Georeferencing and Projection

Map Projection
Map projection is a mathematical expression using which the three-dimensional surface of earth is
represented in a two dimensional plane. The process of projection results in distortion of one or
more map properties such as shape, size, area or direction.
A single projection system can never account for the correct representation of all map properties
for all the regions of the world. Therefore, hundreds of projection systems have been defined for
accurate representation of a particular map element for a particular region of the world.

Classification of Map Projections

Map projections are classified on the following criteria:

Method of construction

Development surface used

Projection properties

Position of light source

Method of Construction
The term map projection implies projecting the graticule of the earth onto a flat surface with the
help of shadow cast. However, not all of the map projections are developed in this manner. Some
projections are developed using mathematical calculations only. Given below are the projections
that are based on the method of construction:

Perspective Projections: These projections are made with the help of shadow cast from
an illuminated globe on to a developable surface

Non Perspective Projections: These projections do not use shadow cast from an
illuminated globe on to a developable surface. A developable surface is only assumed to be
covering the globe and the construction of projections is done using mathematical calculations.

Development Surface
Projection transforms the coordinates of earth on to a surface that can be flattened to a plane
without distortion (shearing or stretching). Such a surface is called a developable surface. The
three basic projections are based on the types of developable surface and are introduced below:

1. Cylindrical Projection

It can be visualized as a cylinder wrapped around the globe.

Once the graticule is projected onto the cylinder, the cylinder is opened to get a grid like
pattern of latitudes and longitudes.

The longitudes (meridians) and latitudes (parallels) appear as straight lines

Length of equator on the cylinder is equal to the length of the equator therefore is suitable
for showing equatorial regions.

Aspects of cylindrical projection:

(a)

(b)

(c)
(a) Normal: when cylinder has line of tangency to the equator. It includes Equirectangular
Projection, the Mercator projection, Lambert's Cylindrical Equal Area, Gall's Stereographic
Cylindrical, and Miller cylindrical projection.
(b) Transverse: when cylinder has line of tangency to the meridian. It includes the Cassini
Projection, Transverse Mercator, Transverse cylindrical Equal Area Projection, and Modified
Transverse Mercator.
(c) Oblique: when cylinder has line of tangency to another point on the globe. It only consists of
the Oblique Mercator projection.

2. Conic Projection

It can be visualized as a cone placed on the globe, tangent to it at some parallel.

After projecting the graticule on to the cone, the cone is cut along one of the meridian and
unfolded. Parallels appear as arcs with a pole and meridians as straight lines that converge
to the same point.

It can represent only one hemisphere, at a time, northern or southern.

Suitable for representing middle latitudes.

Aspects of conic projection:

(a) Tangent: when the cone is tangent to only one of the parallel.
(b) Secant: when the cone is not big enough to cover the curvature of earth, it intersects the
earth twice at two parallels.

3. Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection

It can be visualized as a flat sheet of paper tangent to any point on the globe

The sheet will have the tangent point as the center of the circular map, where meridians
passing through the center are straight line and the parallels are seen as concentric circle.

Suitable for showing polar areas

Aspects of zenithal projection:

(a) Equatorial zenithal: When the plane is tangent to a point on the equator.
(b) Oblique zenithal: when the plane is tangent to a point between a pole and the equator.
(c) Polar zenithal: when the plane is tangent to one of the poles.

Projection Properties
According to properties map projections can be classified as:

Equal area projection: Also known as homolographic projections. The areas of different parts
of earth are correctly represented by such projections.
True shape projection: Also known as orthomorphic projections. The shapes of different parts
of earth are correctly represented on these projections.
True scale or equidistant projections: Projections that maintain correct scale are called true
scale projections. However, no projection can maintain the correct scale throughout. Correct scale
can only be maintained along some parallel or meridian.

