Quick Revision Guide

Chapter 1: Measurement of Physical Quantities • Air resistance is a form of frictional force.

• A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. • An object falling through air achieves a uniform velocity
It consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit. known as terminal velocity when its weight is equal to the air
• SI units are the units of measurement in the widely used resistance against it.
International System of Units.
Chapter 3: Mass, Weight and Density
• The smallest unit an instrument can measure is known as its
precision.
• Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest
relative to the observer.
• When using a metre rule, if eye level is not positioned
perpendicularly to the rule, parallax error will be introduced.
• Weight is the gravitational force on an object that has mass.
• Taking several readings and calculating the average also • A gravitational field is a region of space in which a mass exerts
a force of attraction on another mass.
minimises errors.
• When using the vernier calipers, we need to examine the • S The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on
a mass.
instrument for zero error. This occurs when the zero marks on
the two scales of the vernier calipers do not coincide.
• Gravitational field strength g is defined as the gravitational
force per unit mass.
• We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular
W
intervals or periods. g= where g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
m
• Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation. W = weight (in N)

• The period of a simple pendulum is the time taken for one m = mass of the object (in kg)

complete oscillation. • The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit
• S A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude volume.
only. m
ρ= where ρ = density
• S A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both v
m = mass of the object
magnitude and direction.

V = volume of the object
• In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an

  
arrow. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude Chapter 4: Forces
of the vector. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction • Forces can change the size and shape of an object. They can
of the vector. change the motion of an object.
• The single vector, called the resultant vector, must be • We can plot the load-extension graph to show the relationship
equivalent to the individual vectors combined in terms of between the force and the extension of an elastic solid.
magnitude and direction. • S The spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension.
F
Chapter 2: Motion k= where k = spring constant
x
• Speed is the distance travelled per unit time. F = force

distance travelled x = extension
• Speed =

time taken • S There is a point beyond which the extension is no longer
total distance travelled directly proportional to the load. This point is called the limit of
• Average speed = proportionality.
total time taken
• A force is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.
• Distance is the total length covered by a moving object When more than one force acts on an object, we need to
regardless of the direction of motion. consider the direction of each force in order to determine the
• Displacement is the distance measured in a straight line in a resultant force.
specified direction. • A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
• Velocity is speed in a given direction. changing its direction of motion or its speed.
displacement
• Velocity = • An object either remains at rest or continues in a straight line at
time taken constant speed unless acted on by a resultant force.
• S Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time. • The resultant force F acting on an object of mass m is related to
change of velocity Dv the acceleration of the object by the following equation:
• Acceleration, a = =
time Dt F = ma where F = force (in N)
 
• The gradient of a distance–time graph of an object gives the m = mass (in kg)

speed of the object. a = acceleration (in m/s2)

• The area under a speed–time graph gives the distance travelled. • Friction is a force that impedes motion. It is a resistive force
• S The gradient of a speed–time graph gives the acceleration of because it acts in the opposite direction to motion.
the object. • Friction between two moving surfaces produces heating.
• Acceleration due to gravity, g, is a constant for objects close • Moment of a force is defined as the product of the force and
to the Earth’s surface. the perpendicular distance from the pivot.
• An object can only be in free fall if the only force acting on it is Moment of a force = F × d
its own weight. where F = force (in N)
  
d = perpendicular distance from the pivot (in m)

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 • When the total clockwise moment is equal to the total • S The Sun is our main source of energy for all our energy
anticlockwise moment, there is no resultant turning effect about a resources except for geothermal, nuclear and tidal resources.
pivot. This is the principle of moments. • S The efficiency of a machine can be calculated using:
• When there is no resultant force and no resultant moment, an useful energy output
object is in equilibrium. Efficiency = × 100%
energy input
• The centre of gravity of an object is the point through which useful power output
the weight of the object acts. Efficiency = × 100%
power input
• To increase the stability of an object, its centre of gravity should
be kept as low as possible and its base area should be kept as • Power is defined as the work done or energy transferred per
wide as possible. unit time.
W DE
Chapter 5: Momentum P= = where P = power (W)
t Dt
• S Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. W = work done (J)

• Momentum = mass × velocity DE = energy converted (J)

p = mv where p = momentum t = time taken (s)

m = mass
Chapter 7: Pressure

v = velocity
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

• S Impulse is the product of force and the period of time for which
F
force acts. p= where p = pressure (in Pa)
A
• S Impulse = force × time = FDt F = force (in N)

