Topic one General

Physics
Summary Notes
Length and time

 A ruler is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1cm.
 The volume of an object of irregular shape can be measured by placing it into a
measuring cylinder full of water. This causes the water level to rise, and this rise is
equal to the volume of the object.
 A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small thickness 0.01
mm that a rule cannot measure.
 Analogue and digital clocks and devices are used to measure time intervals.
 An average value for a small distance and for a short time interval can be
found by measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).

Scalars and vectors

 A vector has a magnitude and a direction.
 A scalar has just a magnitude.

Scalars Vectors

Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time Acceleration

 Vectors can be represented by arrows. To

determine the resultant of two vectors
graphically, (parallelogram method)

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SI Units
 Distance meter
 Mass kg
 time second

Motion
 Speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit time.
 Velocity is the speed in a given direction
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
𝒊 𝒊
Speed = 𝒊
velocity = 𝒊
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
acceleration = 𝒊

Distance-time graph
 The gradient is velocity
 Negative gradient is returning back to the starting point
 A horizontal line means it is stationary
 A curved line means that the velocity is changing and it
is accelerating

Speed-time graph
 The gradient is acceleration
 Negative gradient is deceleration
 If the speed is zero, it is at rest
 A horizontal line means constant speed
 The area under the line is the distance travelled
 A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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 Mass
 Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object.
Weight
 Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass)
measured in Newton

 The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10 N kg-1.

 Weights (and hence masses) can be compared using a balance
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength

Same object on two different planets

 The mass is the same
 The gravitational field strength on the two planets will be different so the
weight is different.
Density
 The density is defined as the mass per unit volume

 The density ρ is in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3, the mass m is in

kilograms, kg, and the volume V is in meters cubed, m3.

To find the density of a liquid

 Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill
it with the liquid and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the
mass of the liquid.
 The volume can be read from the cylinder and the density calculated using the
equation.
Density =

To find the density of solid

 Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
 If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a
ruler or other measuring tool and then use a mathematical
formula to find the volume.
 If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume

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 of the water displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
V = V2 – V1

 The density of water is 1g/cm3

 If the density of an object is greater than this it will sink in water
 If less, it will float
Forces
 Newton’s first law states that an object has
a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
 Newton’s second
Force = mass x acceleration
 Newton’s third law states that every
action force has an equal and opposite
reaction force

Falling object (skydiver)

 Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
 As it falls, it accelerates which increases
its speed and hence air resistance, This
causes the resultant force downwards to
decrease so it is not speeding up as
quickly
 Eventually they are equal and opposite
and balance so there is no resultant
force So there is no acceleration and the
terminal velocity is reached
 finally as parachute open the upward
force air resistance greater than weight of the skydiver so speed of sky diver
decrease deceleration

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Friction
Is a force between two surfaces which slide against each other and results in
heating
 Air resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they
should be added together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the
opposite direction.

Object moving in a circle, with constant speed

 The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing This
means the velocity is always changing
 Therefore it is accelerating and there must be a force
perpendicular to its velocity towards the center of the circle

 A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This

is called deformation , also can change speed ( or direction)

Elastic deformation
 The object returns to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring being stretched under
normal usage.

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Plastic deformation
 The object does not return to its original shape when the load has
been remove an example being a spring that has been stretched too
far.
Hook’s Law
Stated That’s Force Is direct proportional with extension until elastic limit

F=Kx

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph

 Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
 The point it stops being linear is
called the limit of proportionality.
From then, it does not obey Hooke’s
law.
 Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph

 Plastic deformation not following Hooke’s law
 After the plastic region, it will fracture , spring will not go back to it’s original
shape

Moment (turning Effect)

For example, when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the
pedal causes a moment about the pivot, turning the pedal arms.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒=𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 ×𝑑

 The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate
about.

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 If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot (see first example
in diagram) the object will not rotate, and will remain stationary.
 If the force applied is perpendicular to the object, then the
perpendicular distance is the length of the object (see second
example in diagram).
 If the force applied is not perpendicular to the object, then the
perpendicular distance to the pivot must be found (see third
example in diagram).