Position of light source

Placing light source illuminating the globe at different positions results in the development of
different projections. These projections are:

Gnomonic projection: when the source of light is placed at the center of the globe
Stereographic Projection: when the source of light is placed at the periphery of the globe,
diametrically opposite to the point at which developable surface touches the globe
Orthographic Projection: when the source of light is placed at infinity from the globe opposite
to the point at which developable surface touches the globe

Figure 8: Projections and position of light source

Constructing Map Projections

Cylindrical Projection
Let us draw a network of Simple cylindrical Projection for the whole globe on the scale of
1: 400,000,000 spacing meridians and parallels at 30 interval

Calculations:

Figure 9: Simple cylindrical projection graticule

Steps of construction:

Draw a line AB, 9.975 cm long to represent the equator. The equator is a circle on the
globe and is subtended by 360.

Since the meridians are to be drawn at an interval of 30 divide AB into 360/30 or 12 equal
parts.

The length of a meridian is equal to half the length of the equator i.e. 9.975/2 or 4.987 cm.

To draw meridians, erect perpendiculars on the points of divisions of AB. Take these
perpendiculars equal to the length specified for a meridian and keep half of their length on
either side of the equator.

A meridian on a globe is subtended by 180. Since the parallels are to be drawn at an

interval of 30, divide the central meridian into 180/30 i.e. 6 parts.

Through these points of divisions draw lines parallel to the equator. These lines will be
parallels of latitude. Mark the equator and the central meridian with 0 and the parallels
and other meridians. EFGH is the required graticule.

Conical Projection
Let us draw a graticule on simple conical projection with one standard parallel on the scale of 1:
180,000,000 for the area extending from the equator to 90 N latitude and from 60 W longitude
to 100 E longitude with parallels spaced at 15 interval, meridians at 20, and standard parallel
45 N.
Calculations:

Steps of construction:
1. Draw a circle with a radius of 3.527 cm that represents the globe. Let NS be the polar
diameter and WE be the equatorial diameter which intersect each other at right angles at
O.

2. To draw the standard parallel 45 N, draw OP making an angle of 45 with OE.

3. Draw QP tangent to OP and extend ON to meet PQ at point Q.

4. Draw OA making an angle equal to the parallel interval i.e. 15 with OE.
Draw line LM, it represents the central meridian

With L as the center and QP as the radius, draw an arc intersecting LM at n. This arc describes the
standard parallel 45 N.
The distance between the successive parallels is 15. The length of the arc subtended by 15 is
calculated as under:

From point n, mark off distances nr, rs, st, nu, uv and vM, each distance being equal to 0.923 cm.
With L as center, draw arcs passing through the points t, s, r, u, v and M. These arcs represent
the parallels.
1

Draw OB making an angle of 20 with OW Length of the arc subtended by 20 is calculated

as under:

1. With O as center and radius equal to the arc WB (1.231 cm) draw arc abc.
2. From point b, drop perpendicular bd on line ON. Now db is the distance between the
meridians.
Keeping in view the number of meridians to be drawn, mark off distances along the standard
parallel toward the east and west of the point n, each distance being equal to db.
Join point L with the points of divisions marked on the standard parallel and produce them to meet
the equator.

Figure 10: Simple conic projection

Azimuthal Projection
Let us draw Polar zenithal equal area projection for the northern hemisphere on the scale of 1:
200,000,000 spacing parallels at 15 interval and meridians at 30 interval.
Calculations:

Steps of construction:

Draw a circle with radius equal to 3.175 cm representing a globe. Let NS and WE be the
polar and equatorial diameter respectively which intersect each other at right angles at O,
the center of the circle.

Draw radii Oa, Ob, Oc, Od, and Oe making angles of 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75
respectively with OE. Join Ne, Nd, Nc, Nb, Na and NE by straight lines.

With radius equal to Ne, and N as center draw a circle. This circle represents 75 parallel.
Similarly with center N and radii equal to Nd, Nc, Nb, Na and NE draw circles to represent
the parallels of 60, 45, 30, 15 and 0 respectively.

Draw straight lines AB and CD intersecting each other at the center i.e. point N.

Radius NB represents 0 meridian, NA 180 meridian, ND 90 E meridian and NC 90 W

meridian.

