Force, Motion & Energy

FORCE, MOTION & ENERGY
• Force is measured in Newtons 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = Mass x Acceleration
FORCES
Key notes:
1. A force may produce a change in the shape and size of an object.
2. Below the limit of proportionality, the extension of a spring is directly
proportional to the force applied on it.
3. The unit for force is the newton (N).
4. In changing the motion of an object, a force can cause it to start
moving, to accelerate or decelerate, to change its direction of motion.
RESISTIVE FORCES : Friction: the force between two surfaces

which impedes motion and results in heating • Air resistance is a form
of friction.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1) First law of motion: If no external force is acting on it, an object will
remain stationary, and if moving, keep moving at a steady speed in the
same straight line.
2) Second law of motion: 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
3) Third law of motion: if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B
will exert an equal but opposite force on object A
Hooke’s Law : Springs extend in proportion to load, as
long as they are under their proportional limit. Limit of
proportionality: point at which load and extension are no
longer proportional.
• Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to
its original shape after being stretched.
Spring constant = force/extension (K = f/x)
SI Unit = N /m
—-------------
CIRCULAR MOTION : An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always

accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no closer to the center. The speed of
the ball stays constant.
i) Centripetal force: is the force acting towards the center of a circle. It is a force that is
needed, not caused, by circular motion.
For example, when you swing a ball on a string round in a circle, the tension of the string
is the centripetal force. If the string is cut then the ball will travel in a straight line at a
tangent to the circle at the point where the string was cut.
ii) Centrifugal force: is the force acting away from the center of a circle.This is what
makes a slingshot go outwards as you spin it.
Formulas:
● Hooke’s law: F ∝ e
F = ke
F - force
k - F / e (spring constant)
e - extension
● Newton’s Second Law of Motion, F = ma

force = mass x acceleration
● weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity W = mg -
measured in newtons (N)
MOMENTS - THE TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES
Key notes ;
1. The moment of a force means the turning effect of a force.
2. The principle of moments states that for an object in equilibrium, the sum of all
clockwise moments = the sum of all anticlockwise moments.
3. Levers use the principle of moments.
4. If the distance of the effort from the fulcrum is greater than the distance of
theload from the fulcrum, then a small effort can be used to lift a heavy load.
5. The center of gravity of an object is the point where its whole weight seems to
act.
6. When an object is hung freely, its center of gravity is located vertically below the
point of support.
7. An object is in a stable equilibrium if its center of gravity is raised when tilted and
it returns to its initial position when released.
8. An object is in unstable equilibrium if its center of gravity is lowered when the
object is tilted and it topples over to a new position when released.
9. An object is in a neutral equilibrium if its center of gravity is not raised or
lowered when displaced.
10. The stability of an object increase if its center of gravity is lower or its
base area is increased
Formulas:
● Moment = F x d
= force x perpendicular distance from the pivot to the force Units
is Nm (newton meter)
WORK, ENERGY & POWER
Key notes:
1. Energy is the capacity to do work. It is measured in joules.
2. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed but it can be changed from one form to another.
3. In a falling object, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
4. When friction is not negligible, work has to be done against it.
5. The main sources of energy are: fossil fuels, hydroelectric schemes, solar
energy, geothermal energy and wind energy.
6. Power is the rate of doing work.
7. The unit for power is the watt (W).
Formulas:
● Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force = F x d
= J (joule)
● Kinetic Energy (K.E)

K.E. = 1/2 mv²
m - mass
v - speed
● Gravitational Potential Energy (P.E)

P.E = mgh
m - mass
g - acceleration due to gravity
h - height
● The energy released during a nuclear reaction is given by E = mc².

● Efficiency = (useful energy output/ energy input) x 100%
POWER
P=E/t
Power = work done / time taken = energy output / time taken
Unit is the watt (W).
Scalars and Vectors :

A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so it can only be positive) for
example speed.
A vector quantity has a direction as well as a magnitude, for example velocity,
which can be negative.
Calculating resultant force:
A parallelogram has to be made with the acting forces (F1 and F2). The resultant
force will be the diagonal. Make sure the same scale is used to convert between
length and forces. Measure length of diagonal and use scale to convert value into
force (FR)
Momentum :
Momentum: product of mass and velocity 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when bodies in a system interact,

total momentum remains constant provided no external force acts on the system.
𝒎𝑨𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒗𝑩
Impulse: product of force and time for which it acts 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 – 𝒎u
Energy:
Energy: amount of work and its measured in Joules (J) . An object may have
energy due to its motion or its position
• Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, when work is

done, energy is changed from one form to another. Energy can be stored
ACCELERATION BY GRAVITY :
An object in free-fall near the Earth has a constant acceleration caused by gravity
due to the Earth’s uniform gravitational field . Objects are slowed down by air
resistance. When deceleration caused by air resistance = acceleration by gravity,
i.e. no net force acting on a body in free fall, the body reached terminal velocity.
Mass and Weight
Mass: A measure of matter in a body and the body’s resistance to motion.

Weight is the force of gravity on a body as a result of its mass.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance
Density
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝝆) = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎) 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑽)

Density of a liquid:
Place the measuring cylinder on balance.
Add liquid.
Reading on measuring cylinder = V,
change in mass on balance = m.
Use formulas:
Density of solid:
Finding the volume:

To find out the volume of a regular object, use a mathematical formula. To find
out the volume of an irregular object, put the object into a measuring cylinder
with water and the rise of water is the volume of the object.
Finding the mass: Use balance

An object will float in a fluid if its density is lesser than the density of the liquid,
i.e. The volume of fluid displaced has a greater mass than the object itself.
Example: an orange with its peel has a density of 0.84g/cm3 , we can predict that
it will float in water because it is less than 1 g/cm3 (density of water). We can
also say that an orange without its peel, which has a density of 1.16g/cm3 , will
sink because it is greater than 1g/cm3 .

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FORCE, MOTION & ENERGY

• Force is measured in Newtons 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = Mass x Acceleration

RESISTIVE FORCES : Friction: the force between two surfaces

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

CIRCULAR MOTION : An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always

● Newton’s Second Law of Motion, F = ma

MOMENTS - THE TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES

● Kinetic Energy (K.E)

● Gravitational Potential Energy (P.E)

● The energy released during a nuclear reaction is given by E = mc².

Power = work done / time taken = energy output / time taken

Unit is the watt (W).

Scalars and Vectors :

Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when bodies in a system interact,

Impulse: product of force and time for which it acts 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 – 𝒎u

• Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, when work is

Mass and Weight

Mass: A measure of matter in a body and the body’s resistance to motion.

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝝆) = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎) 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑽)

Finding the volume:

Finding the mass: Use balance

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