Conditions for equilibrium

 resultant moment = zero
 resultant force = zero

An object is in equilibrium
When the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments (the
principle of moments) and there is no resultant force

Centre of Mass
The center of mass of a body is the point at which all of its mass can be considered
to act,

To calculate the center of mass of a card

1. Pin the object from one point so that it rotate
freely
2. Draw vertical line once the object reaches
equilibrium
3. Repeat step 1 & 2
4. The point of intersection is the center of mass

Center of Gravity and Stability

The stability of a body is increased by
1) Lowering its center or mass
2) Increasing the area of its base.

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Momentum
 Momentum is the product of mass and velocity
 Impulse is the product of force and time
Momentum = mass x velocity impulse = Force x Time

Force = Force =

Principle of conservation of momentum

When two or more objects in a system interact (or collide), the total momentum remains
constant provided that there is no external resultant force acting on the system.
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
 Elastic collision (bounce off)

 inelastic collision ( join together )

Energy , Work and Power

Energy transfers

Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic,

gravitational potential, chemical, and elastic potential, nuclear and internal
energy as a result of an event or process.

Energy can be transferred in various ways including

 Forces when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
 Electrical currents when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.

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 Heating when a fire is used to heat up an object.
 Waves vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.
 Work is done when a force moves something through a distance

Work = F × d KE= mv2 GPE=mgh

 unit is joule ( j )

Power
Is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done. For example, a
lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from electrical
energy to light and heat energy in a given time

P=
 unit is Watt ( W )

 Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

For example, when a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic
energy as it accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy will
become thermal energy and sound energy.
 In any event or process energy tends to become more spread out among the objects
and surroundings (dissipated) most common wasted energy heat and sound

Efficiency
Efficiency = x 100 %

 The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

 Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation)
 Recycling waste output (absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input
energy)

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Energy sources
It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear and tidal, the sun is the
original source of all energy on earth, released by nuclear fusion.

 Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used.

Examples include
 Biofuel
 Wind
 Hydro-electricity
 Geothermal
 Tidal
 Solar
 Water waves
 It is often more costly and less reliable (available 24 hour) than non-
renewable energy (the wind is intermittent and solar energy relies on
good weather).

 Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due

to the large energy output per kilogram of fuel. Examples include:
 Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
 Nuclear fuel
 It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular
because one day it will run out and it is harmful for the environment (burning
fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which cause global warming)

Pressure

in solid in Fluid (liquid , gas )

p= p = Density x gravity x height

 Measured in Pascal

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail

 The force applied is the weight of your body

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  The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a
larger area So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater

Topic Two Thermal

Physics
Summary Notes
Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

Solids

 Molecules close together in regular pattern

 Strong intermolecular forces of attraction
 Molecules vibrate but can’t move about
 Cannot flow, have fixed shape and
cannot be compressed

Liquids

 Molecules close together in random arrangement

 Weaker intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
 Molecules move around each other
 Flow, take the shape of their container and
cannot be compressed

Gases

 Molecules far apart in random arrangement

 Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
 Molecules move quickly in all directions
 Flow, completely fill their container and
can be compressed

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 Brownian motion
 Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
 This is due to collisions with other gas molecules
 Massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules

Temperature, pressure and volume

Pressure and temperature

 The temperature of a gas is proportional to

the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
The higher the temperature, the greater the
average kinetic energy
 At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because
the molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
 The temperature at which the pressure is zero is called absolute zero (-273℃). The
Kelvin scale of temperature defines absolute zero This means that:

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 273

 At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because

the molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequentlywith the walls

 At a constant temperature, if the volume increases, the

pressure decreases because the molecules collide less
frequently with the walls.