Using protractor, draw other radii at 30 interval to represent other meridians

Figure 11: Polar zenithal equal area projection

Selection of Map Projection

Choosing a correct map projection for an area depends on the following:

Map Purpose
Considering the purpose of the map is important while choosing the map projection. If a map has
a specific purpose, one may need to preserve a certain property such as shape, area or direction
On the basis of the property preserved, maps can be categorized as following
a. Maps that preserve shapes.
Used for showing local directions and representing the shapes of the features. Such maps include:

Topographic and cadastral maps.

Navigation charts (for plotting course bearings and wind direction).

Civil engineering maps and military maps.

Weather maps (for showing the local direction in which weather systems are moving).

b. Maps that preserve area

The size of any area on the map is in true proportion to its size on the earth. Such projections can
be used to show

Density of an attribute e.g. population density with dots

Spatial extent of a categorical attribute e.g. land use maps

Quantitative attributes by area e.g. Gross Domestic Product by country

World political maps to correct popular misconceptions about the relative sizes of
countries.

c. Maps that preserve scale

Preserves true scale from a single point to all other points on the map. The maps that use this
property include:

Maps of airline distances from a single city to several other cities

Seismic maps showing distances from the epicenter of an earthquake

Maps used to calculate ranges; for example, the cruising ranges of airplanes or the
habitats of animal species

d. Maps that preserve direction

On any Azimuthal projection, all azimuths, or directions, are true from a single specified point to
all other points on the map. On a conformal projection, directions are locally true, but are
distorted with distance.
General purpose maps
There are many projections which show the world with a balanced distortion of shape and area.
Few of these are Winkel Tripel, Robinson and Miller Cylindrical. For larger-scale maps, from
continents to large countries, equidistant projections are good at balancing shape and area
distortion. Depending on the area of interest, one might use Azimuthal Equidistant, Equidistant
Conic and Plate Carre.

Study area
Geographical location
The line of zero distortion for a cylindrical projection is equator. For conical projections it is
parallels and for Azimuthal it is one of the poles. If the study area is in tropics use cylindrical
projection, for middle latitudes use conical and for Polar Regions use Azimuthal projections.
Shape of the area
Young in 1920 described a way of selecting the map projection which is known as Youngs rule.
According to this rule, if the ratio of maximum extent (z) (measured from the centre of the
country to its most distant boundary) and the width () of the country comes out to be less than
1.41, Azimuthal projection is preferable. If the ratio is greater than 1.41 a conical or cylindrical
projection should be used.
Z/ < 1.41 Azimuthal Projection
Z/ >1.41 Conical or Cylindrical projections

Projection Systems
Given below is the description of the projection systems that are mostly used:

Cylindrical Projection

I. Equirectangular projection

this is a Projection on to a cylinder which is tangent to the equator. It is believed to be invented by

Marinus of Tyre, about A.D. 100.

1. Poles are straight lines equal in length to the equator

2. Meridians are straight parallel lines, equally spaced and are half as long as the equator. All
meridians are of same length therefore scale is true along all meridians.
3. Parallels are straight, equally spaced lines which are perpendicular to the meridians and
are equal to the length of the equator.
4. Length of the equator on the map is the same as that on the globe but the length of other
parallels on map is more than the length of corresponding parallels on the globe. So the
scale is true only along the Equator and not along other parallels.
5. Distance between the parallels and meridians remain same throughout the map.
6. Since the projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic, maps on this projection are
used for general purposes only.

II. Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection

It is devised by JH Lambert in 1772. It is a normal perspective projection onto a cylinder tangent
at the equator

1. Parallels and meridians are straight lines

2. The meridians intersect parallels at right angles

3. The distance between parallels decrease toward the poles but meridians are equally
spaced
4. The length of the equator on this projection is same as that on globe but other parallels
are longer than corresponding parallels on globe. So, the scale is true along the equator
but is exaggerated along other parallels
5. Shape and scale distortions increase near points 90 degrees from the central line resulting
in vertical exaggeration of Equatorial regions with compression of regions in middle
latitudes
6. Despite the shape distortion in some portions of a world map, this projection is well suited
for equal-area mapping of regions which are predominantly north-south in extent, which
have an oblique central line, or which lie near the Equator.