• S Resultant force on an object is the change in momentum per A = area (in m2)

unit time. • S The change in pressure in a liquid is given by
Dp Dp = ρgDh where p = pressure (in Pa)
F=
Dt ρ = density (in kg/m3)
• S The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
momentum of two objects just before collision is the same as the total Dh = depth (in m)
momentum of the objects immediately after the collision.
Chapter 8: Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
Chapter 6: Energy, Work and Power • When a solid is heated, it melts into a liquid at its melting
• Energy is the capacity to do work. point. A liquid that is heated will boil and become a gas at its
• Energy may be stored as kinetic energy, gravitational potential boiling point. When a gas is cooled to its boiling point, it will
energy, chemical energy, elastic (strain) energy, nuclear energy, condense into a liquid. A liquid will freeze/solidify into a solid
electrostatic energy and internal (thermal) energy. when cooled to its melting point.
• S Kinetic energy can be calculated using • S The forces and distances between particles affects the
1 properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Ek = mv2 where Ek = kinetic energy (in J)
2 • The kinetic particle model of matter states that the tiny
m = mass of the body (in kg)
particles that make up matter are always in continuous

v = speed of the body (in m/s)
random motion.

• S Gravitational potential energy can be calculated using
• The lowest temperature where the particles have the least
DEp = mgDh where Ep = gravitational potential energy
kinetic energy occurs at –273°C. This temperature is also known

(in J)
as absolute zero.
m = mass of the body (in kg)
• Brownian motion refers to the random movement of

g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
microscopic particles in a fluid due to the collisions by the

h = height (in m)
molecules of the fluid.

• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy
• The gas pressure of a gas at fixed volume and mass increases
cannot be created or destroyed. It can be converted from one
with temperature.
form to another or transferred from one body to another. The
• The gas pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
total amount of energy remains constant.
increases when the volume decreases.
• Energy conversions taking place can be shown using a flow
• S The decrease in the volume resulting in a proportional
diagram.
increase in pressure is known as inverse proportionality.
• S A Sankey diagram can be used to represent the energy
• For an inverse proportionality,
conversions involving multiple stages.
1 k
• Work done by a constant force on an object is the product of pα or p = where p = pressure
V V
the force and the distance moved by the object in the direction k = proportionality constant
  
of the force. V = volume

W = F × s where W = work done by a constant force F (in J) • Temperature can also be measured using kelvin, K, which is the

F = constant force (in N) SI unit for temperature. The Kelvin scale of temperature has
s = distance moved by the object in the absolute zero as 0 kelvin, or 0K.


direction of the force (in m) • To convert a temperature (θ) measured in °C into a temperature
• We can obtain energy from fossil fuels, biofuels, hydropower, (T) in K:
geothermal energy, solar energy and nuclear energy. • T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

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 Chapter 9: Thermal Properties and Temperature • The source of a wave is a vibration or an oscillation.
• Solids, liquids and gases increase in volume or expand when • Waves transfer energy from one point to another.
heated. The greater the temperature rise, the greater the expansion. • Waves transfer energy without transferring the medium.
When cooled, the volume will decrease, i.e., it will contract. • Transverse waves are waves that propagate perpendicular to
• Liquids expand more than solids for the same temperature rise. the direction of the vibration.
• Gases expand much more than liquids. • Longitudinal waves are waves that propagate parallel to the
• The internal energy of a substance is the total energy of all of direction of the vibration.
its particles. • A crest is the highest point of a transverse wave.
• The higher the temperature of a substance (measured in °C or K), • A trough is the lowest point of a transverse wave.
the greater the internal energy of the substance (measured in J). • The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of a
• S Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of point from its rest position.
thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass • The wavelength λ of a wave is the shortest distance between
(e.g. 1 kg) of a substance by 1°C (or 1 K). any two points in phase.
DE • The period T of a wave is the time taken to produce one
c= where DE = thermal energy required (in J)
mDθ complete wave.
Dθ = temperature change (in K or °C)
• The frequency f of a wave is the number of complete waves

m = mass of substance (in kg) produced per second.