𝑃∝ 𝑃₁𝑉₁=𝑃₂𝑉₂

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Evaporation

 Evaporation is the escape of molecules with higher energy from the

surfaces of liquids.
 After they escape, the remaining molecules have a lower average
kinetic energy which means the temperature is lower

To increase the rate of evaporation

1. Increase temperature: more higher energy molecules
2. Increase surface area: more molecules at the surface
3. Draught: molecules are removed before returning to the liquid
Evaporation Boiling
Surface molecule only Whole the liquid
Any Temperature Specific Temperature
No Bubbles Bubbles

Thermal expansion
When something is heated, it expands because the molecules take up more
space
 When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more but stay in place,
so the relative order of magnitude of the expansion is small.
 When a liquid is heated, it expands for the same reason as a solid, but
the intermolecular forces are less so it expands more.
 When a gas is heated, the molecules move faster and further apart,
so the relative order of magnitude of the expansion is the greatest.

Some applications and consequences of thermal expansion include

 Railway tracks having small gaps so that they don’t buckle when they expand
 The liquid in a thermometer expands with temperature and rises up the glass
 Bimetallic strips: Strips of iron and copper or brass.
brass expands more than the Iron. It is mostly used in fire alarm and thermostat
(metal).

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Heating curve

 The graph is horizontal at two places. These

are where energy is being used to break the
bonds between the particles to change the
state, rather than increase the speed of the
particles (and so to increase the temperature).

The longer the horizontal line, the more energy

has been used to cause the change of state
(boiling)

Cooling curve

 during condensing and freezing, internal

energy decreases as the motion of
particles decreases and new bonds are
formed
 Horizontal line Freezing ( Solidifying )
 The more stepper Graph the more rate of
cooling

Thermal process
Conduction

 Thermal energy in solids and liquids can be

transferred by conduction.
 Non-metals are usually poor conductors known as
insulators. As a non-metal is heated up, the
molecules vibrate more and cause adjacent
molecules to vibrate more also, transferring heat
energy from hot parts to cooler parts.
 Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move

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 Freely among positively charged ions As the metal is heated, the ions and
electrons vibrate more. The free electrons collide with ions throughout the
metal and transfer heat energy from hot parts to cooler parts.

Convection

 Thermal energy in fluids (liquids and gases) can be transferred by convection.

 Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid with high thermal
energy move to an area with low thermal energy.
 When part of a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less
dense. It therefore rises up to less dense areas in the fluid
Denser, colder fluid falls down to take its place.
 Examples of convection include water boilers and hot air
balloons.

Radiation
 Thermal energy is also transferred by infrared radiation which does not
require a medium
(vacuum)
 Black bodies with a dull texture are the best absorbers and
emitters of radiation. White bodies with a shiny texture are
the best reflectors of radiation.
 The higher the temperature and the greater the surface area
of a body the more infrared radiation emitted.

Specific heat capacity

 the energy required to change the temperature of an object by one degree Celsius
per kilogram of mass
 It is measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg 0C).

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 Change in thermal energy = mass x S.H.C. x temperature rise

ΔQ = m x c x ΔT

 For best results, insulate the block to prevent heat loss to the
surroundings

Topic three waves

Summary Notes
General wave properties

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter; particles oscillate about a fixed point.

 Amplitude – the distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement
 Wavelength – the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next
wave
 Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
 Speed – the distance travelled by a wave each second

 Speed is related to frequency and wavelength by

𝒅= 𝒒 × 𝒘 𝒈 𝒉

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Types of waves

 Transverse waves
 Has peaks and troughs
 Vibrations are at right angles to
the direction of travel
 An example is light

 Longitudinal waves
 Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles
moved apart)
 Vibrations are in the same direction( parallel ) the direction of travel
 An example is sound

A wave front

 Is a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave

at a given time such as crests or troughs

Reflection

 Waves reflect off smooth, plane surfaces rather than

getting absorbed
 Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
 Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so
they appear matte and unreflective
 Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

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Reflection of Light

When light is reflected off a plane mirror, it

forms an image with these characteristics
 Upright
 Same distance from the mirror as the
object
 Same size
 Virtual

Refraction

is the change in both speed and wavelength of a wave as it travels from one medium to
another

Remember

a) If the incident ray is lying along the normal (the ray is perpendicular to the boundary
or the angle of incidence = zero), then no bending occurs.

b) If the wave comes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, then its speed
decreases and it bends towards the normal (i>r).

c) If the wave comes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium, then its speed
increases and it bends away from the normal (i<r).