III. Gall's stereographic cylindrical projection

Invented by James Gall in 1855, this projection is a cylindrical projection with two standard
parallels at 45N and 45S.

Poles are straight lines.

Meridians are straight lines and are equally spaced.

Parallels are straight lines but the distance between them increases away from the
equator.

Shapes are true at the standard parallels. Distortion increases on moving away from these
latitudes and is highest at the poles.

Scale is true in all directions along 45N and 45S.

Used for world maps in British atlases.

IV. Mercator projection

Gerardus Mercator in 1569 invented this projection.

Parallels and meridians are straight lines

Meridians intersect parallels at right angle

Distance between the meridians remains the same but distance between the parallels
increases towards the pole

The length of equator on the projection is equal to the length of the equator on the globe
whereas other parallels are drawn longer than what they are on the globe, therefore the
scale along the equator is correct but is incorrect for other parallels

As scale varies from parallel to parallel and is exaggerated towards the pole, the shapes of
large sized countries are distorted more towards pole and less towards equator. However,
shapes of small countries are preserved

The image of the poles are at infinity

Commonly used for navigational purposes, ocean currents and wind direction are shown on
this projection

Transverse Mercator
This projection results from projecting the sphere onto a cylinder tangent to a central meridian.

Only center meridian and equator are projected as straight lines. The other parallels and
meridians are projected as curves.

The meridians and the parallels intersect at right angles

Small shapes are maintained but larger shapes distort away from the central meridian.

The area distortion increases with distance from the central meridian

Used to portray areas with larger north-south extent. British National Grid is based on this
projection only.

Pseudo-cylindrical Projections

A pseudo cylindrical projection is that projection in which latitudes are parallel straight lines but
meridians are curved.
I. Mollweide Projection

The poles are points and the central meridian is a straight line

The meridians 90 away from central meridians are circular arcs and all other meridians
are elliptical arcs.

The parallels are straight but unequally spaced.

Scale is true along 40 44' North and 40 44' South.

Equal area projection

Used for preparing world maps

II. Sinusoidal Projection

The central meridian is a straight line and all other meridians are equally spaced sinusoidal
curves.

The parallels are straight lines that intersect centre meridian at right angles.

Shape and angles are correct along the central meridian and equator

The distortion of shape and angles increases away from the central meridian and is high
near the edges

Equal area projection

Used for world maps illustrating area characteristics. Used for continental maps of South
America, Africa, and occasionally other land masses, where each has its own central
meridian.

III. Eckert VI

Parallels are unequally spaced straight lines.

Meridians are equally spaced sinusoidal curves.

The poles and the central meridians are straight lines and half as long as equator.

It stretches shapes and scale by 29% in the north-south direction, along the equator. This
stretching reduces to zero at 49 16' N and 49 16' S.

The areas near the poles are compressed in north-south direction.

Suitable for thematic mapping of the world.

Conical Projection
I. Bonnes Projection

Pole is represented as a point and parallels as concentric arcs of circles

Scale along all the parallels is correct

Central meridian is a straight line along which the scale is correct.

Other meridians are curved and longer than corresponding meridians on the globe. Scale
along meridians increases away from the central meridian

Central meridian intersects all parallels at right angle. Other meridians intersect standard
parallel at right angle but other parallels obliquely. Shape is only preserved along central
meridian and standard parallel

The distance and scale between two parallels are correct. Area between projected parallels
is equal to the area between the same parallels on the globe. Therefore, is an equal area
projection

Maps of European countries are shown in this projection. It is also used for preparing
topographical sheets of small countries of middle latitudes.

