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique.

Third Angle Projection

In the third angle projection method, the object is assumed to be in the third quadrant. i.e.
the object behind vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In this projection technique,
Placing the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and
the object and is shown in figure 18.

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit-7-150121080255-conversion-gate01/95/unit-7-6-
638.jpg?cb=1421849150
fig17 :Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique

Table 1. Difference between first- and third-angle projections

Either first angle projection or third angle projection are used for engineering drawing.
Second angle projection and fourth angle projections are not used since the drawing
becomes complicated. This is being explained with illustrations in the lecture on Projections
of points

3. Projection Methods
3.1. Projection of Points

Projection of Points

A POINT
The position of a point in engineering drawing is defined with respect to its distance from the
three principle planes i.e., with respect to the VP, HP, & PP.
The point is assumed to be in the respective quadrant shown in figure 1(a). The point at
which the line of sight (line of sight is normal to the respective plane of projection) intersects
the three planes are obtained. The horizontal plane and the side planes are rotated so such
that they lie on the plane containing the vertical plane. The direction of rotation of the
horizontal plane is shown in figure 1 (b).

https://www.rgpvonline.com/notes/bt1005/u-2-4_files/image006.jpg

Figure 1(a). The relative positions of projection planes and the quadrants

QUADRANT POSITION OF FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW

POINTS
FIRST Above HP & in front of Above XY line Below XY line
VP
SECOND Above HP & Behind Above XY line Above XY line
VP
THIRD Below HP & Behind Below XY line Above XY line
VP
FOURTH Below HP & in front Below XY line Below XY line
of VP

3.2. PROJECTION OF PLANES

PROJECTION OF PLANES
S.NO POSITION OF PLANE FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW
1 Plane perpendicular to VP and parallel The front view is the The top view shows
to HP line parallel to XY and the true shape of the
coincides with V.T plane
2 Plane perpendicular to HP and parallel The front view shows The top view is the
to VP the true shape of the line parallel to XY and
plane coincides with HT
3 Plane perpendicular to both HP &VP The front view is a The top view is a line
line perpendicular to perpendicular to XY
XY and coincides with and coincide with H.T
V.T
4 Plane perpendicular to VP and inclined The front view is a Top view shows
at ϴ to H.P line inclined at ϴ to reduced shape of the
XY and coincides with plane
V.T
5 Plane perpendicular to H.P and inclined The front view shows The top view is a line
at Ф to V.P the reduced shape of inclined at Ф to XY
the plane and coincides with
H.T
6 Plane inclined to both H.P and The front view shows The top view shows
V.P(Oblique planes ) reduced shape of the reduced shape of the
plane plane

3.3. PROJECTION OF LINES

PROJECTION OF LINES
QUICK REVIEW OF PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES
S
l
Position of line Front View (Elevation) Top View(Plan)
N
o
The front view is
Line perpendicular to perpendicular to XY line The top view is a
1
H.P and parallel to V.P and having true length point
of the line
The top view is
perpendicular to
Line perpendicular to The front view is a
2 XY line and having
V.P and parallel to H.P point
true length of the
line
The front view is The top view is
Line parallel to both H.P parallel to XY and parallel to XY and
3
and V.p having true length of having true
the line length of the line
Both the front view and top view coincides with
4 Line in H.P and V.P the XY line and the length is equal to the true
length of the line.
 The front view is The top view is
inclined at θᵒ to XY line shorter than the
Line parallel to V.P and
5 and the length is equal true length of the
inclined at θᵒ to H.P
to the true length of line and parallel
the line to XY line
The top view is
The front view is inclined at Øᵒ to
Line parallel to H.P and shorter than the true XY line and the
6
inclined at θᵒ to V.P length of the line and length is equal to
parallel to the XY line the true length of
the line
The front view is The top view is
inclined at θᵒ to XY line shorter than the
Line in V.P and inclined
7 and the length is equal true length of the
at θᵒ to H.P
to the true length of line and lies in XY
the line line
The top view is
The front view is inclined at Øᵒ to
Line in H.P and inclined shorter than the true XY line and the
8
at θᵒ to V.P length of the line and length is equal to
lies in the Xy line the true length of
the line
The front view is The top view is
inclined at αᵒ to XY line inclined at ᵦᵒ to XY
and the length is line and the length is
Line inclined to both H.P
9 shorter than the true shorter than the true
and V.P
length ( αᵒ = The angle length. (ᵦᵒ = The angle
made by the final front made by the final top
view with XY line) view with XY line).
Line contained by a plane The front view is The top view is
1
perpendicular to both H.P perpendicular to XY perpendicular to
0
and V.P line. XY line.