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 In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength changes.
 The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio between the speed of light in
a vacuum and the speed of light in the medium
 Snell's law relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive
 The critical angle can be related to the refractive

n= n= n=

Critical angle:

 At a certain angle of incidence called the critical

angle, the light will travel along the boundary
between the two media.

Total internal reflection:

 Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of

incidence is greater than the critical angle and the
light reflects back into the medium.
 For total internal reflection to occur, the light
must also be travelling from a more optically
dense medium into a less optically dense medium
(most common example is glass to air).

Optical fibers

 An optical fibre is a long thin rod of glass surrounded by cladding which uses total
internal reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.
 Extensive use in medicine (endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications
(high speed data transfer).

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Diffraction

 Waves spread out when they go around the sides of an

obstacle or through a gap
 The narrower the gap or the greater the
wavelength, the more the diffraction
 Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all
unchanged

Dispersion of light

 When white light is passed through a glass prism, it

splits up into its constituent colors. This happens
because the different colors travel at different
speeds in the glass, so they refract by different
amounts.
 The seven colors in order of decreasing wavelength
are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
(ROYGBIV).
 The greater the wavelength, the slower the speed in glass and the greater the
refractive index.
 Light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic

Electromagnetic spectrum

Properties of electromagnetic waves

 Transverse waves
 Do not need a medium ( travel in vacuum )
 All electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed of 3.0 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum
and approximately the same speed in air.

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 Region of E.M.
Uses Dangers
spectrum

broadcasting,
radio -
communication

cooking, internal heating of body

microwaves
satellite communication tissue

heating,
infrared skin burns
night vision

photography,
visible skin burns
fiber-optic communication

fluorescent lamps blindness,

ultraviolet
and inks damage to surface cells

observing internal
damage to internal cells
x-rays structures,
and organs
for medicine and materials

sterilizing food mutation of cells,

gamma rays
and medical equipment cancer

 Communication with artificial satellites usually uses microwaves to communicate

with low level artificial satellites.
An artificial satellite is a human-made satellite that orbits the
Earth.

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  Most communications satellites occupy a geostationary orbit
they remain above the same point on Earth as they orbit.
This means that a signal can be pointed at the artificial satellite
and that a link can be established between that point on Earth
and the satellite so that information can be passed between them

Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves created by vibrating sources. A

medium is needed to transmit sound waves (such as air).

 The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.

 The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its
pitch

Digital electronics

 Analogue signals vary continuously in amplitude,

frequency or both.
 Digital signals are a series of pulses with two states, a
high state (1) and a low state (0) Digital signals carry
more information per second and maintain their
quality better

 The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater than 20000 Hz
 The speed of sound in air is approximately 340 m/s. In liquids 1500 m/s and solids
5000 m/s the particles are much closer together

 To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance
from a solid wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then
use

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 Speed =

 sonar (sound navigation and ranging) system to locate object

such as shipwrecks and shoal fish , ultrasound pulse is sent
from the boat to object the time taken to reach object and
return with the speed of sound enable the distance to be calculated
 ultrasound scanning also can be used to diagnose problem with various organs in
body , and also used to search defects in metal pipes and other material

Converging lens

 Principal axis the straight line passing through

the center of the lens is called principal axis.
 Focal point or Focus A point at which incident
rays parallel to the principal axis of a lens
converges
 Focal length The distance from the optical
center to the focus
 Real images they are images where light
actually converges to a position and can be projected onto a screen.
 Virtual images they are images where light only appears to have converged and
they cannot be projected onto a screen.

 short sighted , can see close object but object faraway are blurred
, to correct short sighted diverging lenses can be placed in front
of eyes

 long sighted can see object a long way away but object close by
are blurred , to correct long sighted converging lenses can be
placed in front of the eyes

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 Topic Four
Electricity and
Magnetism
Summary Notes
Magnetism

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields.