II. Polyonic Projection

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyconic_projection_SW.jpg )

The parallels are arcs of circles with different centers

Each parallel is a standard parallel i.e. each parallel is developed from a different cone

Equator is represented as a straight line and the pole as a point

Parallels are equally spaced along central meridian but the distance between them
increases away from the central meridian.

Scale is correct along every parallel.

Central meridian intersects all parallels at right angle so the scale along it, is correct. Other
meridians are curved and longer than corresponding meridians on the globe and so scale
along meridians increases away from the central meridian.

It is used for preparing topographical sheets of small areas.

Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection
I. Polar Zenithal Equal area projection
This projection is invented by J.H Lambert in the year 1772. It is also known as Lamberts Equal
Area Projection.

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?Projection=167#zenithal%20equal-area )

The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are concentric
circles.

The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular distance
between them.

The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.

The scale along the parallels increases away from the centre of the projection.

The decrease in the scale along meridians is in the same proportion in which there is an
increase in the scale along the parallels away from the centre of the projection. Thus the
projection is an equal area projection.

Shapes are distorted away from the centre of the projection. Scale along the meridians is
small and along the parallels is large so the shapes are compressed along the meridians
but stretched along the parallels.

Used for preparing political and distribution maps of Polar Regions. It can also be used for
preparing general purpose maps of large areas in Northern Hemisphere.

II. Polar Zenithal Equidistant Projection

The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are concentric
circles.

The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular distance
between them.

The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.

The spacing between the parallels represent true distances, therefore the scale along the
meridians is correct.

The scale along the parallels increases away from the centre of the projection.

The exaggeration and distortion of shapes increases away from the centre of the
projection.

The projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

It is used for preparing maps of polar areas for general purposes.

III. Gnomonic Projection

It is also known as great-circle sailing chart.

The pole is a point forming the center of the projection and the parallels
are concentric circles.

The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct
angular distance between them.

The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.

The parallels are unequally spaced. The distances between the parallels
increase rapidly toward the margin of the projection. This causes
exaggeration of the scale along the meridians.

The scale along the parallels increases away from the center of the
projection.

The exaggeration and distortion of shapes increases away from the

center of the projection. The exaggeration in the meridian scale is
greater than that in any other zenithal projection.

It is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

An arc on the globe which is a part of a great circle is represented as a

straight line on this projection. This is because the radii from the center
of the globe are produced to meet the plane placed tangentially at the
pole.

It is used to show great-circle paths as straight lines and thus to assist

navigators and aviators in determining appropriate courses.

Gnomonic Projection
If a plane is tangent to the earth, and points are projected geometrically from the center
of the earth, the result is a gnomonic projection. See Figure 316a. Since the projection
is perspective, it can be demonstrated by placing a light at the center of a transparent

terrestrial globe and holding a flat surface tangent to the sphere. In an oblique
gnomonic projection the meridians appear as straight lines converging toward the
nearer pole. The parallels, except the equator, appear as curves (Figure 316b). As in all
azimuthal projections, bearings from the point of tangency are correctly represented. The
distance scale, however, changes rapidly. The projection is neither conformal nor equal
area. Distortion is so great that shapes, as well as distances and areas, are very poorly
represented, except near the point of tangency.

GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE GNOMONIC MAP

PROJECTION
INTRODUCTION
The gnomonic map is plotted by projecting the latitudes and longitudes of the
earths surface from the center of the globe onto a tangent plane. If we assume
a spherical earth, this azimuthal projection will show all great-circle paths as
straight lines, but less than one hemisphere can be shown on a single map, and
the distortion in shape and area is considerable over much of the map.
Because of the favorable navigational properties of gnomonic maps
governmental and other agencies computed extensive tables for use in practical
map construction.
The purpose of this paper is to present a graphical method of construction,
theoretically exact and simple to use, which provides a tool for the cartographer
who does not have tables answering his particular needs. This method may also
interest the mathematical map hobbyist.