• The melting point of pure water at standard atmospheric • Wave speed v is the distance travelled by a wave per second.
pressure of 1 atmosphere is 0°C. v = fλ where v = wave speed (in m/s)
• The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric λ = wavelength (in m)
pressure of 1 atmosphere is 100°C.

T = period (in s)
• Evaporation involves a change of state from liquid to gas. •
A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all
• Evaporation causes cooling of a liquid. adjacent points that are in phase.
• S Temperature, surface area and air movement over a surface
• When water waves hit a barrier, they undergo reflection.
affect evaporation. • Waves undergo refraction when the they pass from one
Chapter 10:Transfer of Thermal Energy medium to another.
• Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature • S Diffraction involves the spreading out of waves when they
to a region of lower temperature. Net flow of thermal energy encounter gaps and edges.
occurs only when there is a difference in temperature. Chapter 12: Light
• Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through solids. • Reflection is the rebounding of light at a surface.
• The thermal conductivity of a material is dependent on how • Incident ray is light ray that hits the reflecting surface.
quickly thermal energy is transferred from the hotter end to the • Point of incidence is the point at which the incident ray hits
colder end. Materials that can transfer thermal energy quickly the reflecting surface.
are good thermal conductors, while materials that transfer • Reflected ray is light ray that bounces off the reflecting surface.
thermal energy slowly are bad thermal conductors or insulators. • Normal is the imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting
• Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in a fluid (liquid or surface at the point of incidence.
gas) by means of convection currents due to a difference in density. • Angle of incidence i is the angle between the incident ray and
• Thermal radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form the normal.
of invisible waves called infrared radiation which can travel • Angle of reflection r is the angle between the reflected ray and
through a vacuum. the normal.
• The amount of infrared radiation absorbed by or emitted from a • The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence i is
surface is dependent on the colour and texture of the surface. equal to the angle of reflection r (i.e. i = r).
Dull and black surfaces emit and absorb infrared radiation at • A plane mirror image is of the same size as the object, laterally
a faster rate than shiny and silver surfaces. Shiny and silver inverted, upright, virtual and same distance from the mirror
surfaces reflect more infrared radiation. as the object.
• The higher the surface temperature of an object relative to • A real image can be captured on a screen and the light rays
the surrounding temperature, the higher the rate of emission of meet at the image position.
infrared radiation. • Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one optical
• When we compare two objects of the same mass and material, medium to another.
but with different surface areas, the object with the larger surface • Angle of refraction r is the angle between the refracted ray
area will emit or absorb infrared radiation at a higher rate. and the normal.
• The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the • S The law of refraction states that, for two given media, the ratio
Earth’s surface through a balance of absorption and emission of of the sine of the angle of incidence, i, to the sine of the angle of
infrared radiation. refraction, r is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s Law.
Chapter 11: General Properties of Waves sin i
= constant
• Wave motion is made up of periodic motion or motion sin r
repeated at regular intervals. • S The refractive index n is the ratio of the speeds of a wave in
• One complete cycle of such motion is known as an oscillation two different regions.
or a vibration.

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 sin i the frequency, the higher the pitch.
• n= where i = angle of incidence in vacuum
• Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave — the
sin r r = angle of refraction in the medium
larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.