 In a magnet, like poles repel and opposite poles attract.

 Magnetic materials ( ferrous ) are materials that are attracted to magnets and can be
magnetized (iron , steel, cobalt, nickel )
 Non-magnetic materials (non- ferrous ) are materials that are not attracted to
magnets and cannot be magnetized ( glass, plastic )
 Magnetic materials can be magnetized by induced magnetism

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 They can be magnetized by stroking them with a magnet, hammering them in a
magnetic field, or putting them inside a coil with a direct current ( DC ) through it.
 They can be demagnetized by hammering them, heating them or putting them inside
a coil with an alternating current ( AC ) through it.

Magnetic materials that

 Permanently magnetized are described as magnetically hard (steel)
 Temporarily magnetized are described as magnetically soft (soft iron).

Electromagnet

 Consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a magnetically soft

core and can be turned on and off.
 Electromagnets have the ability to be turned on and off so they
can be used for situations such as moving scrap metal

to increase strength of electromagnet

 increase number of turn of coil

 increase current
 put iron in core of electromagnet

Magnetic fields

 Field lines around a bar magnet point from north to

south
 The direction of a magnetic field line shows the
direction of the force on a north pole at that point.
 Field strength decreases with distance from the magnet
 Plotting compasses are small compasses which show the
direction and shape of a magnetic field.

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Electric charge

 Charge is measured in coulombs. There are positive and

negative charges; unlike charges attract and like charges
repel.
 Charging a body involves the addition or removal of
electrons such ( copper )
 Conductors allow electrons to flow through them
 insulators electron can’t flow through
 When two insulators are rubbed together, electrons move from one to the other
and they become charged. For example, when a rod is rubbed with a cloth,
electrons are transferred from the rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes
positively charged

Electric field

 Charges create electric fields (regions in which an electric charge

experiences a force)
 Electric field lines point away from positive charges and towards negative
charges.
 The field lines between two charged plates go in straight lines from the positive
plate to the negative plate and are equally spaced apart

Current

 Current I is measured in amps (A) and is the rate of flow of charge at a point in the
circuit.
 The current is given by I = Q / t
 It is measured with an ammeter placed in series.
In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons. Because electrons are negatively
charged, conventional current (which is the rate of flow of positive charge) is in the
opposite direction to the flow of electrons

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Potential difference

 Potential difference V is measured in volts and is the work done per unit charge in
moving between two points in a circuit.
 It is measured with a voltmeter placed in parallel
 The higher the potential difference, the greater the current

Electromotive force

 e.m.f of is the energy supplied by the source per unit charge in driving the charge
round a complete circuit.

Resistance

 Resistance of a component is given by the potential difference across it divided by

the current through it. The greater the resistance, the harder it is for current to flow
through the component.
 As the length of a resistor increases, the resistance increase ( directly proportional )
 As the diameter of a resistor increases, the resistance decrease ( inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area )
 In an ohmic conductor, the current is directly proportional to the voltage (it has
constant resistance).
 In non-ohmic conductor (such as a filament lamp), the
resistance changes as the voltage and current change ,
As the current increases through a filament lamp, so
temperature increase This means electrons and ions
vibrate more and collide more, increasing resistance
Electrical Energy

 Energy is transferred from chemical energy in the battery to electrical energy used
by circuit components and then to the surroundings.
 The power of a component is given by P = I V

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Thermistor

 is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the temperature

increases

Light dependent resistor

 is a resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases

Variable resistance

 is a resistance to adjust current ( increase or decrease ) through

difference in length

Diodes

 only allow current to flow in one direction. They can be used as a

rectifier ( convert AC into DC).