THE POLAR PROJECTION

The cartographer may choose one of three kinds of centers for this map: either
pole, a point on the equator, or some point neither on the equator nor at the
poles. These are known respectively as the polar, equatorial, and oblique
projections. The first is easily constructed by the long-known method of
Drawing the meridians as straight lines radiating from the center of the map (the
pole) and inclined at their true angles, while the parallels of latitude are circles
concentric with the pole, having radii proportional to the tangents of their angular
distances from the pole. The proportionality factor determines the scale of the
map. Upon seeking the rectangular co-ordinates (x, y) of points on the gnomonic
map, the following relationship is soon evident:

POLAR GNOMONIC PROJECTION

NORT
H

LONGITUDE

PLANE OF EQUATOR
EQUATO
R
LATITUDE

MAP SURFACE

PROJECTED
LATITUDES

X
PROJECTED
LONGITUDES

SOUT
H

THE EQUATORIAL PROJECTION

y = k tan (p2 set h. of the intersections of meridians and parallels throughout the
map, the great-circle formulas of spherical trigonometry may be introduced here
in a simplified form. They will be referred to later in greater detail.
If a is the great-circle distance measured as an arc between two points, p1 and
p,, with cpl and 1~~ the latitude and longitude of p,, cpz and hZ the latitude and
longitude of &, and h the difference in longitudes
(A, - 1,):
cos a = sin cpl sin cp, + cos (pl cos rpZ cos h.
(1)
If A is the azimuth from north of p, as seen
From P,
sin A = sin h cos rpZ csc a
(2)

The right half of Figure 2 shows the such formulas are easily adapted to comEquatorial projection, with parallel vertical computation with slide rule or with
trigonometric lines for meridians and a horizontal line for ric tables, giving
latitude lines that are hythe equator. In order to find the co-ordinates parabolas, as in Figure 2.

Gnomonic Projection

The gnomonic projection is a nonconformal map projection obtained by projecting points

(or
) on the surface
of sphere from a sphere's center to point in a plane that is tangent to a point (Coxeter 1969, p. 93). In the above
figure, is the South Pole, but can in general be any point on the sphere. Since this projection obviously sends antipodal
points
and
to the same point in the plane, it can only be used to project one hemisphere at a time. In a gnomonic
projection, great circles are mapped to straight lines. The gnomonic projection represents the image formed by a spherical
lens, and is sometimes known as the rectilinear projection.

In the projection above, the point is taken to have latitude and longitude
transformation equations for the plane tangent at the point having latitude
longitude
and central latitude
are given by

and hence lies on the equator. The

and longitude for a projection with central

(1)
(2)
and

is the angular distance of the point

from the center of the projection, given by

(3)
The inverse transformation equations are

(4)
(5)
where

(6)
(7)

Gnomonic Projection
The concept of gnomonic projection requires some explanation. It is the only map projection that
shows great circles as straight lines - thus all meteors can be drawn onto gnomonic charts as straight
lines too. On other maps, such as those found in "Norton's Star Atlas", most meteors would appear as
sections of arcs. Observers who plot meteors on non-gnomonic maps as straight lines coming directly
from the radiant classify themselves as unskilled observers. Figure 1 shows what is understood by
gnomonic projection. As we mentioned earlier, meteors describe arcs on the celestial sphere that are
parts of great circles. Such a circle determines a plane. Plotting a meteor then comes down to
determining the intersection between this plane and the plane on which the stars were projected.
Figure 1 shows two meteors and their great circles on the celestial sphere. Our gnomonic map is the
plane tangent to the sphere at point P. The center of projection is O. From O all stars on the sphere
are projected onto the plane of the map.

Figure 1 - Gnomonic projection. The value of R defines the scale of the chart (in the case of Atlas Brno
R = 160.43 mm). P is the center of the projection, and thus the center of the chart. The small arrows
simulate meteors and their projection onto the map.
The meteor's projection on the map is the intersection between the plane determined by the great
circle and the plane of the stellar map. The radiant lies on this intersection as well. Points at more than
90 from the map's center P are not projected on the map. In fact, constellations are strongly
distorted near the map's edges. To solve this problem, several maps are necessary. Each of them
represents a plane tangent to the celestial sphere at other points P.
Some of the characteristics of gnomonic projection are listed below:

As already mentioned, every great circle of the celestial sphere is projected as a straight line.
This is the case with meteors (straight trajectory through the atmosphere) as well as with the
hour circles, the equator, the ecliptic, the horizon and the galactic equator.