• The critical angle c is defined as the angle of incidence in an
optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the Chapter 15: Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
optically less dense medium is 90°. • Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted to a magnet.
• Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light • Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be
ray inside an optically denser medium at its boundary with an attracted to a magnet.
optically less dense medium. • Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
• S Relationship between the critical angle c and the refractive • The process of magnetising a magnetic material is known as
index n of an optical medium: magnetic induction. When the magnetic material has become
1 magnetised, we say that it has become an induced magnet.
sin c =
n • A magnetically soft material can be easily magnetised and
• A converging lens causes light rays to converge to a point. It is also lose its magnetism easily. A magnetically hard material
thicker in the centre. is difficult to magnetise, but once magnetised, retains its
• A diverging lens causes light rays to diverge from a point. It is magnetism afterwards.
thinner in the centre. • Every magnet has a region of space around it called a magnetic
• Focal length f is the distance between the optical centre C and field.
the focal point F. • A magnetic material or magnetic pole placed in the magnetic
• The principal axis is the horizontal line passing through the field will experience a force.
optical centre of the lens. It is perpendicular to the vertical plane • The arrangement of a group of magnetic field lines is called a
of the lens. magnetic field pattern.
• The principal focus (or focal point) is the point at which all • The direction of the magnetic field lines at a point is the
rays parallel to the principal axis converge after refraction by the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point.
lens. A lens has two focal points, one on each side of the lens. • S The relative strength of a magnetic field is dependent on how
• The different colours of light observed is called a spectrum closely packed the magnetic field lines are.
• This change in refractive index across the spectrum is known as • S Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic
dispersion. fields.
• S Any single frequency of light is described as monochromatic.
Chapter 16: Electrical Quantities
Chapter 13: Electromagnetic Spectrum • In an atom, there is a central nucleus. The nucleus is made up
• Light from the Sun travels as electromagnetic waves. of protons and neutrons. Around the nucleus are the orbiting
These waves are of different types and they make up the electrons. There are positive and negative charges in the
electromagnetic spectrum. atom. Protons are the positive charges while electrons are the
• Waves with higher wavelength have lower frequencies. negative charges.
• All electromagnetic waves travel at the same high speed in a • Positive charges repel other positive charges. Negative charges
vacuum. repel other negative charges. Positive charges attract negative
• S The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s. charges.
• S An analogue signal has continuous values in time. • S An electric field is a region in which an electric charge
• S A digital signal has fixed values. For example, it can have experiences a force.
two values of 1 and 0. • S The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of
the force on a positive charge at that point.
Chapter 14: Sound • Electric current is related to the flow of charge.
• Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to • S Electric current is the charge passing a point per unit time.
another.
I= Q where I = current (in A)
• Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. t Q = charge (in C)
The medium is usually air, but it can be any gas, liquid or solid.

t = time taken (in s)
• S Compressions are regions where air pressure is higher than

• S Conventional current is from positive to negative and that
the surrounding air pressure.
the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive.
• S Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is lower than the
• An ammeter is used to measure the magnitude and direction
surrounding air pressure.
of an electric current in an electric circuit.
• For humans, the audible sound range is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
• Direct current (d.c.) flows in a single direction only, whereas
• Sound waves need a medium to travel from one point to another.
alternating current (a.c.) changes direction frequently.
• S In general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and
• Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a
faster in liquids than in gases.
source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
• An echo is a reflection of sound waves. It is formed when a
sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces. S E= W where
E = e.m.f (in V)
Q
• Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz. W = work done (in J)
• S Ultrasound is used in testing materials for quality control, Q = charge (in C)
medical scanning and sonar technologies. • Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by a unit charge
• Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave — the higher passing through a component.

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 • The equation for two resistors used as a potential divider is as
S V= W where V = p.d. (in V)
Q follows:
W = work done (in J) R1 V
Q = charge (in C) = 1 where V1 = p.d. across R1 and V2 = p.d. across R2
R2 V2

  
• A voltmeter is used to measure the e.m.f. of a dry cell or the p.d.
across a component. • Potential dividers that are used to vary the output voltage from
• The resistance R of a component is the potential difference a source are called variable potential dividers.
V across it divided by the current I flowing through it. • Input transducers are electronic devices that respond to
changes in physical conditions, such as temperature and light.
S R= v where R = resistance of the component (in Ω) They can be used in potential dividers to vary the output voltage.
I
V = p.d. across the component (in V) • A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance varies with

I = current flowing through the temperature. An NTC thermistor has resistance that decreases as

component (in A) its temperature increases.
• Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a • A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases
metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential as the amount of light shining on it increases, and vice versa.
difference across it, provided that physical conditions (such as • Trip switches are safety devices that can switch off the electrical
temperature) remain constant. supply in a circuit when large currents flow through them.
• The resistance R of a conductor depends on its temperature, • A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuit to prevent
length l and cross-sectional area A (or thickness). excessive current flow.
• Electrical power P can be expressed as follows: • Switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit.
P = IV where P = power (in W) • The live wire (brown) is connected to a high voltage and
I = current (in A) delivers current to the appliance. This is the wire to which trip
V = potential difference (in V) switches, fuses and switches are fitted.
• Electrical energy E can be expressed as follows: • The neutral wire (blue) completes the circuit by providing a
E = Pt = IVt where E = electrical energy (in J) return path to the supply for the current. It is usually at 0 V.
P = power (in W) • The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire. It is

t = time (in s) usually connected to the metal casing of appliances.