Relay

 is an electromagnetically operated switch. When a small current

passes through the electromagnet, it switches on and attracts an
iron arm. This arm rotates about a pivot and pushes the contacts in
another circuit together. They are used to switch on a circuit with a
high current using a circuit with a small current

Potential divider
splits the potential difference of a power source between two components

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 Series connection Parallel connection
 IT = I1 = I2  IT = I1 + I2

 VT = v1 + v2  VT = v1 = v2

 RT = R1 + R2  = +

Fuses
 A fuse is a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if the current is too high,
protecting the circuit.
 Fuses have a current rating which should be slightly
higher than the current used by the device in the
circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.

Circuit breakers
 Circuit breakers consist of an automatic electromagnet switch which breaks the
circuit if the current rises over a certain value.
This is better than a fuse as it can be reset and used again, and they operate faster

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The magnetic effect of a current

 The magnetic field created by a solenoid is like the field

produced by a bar magnet.
 Increasing the current through the wire increases the
strength of the magnetic field, and reversing the direction of
the current through the wire reverses the direction of the
magnetic field

The right hand grip rule

Hold out your right hand with your thumbs tucked in and your thumb
pointing upwards:

 the thumb is equal to the direction of current

 the fingers are equal to the magnetic field direction

DC motors

 DC motors consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets.

 Current flows through the wire and it experiences a turning effect due to the forces
exerted on it in the magnetic field. The turning effect
can be increased by
1. increasing the current
2. using a stronger magnetic field
3. Increasing the number of turns on the coil.
 A split ring commutator is used to ensure that the
direction that the current flows in the coil reverses
every half turn.

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Loudspeaker
 The combination of the magnetic field generated by the coil and
magnetic field of permanent magnet apply force on the cone so
that it moves in certain frequency which produce sound

Fleming's left-hand rule

 The Thumb indicates the thrust (a force) on the current

carrying conductor.
 The First finger indicates the magnetic field (remember field
lines go from north to south).
 The second finger indicates the current.

Electromagnetic induction

 When a wire moves across a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced in it. If it is part of a
complete circuit, this causes a current to flow.
 The induced current flows in such a direction that it opposes the change that
produced it.
 The induced e.m.f. can be increased by
1. moving the wire more quickly,
2. using a stronger magnetic field,
3. increasing the length of the wire.

AC generator

 AC generator consists of a coil of wire between

two permanent magnets. They generate AC
current because a slip ring is used.
 As the coil rotates, the magnetic field through
the coil changes, which induces an e.m.f. in the
coil.

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 The magnitude of the e.m.f. is maximum when the coil is horizontal as the field lines
are cut the fastest, and zero when vertical as no field lines are being cut.

 The e.m.f. can be increased by

1. increasing the number of turns on the coil
2. using a stronger magnet
3. increasing the speed of rotation

Transformer

 A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around

a soft iron core and is used to transform voltages.
 An alternating current in the primary coil creates
a changing magnetic field; this changing magnetic
field links with the secondary coil and induces an
alternating e.m.f. in it.
 A step up transformer has more turns on the secondary which means the voltage
of the secondary is greater than that of the primary.
 A step down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary which means the
voltage of the secondary is less than that of the primary.

𝑉𝑝 × 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 × 𝐼𝑠 =
 For a 100% efficient transformer, because the power used is constant,
 Transformers are used to step up the voltage in power lines which reduces
power loss. This is because a higher voltage means a smaller current and the loss
of power

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 Topic five Atomic physics
Summary Notes
The nuclear atom

An atom consists of:

 A positively charged nucleus made of:

○ Positive protons
○ Neutral neutrons
 Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

Subatomic particle Mass Charge Location

Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutron 1 Neutral Nucleus
Electron 1/2000 -1 Outer shell

ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same element have the same number
of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s atom
with the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.