Small circles are projected as conic sections.

Gnomonic projection is not true to area or angle. This results in very distorted constellations
towards the edges of the maps. Because of the overlap of the existing charts, this problem is
reduced to choosing the most appropriate map.

Photographs obtained with standard lenses can be well approximated by gnomonic projection.
Since only a small part of the sky is photographed, the distortion is not noticeable.

IV. Stereographic Projection

The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are concentric
circles.

The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular distance
between them.

The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.

The parallels are unequally spaced. The distances between the parallels increase toward
the margin of the projection. The exaggeration in the meridian scale is less than that in the
case of Gnomonic projection.

The scale along the parallels also increases away from the meridian and in the same
proportion in which it increases along the meridians. At any point scale along the parallel is
equal to the scale along the meridian.

The areas are exaggerated on this projection and the exaggeration increases away from
the centre of the projection.

A circle drawn on the globe is represented by a circle on this projection.

It is used to show world in hemispheres. Also used for preparing aeronautical charts and
daily weather maps of the polar areas.

V. Orthographic Projection

The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are concentric
circles.

The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular distance
between them.

The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.

The parallels are not equally spaced. The distances between them decrease rapidly
towards the margin of the projection. So, the scale along the meridians decreases away
from the centre of the projection.

The scale along the parallel is correct.

The distortion of the shapes increases away from the centre of the projection.

It is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

The projection is used to prepare charts for showing the celestial bodies such as moon and
other planets.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

UTM projection divides the surface of the Earth into a number of zones, each zone having a 6
degree longitudinal extent, Transverse Mercator projection with a central meridian in the center of
the zone. UTM zones extend from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude. The
zones are numbered from west to east. The first zone begins at the International Date Line (180).

The particular transverse Mercator map that is used to represent each zone has its central
meridian running north-to-south down the center of the zone. This means that no portion of any
particular zone is very far from the central meridian of the transverse Mercator map that is used
to depict the zone. Since a Universal Transverse Mercator zone is 6 of longitude wide, no portion
of a UTM zone is more than 3 of longitude from the zone's central meridian. Since the distortion
in a transverse Mercator map is relatively low near the map's central meridian, the result of this
close proximity to the map's central meridian is that the transverse Mercator map used to depict
each zone within the coordinate system contains relatively little distortion.

Adapted from the report Map Projections of Europe (2001), the table
gives an account of the commonly used projection systems.
Property
Developable surface
Aspect
Projections
Extent of use

Conformal
(True shape)

Cylinder
Normal
Mercator
Equatorial regions (east-west extent)

Transverse
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)
Whole world except polar areas

Oblique
Rosenmund Oblique Mercator
Small regions, oblique & east - west extent
Cone
Normal
Lambert Conformal Conic
Small regions, oblique & east - west extent (1 or 2 standard parallels)
Plane
Any

Stereographic
Small regions upto the hemisphere

Polar
UPS (Universal Polar Stereographic)
Polar regions

Homolographic
(Equal area)
Cylinder
Normal
Lambert Equal Area
Equatorial areas (east-west extent)
Cone
Normal
Albers Equal Area
Smaller regions & continents with east-west extent
Plane
Any
Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
Smaller regions about same north-south , east-west extent

Equatorial
Hammer-Aitof
World

Equidistant
Cylinder
Normal
Plate Caree
World

Transverse
Cassini Soldner
Locally used for large scale mapping
Cone
Normal
Equidistant Conic
Smaller regions & continents with (1 or 2 standard parallels) east-west
extent

Plane
Any
Azimuthal Equidistant
Smaller regions about same north-south , east-west extent