I = current (in A) • A fused plug connects an electrical appliance to the mains

V = potential difference (in V) supply via the power socket. The fused plug commonly used in

Chapter 17: Electric Circuits and Electrical Safety some countries is the three-pin plug.
• We use circuit diagrams to represents electric circuits. • Double insulation is a safety feature that can replace the
• S Diodes are components that allow current to flow through earth wire.
them in one direction only. Chapter 18: Electromagnetic Effects
• In a series circuit, the components are connected one after • Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an
another in a single loop. A series circuit has only one path induced e.m.f. is produced in a conductor due to a changing
through which electric charge can flow. The current at every magnetic field.
point in a given series circuit is the same. • Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that the
• S For n resistors placed in series, the p.d. VE across the whole magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly proportional
circuit (i.e. across all of the components) is equal to the sum of to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit.
the p.d.s across each component. • S Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f., and
VE = V1 + V2 + … + Vn hence the induced current in a closed circuit, is always such that
• For n resistors in placed in series, the combined resistance is the its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change producing it.
sum of all the resistances. • S The alternating current (a.c.) generator uses alternating
R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn current to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• In a parallel circuit, the components are connected to the • In a simple a.c. generator, the direction of the induced current
e.m.f. source in two or more loops. A parallel circuit has more flowing in the coil can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
than one path through which electric charge can flow. • In a fixed coil a.c. generator, the magnets rotate with respect
• For n branches in parallel, the main current I is the sum of all the to fixed coils.
current in each branch. • Electromagnetism is the relationship between electricity and
I = I 1 + I 2 + … + In magnetism.
• S The reciprocal of the combined resistance of resistors in • A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around
parallel, 1 , is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of all the it. We can determine the direction of the magnetic field around
R the wire using the right-hand grip rule.
individual resistances. • S The strength of the magnetic field of a current-carrying wire
1 1 1 increases when the current is increased.
= +
R R1 R2 • S We can deduce the direction of the force acting on a current-
• A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series. It is carrying conductor in a magnetic field using Fleming’s left-
used to provide a fraction of the available p.d. from a source to hand rule.
another part of the circuit. • Conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel.

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 • Conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract. • S The relative charge on the nucleus is the same as the
• The direction of the force on a beam of charged particles is proton number Z of the nucleus.
reversed when we reverse the direction of the magnetic field. • S Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light atomic nuclei
• A current-carrying wire coil placed between two poles of a combine to form one heavier atomic nucleus, releasing a huge
strong magnet experiences a turning effect. amount of energy.
• A d.c. motor is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical • S The total number of nucleons before and after the a nuclear
energy. fission or fusion reaction is the same. The total relative charge
• A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating before and after should also be the same.
voltage (at low current) to a low alternating voltage (at high
current), or vice versa. It has a primary coil and a secondary Chapter 20: Radioactivity
coil wound around a laminated soft iron core. • Ionising radiation is radiation with high energies that can
• Electrical energy is transferred from the primary coil to the knock off electrons from atoms to form ions.
secondary coil in a transformer. The voltages and the number of • Background radiation is ionising nuclear radiation in the
turns in the primary and secondary coils are related by this formula: environment when no radioactive source is deliberately
Vp N introduced.
= p where VS = secondary (output) voltage (in V) • The background count rate is measured in counts per minute
Vs Ns
VP = primary (input) voltage (in V) (counts/min).

NS = number of turns in secondary coil • When carrying out any measurements with radioactive sources,

• In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary you should first measure the background radiation. Subtract this
coil is greater than that in the primary coil. This results in an background count rate from your measurements to obtain the
output voltage that is higher than the input voltage. corrected count rate for the radioactive source.
• In a step-down transformer, the number of turns in the • The radiation emitted by a radioactive nucleus is spontaneous
secondary coil is less than that in the primary coil, so that the and random in direction.
output voltage produced is lower than the input voltage. • An α-particle consists of two protons and two neutrons tightly
• S In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss (i.e. the bound together without any orbiting electrons. It is Identical to
efficiency is 100%). The power supplied to the primary coil is a helium nucleus.
fully transferred to the secondary coil. • A β-particle is a fast-moving electron ejected from a radioactive
IpVp = IsVs where Vs = secondary (output) voltage (in V) nucleus.
Vp = primary (input) voltage (in V) • A γ-ray is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a nucleus

Is = current in secondary coil (in A) with excess energy.