For a given nuclide

 X is the symbol of the element
 A is the nucleon number (number of neutrons
and protons)
 Z is the proton number (number of protons)

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Alpha particle scattering

 Alpha particles (charge +2) were fired at a

thin sheet of gold foil
 Most particles went straight through
 Some particles were deflected by small
angles (< 90º)
 A few particles were deflected by large
angles (> 90º)
Conclusion

 Most of an atom is empty space

 The nucleus has a positive charge
 Most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus

Nuclear fission:

 The process of splitting a nucleus is

called nuclear fission
 Uranium-235 is a commonly used
isotope as the fuel in nuclear reactors
 When a Uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a
neutron, it splits into two daughter
nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process

Nuclear fusion:

 The process of joining two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion
 Energy is released during this process
 Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy

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Radioactivity

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more

stable one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot
know what nucleus will decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Alpha
 A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
 The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following equation
 They are highly ionizing and weakly penetrating. They are
stopped by a sheet of paper.
 They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Beta
 emits a beta particle (electron)

 The nucleus changes to that of a different element

according to the following equation
 They are moderately ionizing and moderately
penetrating. They are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminum.
 They are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields

Gamma
 After a previous decay, a nuclei with excess energy emits a gamma radiation
 Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
 They are lowly ionizing and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many centimeters
of lead.
 They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields

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Deflection in electric fields

Electric field lines represent the direction of an electric field

which is from the positive plate to the negative plate. The
positively charged alpha particles are attracted to the
negative plate while the negatively charged beta particles
are attracted to the positive plate

Deflection in magnetic fields

Alpha & beta particles are deflected in directions given by Fleming’s left
hand rule. Keep in mind that negative charges traveling to the right
counts as a conventional current to the left

Geiger-Muller tube
 A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
 Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical
pulse to the machine, which produces a clicking
sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more
radiation present.

Background radiation
Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation.

Sources of background radiation include:

1. Cosmic rays
2. Radiation from underground rocks
3. nuclear fallout
4. Medical rays

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Half-Life Time

The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei to
decay, or the time taken for the activity to halve.
 In the graph, the count rate drops from 80 to 40 counts per
minute in 2 days, which means the half-life is around 2 days.
Background radiation has to be subtracted before attempting to
perform half-life calculation

Uses of radioactivity

Smoke detectors
 Long half-life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors, Alpha particles cause a
current in the alarm.
If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the
current drops, triggering the alarm.

Thickness monitoring
 Long half-life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal sheets A
source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its production. If there
is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected, then the thickness of the
sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.
Sterilization of equipment

 Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for
operations.
Diagnosis and treatment

 Short half-life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in

medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body
Safety

 Minimizing the time of exposure to radiation. For example, radioactive tracers with a
short half-life should be used.

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 Keeping as big a distance from the radioactive source as possible. They should be
handled using tongs and held far away from people.
 Using shielding against radiation, such as the concrete shielding around a nuclear
reactor. Radioactive sources must also be kept in a lead-lined box.

Topic six
Space Physics
Summary Notes
The Earth

 The Earth is a planet, and it orbits the Sun.

 The Earth takes just over 365 days to complete one orbit.
 The Earth also spins on its axis and it takes about 24 hours to
rotate once.
 The Earth's axis (an imaginary line through the Earth from the
North pole to the South pole) is tilted at an angle of about 23.5
degrees
 The Earth is about 150 million kilometers from
the Sun, and the Moon is about 384 thousand kilometers
from the Earth

Day and Night

 Because the Earth spins on its axis, sometimes you are facing the
Sun and sometimes you are facing away from the Sun. The Sun
only shines on the half of the Earth that is facing it.
 When you are facing the Sun, you are experiencing day-time.
 When you face away from the Sun, you are experiencing night-
time.

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  The Earth spins towards the East.
That is why the Sun appears
to rise in the East and set in the West.
At midday in the Northern
Hemisphere it appears to be in the
South.

The Seasons

 The Earth moves round the Sun

once in approximately 365
days , We experience different
seasons due to the amount of
direct sunlight we receive

 In December the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and in June it is
tilted towards the Sun. In June the Northern Hemisphere receives more direct
sunlight and so it is summer. At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted
away from the Sun and it is winter.

39
  At the equator the seasons do not vary as much because there is direct sunlight all
year round.
 At the poles during winter there are days when the Sun never rises, and days during
summer when the Sun never sets.

 The maximum height of the Sun in the sky

varies according to the seasons. In summer it
is high and casts short shadows. In winter it
is low and casts long shadows. The variation
is more pronounced nearer the poles. The
diagram below shows how shadows vary in
the Northern Hemisphere.

Phases of moon

 It takes about a month for the Moon to orbit the Earth. It orbits with the same side
of the Moon facing the Earth all the time.
 We can only see the Moon because it is illuminated by (reflects light from the
Sun), which shines on it. It does not produce its own light.
 As the Moon orbits the Earth it reflects different amounts of light towards Earth.
When the Moon is between the Sun
and the Earth it does not reflect any
light towards the Earth. We call this
a New Moon. As it continues to orbit
we see more and more of the Moon,
and we say it is waxing, towards a
Full Moon, and then it wanes again

40
Universe

 The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies.

 A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars.

 Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy.

 The gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass on a body in a
gravitational field and is measured in Newton’s per kilogram (N/kg). It varies with
the mass and size of the body and is therefore different on other planets and the
moon compared to the Earth.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡=𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕

Orbit

 Moons and comets

 the orbits are slightly elliptical with
near constant orbital speed

 Planets and asteroids

 They orbits with a greater orbital
speed the closer they are to the Sun

The solar System

 Our Sun is in a spiral galaxy with 'arms' of stars, called the Milky Way. The Sun is about
half way out from the center of the galaxy
 The four planets closest to the Sun, sometimes called the inner planets, are rocky and
small. The four planets furthest from the Sun, the outer planets, are large and gaseous
and are sometimes called the gas giants
 To remember the planets in order “ My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles”

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Orbital speed
 The greater the orbital radius or the smaller the time period, the greater the orbital
speed

Stellar evolution

 A star begins as a cloud of gas called a nebula. The particles experience a weak
attraction towards each other due to gravity and begin to clump together.
 They continue to clump together until the pressure and temperature is great enough for
nuclear fusion to occur star is stable and called a main sequence star.
 If the star has a similar mass to the Sun, it expands massively and becomes a red giant.
It then becomes a white dwarf (and finally cools into a black dwarf).
 If the star has a mass larger than the Sun, it expands and becomes a red super giant,
 before exploding in a supernova. What remains is either a neutron star, or if it was
exceptionally massive, a black hole.

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  Stars can be classified according to their color. The color of a star is related to its
surface temperature, with hotter stars being blue and cooler stars being red

Cosmology

The Big Bang theory states that the universe expanded outwards from a single point.
Evidence for this theory includes:

Red shift

 The red shift of light from galaxies shows that they are all moving away from us and
that those which are furthest away are moving the fastest, suggesting that the
universe was formed from an explosion at a single point, evidence for the Big Bang.

Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)

 Just after the Big Bang, lots of short wavelength radiation should have been released.
This radiation, as the universe expanded over time, would have been stretched to
become microwaves.
 The fact that there is cosmic microwave background radiation present wherever you
point a telescope in the sky provides evidence for the Big Bang

 Doppler shift is responsible for the red-shift of light from galaxies which are moving
away from Earth, which is when the wavelength of the light coming from them
increases. The faster it is moving, the more its light is red-shifted.

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The Hubble constant

 Hubble's Law states that a galaxy's recessional velocity (its velocity away from us)
is directly proportional to the galaxy's distance from Earth.

 A graph of recessional velocity against distance from Earth is a straight line

passing through the origin.

 This graph shows that galaxies that are further away

from Earth are moving away even faster than those
closer to Earth. The Hubble constant is equal to the
gradient of the graph

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