Ip = current in primary coil (in A) • A change in an unstable nucleus can result in the emission of

• The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation. This nuclear process
following equation: is called radioactive decay.
output power • When a nucleus undergoes α-decay, it emits an α-particle.
Efficiency = 100%
input power When a nucleus undergoes β-decay, it emits a β-particle.
• During α- or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different
Chapter 19: Nuclear Model of the Atom
element.
• An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively
• The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half
charged electrons in orbit around the nucleus.
the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay.
• An atom which loses electrons has more positive charges – it
• The graph of count rate against time is called the decay curve.
becomes a positive ion.
• Applications of radioactivity include household fire alarm,
• An atom which gains electrons has more negative charges – it
sterilisation of food and equipment, measuring and controlling
becomes a negative ion.
thickness of materials
• The scattering of alpha (α-) particles by a sheet of thin metal
• S Ionising nuclear radiation damages living cells. The energy
provide evidence to support the nuclear model of the atom.
carried by the radiation can kill cells and cause mutation and
• The nucleus of an atom consists of protons (positively
cancer.
charged) and neutrons (no charge).
• S Exposure to ionising radiation can be controlled by reducing
• The relative charge of an electron is –1(because it is negative)
exposure time, increasing distance between source and living tissue
and the relative charge of a proton is +1. As the neutron does
and shielding.
not carry any charge, the relative charge of a neutron is 0.
• The number of protons in an atom is called the proton number Chapter 21: Earth and the Solar System
or atomic number, represented by Z. • The Earth is a planet. Planets orbit a star. Our star is the Sun.
• The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called • The Earth takes about 365 days or one year to orbit the Sun.
the nucleon number, represented by A. • The Earth also rotates on its axis and it takes about 24 hours or
• The number of neutrons in a nucleus = one day to rotate once. The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of
nucleon number A − proton number Z. about 23.5 degrees towards the plane of its orbit.
• Isotopes of an element are the atoms that have the same number • The day and night cycle is due to the Earth’s rotation about its
of protons but different number of neutrons in the nucleus. tilted axis.
• S Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom • On the Earth, we see the Sun move across the sky from East to
splits (usually into two parts) and releases a huge amount of West. This apparent movement is because the Earth is spinning
energy. about its axis as it orbits the Sun.

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 • Temperate countries have different weather patterns at • S Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy.
different times of the year. These weather patterns are called the • S In stable stars, the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of
seasons. hydrogen into helium.
• Seasons occur because the Earth orbits the Sun on a tilt. • The Milky Way is a group of many billions of stars or a galaxy to
• The Earth has one natural satellite called the Moon. which our Sun belongs.
• The different appearances of the Moon in the sky are known as • S One light-year is equal to 9.5 × 1015 m.
the phases of the Moon. • Redshift is the increase in the observed wavelength of
• S The Moon’s average orbital speed around the Earth: electromagnetic radiation emitted from stars and galaxies
2pr which are moving away from the Earth.
v= where v = average orbital speed (in m/s)
Q r = average orbital radius • At some moment in the past, all of the matter in the Universe
must have exploded outwards from this point and it is still

T = orbital period

• The Solar System was formed from a swirling cloud of gas and expanding. This is known as the Big Bang Theory of the
dust in space called nebula. Universe.
• A hot spinning mass called a protostar was formed at the • S If the Big Bang Theory is correct, the Universe should now be
centre of a swirling disc of gas and dust. The swirling disc is filled with microwaves. These microwaves are called the cosmic
called an accretion disc. microwave background radiation or CMBR.
• Accretion is the accumulation of particles into a massive object • S The Hubble constant H0 is defined as the ratio of the
by gravitational attraction. speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its
• S Objects in the Solar System move in an elliptical orbit. distance from the Earth.
• S As the distance of planets from the Sun increases, the orbital H0 =
v
where H0 = Hubble constant
speed decreases due to decreasing gravitational field of the d v = speed of movement away from the Earth

Sun. This means the time to orbit the Sun also increases.
d = distance from the Earth
• S The current estimate of H0 is 2.2 × 10−18 per second.
Chapter 22: Stars and the Universe
• The Sun is an average yellow star consisting of mostly hydrogen
and helium.
• The Sun radiates the energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation — mostly infrared, visible light and ultraviolet.

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