Length:(unit meter)

1. Measure the length of a wire

The wire must be straight , laid closely alongside the ruler
Look at the end of the wire ( are they cut neatly or are they
ragged?)切的是否整齐
Look the markings on the ruler
Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale

2. Measure the thickness of the small value things ( wire ,

thickness of a piece of paper)
Measure several thickness and calculate the average

Volume:
1. Determine the volume of Irregular shape
1.Select a measuring cylinder that is about three or four times
larger than the object , fill the water in it enough to cover the
object
2. immerse the object in the water ,the increase of volume is
equal to the volume of the object.
Time: ( unit S)
1. Analogue clock( find the time by looking at where the hand
are pointing on the scale )（measure the time no better than
the nearest second 不 超 过 最 近 一 秒 的 时 间 间 隔 ） not
previous
2. Digital clock( very previous ) ( displays numbers and record
time to the precision of at least one hundred of a second)

3. Measuring short intervals of time : pudulum

to find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a spin,
time 10 periods and then divided by the same number as the
number of the circle.
4.
Scaler : magnitude (distance, speed, time, mass, energy and
temperature)
Vector: magnitude and direction （ force, weight, velocity,
acceleration, momentum, electric field strength and gravitational
field strength）

motion:(在 v-t 图 constant speed means no accelretion)

1. speed =distance travelled per unit time (v=s/t)b
2. velocity =speed in a given direction
3.
4. average speed = total distance travelled/total time taken
5. Acceleration of free fall is g=10m/s
6. acceleration = change in velocity per unit time （ a
=∆v/∆t）
7. deceleration is a negative acceleration

terminal velocity: the greatest speed reached by an object when

moving through the fluid.
图像的题型:
1. 曲线求 acceleration 在某一时间点上做切线，取两点求斜

率
当 deceleration caused by air resistant= acceleration by gravity,
没有 net force act on the object, reach the terminal velocity.

mass and weight:(compared with balance)

1. mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object
2. weight is a gravitational force on an object that has mass
3. gravitational field strength as force per unit mass(g =W/m)

Density:
1. density = mass per unit volume
2. find the volume of substance:(找 wood 的体积，量筒里有
wood and brass)
determine any volume of any liquid(v1)
state viable method to submerge (wood)
read volume(v2) from previous line and determine volume
of (water + brass) v2-v1
subtract volume of brass from above to give volume of
wood
3. 物 质 密 度 测 量 方 法 ：

Water used in measuring cylinder/graduated cylinder

Volume of water known or read / recorded
Place the (substance) in the water and read / record /take
new level of water in cylinder subtract readings
Measure volume of overflow water using measuring
cylinder / graduated cylinder
Measure mass / weight the (substance) used with
balance /spring balance
4. 各仪器的使用方法
Read Measuring cylinder levels at bottom of meniscus
Make sure (substance) clean and dry
Check zero of balance/ spring balance
Place containers on horizontal cylinder
5. 气体密度大于液体密度大于固体密度
6 if the density of an object is greater than this it will sink in
water - if less, it will float( do not mix)
Hook’s law
1. 定 义 ： extension of the spring is directly
proportional to the force/ load applied to the
spring, up to the limit of proportionality
2. At first , the graph slopes steadily, this shows that the extension increase in
equal steps as the load increase.
3. Then the graph curves. This happened when the load is so great that the
spring is permanent damaged. It will not return to its original length.

4.
5. Limit of proportionality: extension is proportional to load , up to the limit of
proportionality, extension proportion to load.

Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after
stretched.

Force:(produce change in the size and shape of an

object)
定义式：the rate of change of momentum.
Give an acceleration or deceleration or a change in
direction depending on the direction of the force.
两个力作用在一条直线上并且在同一个物体上，同向
相加，异向相减（方向取较大力的方向）

there is no
resultant
force (at rest
or at constant speed)in the straight line.
Resultant force may change its direction of motion or
its speed.
Friction:
Solid friction as the force between two surface that
may impede motion and produce heating. 阻碍并发热

Friction (drag) acts on an object moving though the

liquid / gas(air resistance)
牛顿 1/2/3 定律

Circular motion 圆周运动：

1. steady speed in circular orbit( always acceleration, direction is changing , no
closer to the center, speed is constant)
centripetal force( the force is towards the center of the circle, velocity is
changing) friction produce the centripetal force

1.motion in a circular path due to a force perpendicular to the motion

(a) speed increases if force increases, with mass and radius constant
(b) radius decreases if force increases, with mass and speed constant
(c) an increased mass requires an increased force to keep speed and radius
constant
6. F=ma (the force and the acceleration are in the same direction)
Force 的题型：
1. 实际高度小于计算高度，用 force 的角度（force act as air resistance, add to
gravitational force/deceleration increase）
2. 上升高度一定有 gravitational potential energy

1.Moment ： （ measure the turning effect

on a body）

2. moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot;

(Nm)

3. the moment of the force is bigger ,if the force is bigger

4. the moment of the force is bigger if it acts further from the pivot.
5. The moment of the force is greatest if it acts at 90 degrees to the object it acts on
5 the object is equilibrium means it has no resultant force and no net
moment( clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment)
6 the sum of anticlockwise moment = sum of clockwise moment
7 证明平衡：
Hanging mass of the same weight on opposite sides of the meter rule on a
pivot at equal distance from the pivot showing that the meter rule is
stationary.

center of mass:
1. 重 心 在 支 点 前 会 向 前 倒 ， 重 心 在 支 点 后 不 会 倒

（stable），重心太高不稳定

2. Center of mass: point where all the mass can be considered to be

concentrated .

3. 描述不规则平面薄片重心的位置：

1. Hang up the card and suspend a plumb line from the same place.
2. Mark the position of the thread.
3. Repeat the above steps with the card suspended from different places.
4. Where these lines intersect is the center of mass

题 ：

5
Momentum
1, momentum = mass × velocity (p= mv)

impulse = force × time (= F∆t = ∆(mv))（mv-mu）

resultant force is the change in momentum per unit time;( F

= ∆p/∆t)

energy :(J)(amount of work and its measured in

J)
1. Conversation of energy ： energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
2. An object may have energy due to its motion or its
position.

Collision is an event will change the kinetic energy of a body

Heating a body will increased its internal energy
Burning a substance will reduce its chemical energy

3. Kinetic energy( stored in a moving objects)

4. Gravitational potential energy(克服重力)

Efficiency: how much useful work is done with energy supplied.

5. coal and petrol stored as chemical energy

6. internal energy ( the total kinetics and potential energy of its

particles )

7. energy transferred ( by force, by heating, by radiation , by

electrical current )

8. 两种金属交界处的温差产生电压（ nuclear energy (stored)

——internal energy ----thermal energy-----electrical energy）

9. 润滑剂可以减少摩擦
Work done：(J)
1． mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy

transferred （W = Fd = ∆E）(work done = force *distance

moved by the force in the direction of the force)

2． 1 J of work = force of 1 Newton moves an object by 1

meter.

energy resources :
1. radiation from the Sun is the main source of energy for all

our energy resources (except geothermal, nuclear and

tidal (by the moon))

energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun

电能可以从核裂变中获得的过程：
2. Nuclear fuel , reactor and boiler , turbines , generator

power:(rate of work)(W)
1. power as work done per unit time and also as energy

transferred per unit time( P = W/ t or P = ∆E/t)

pressure:(pa)
1. pressure as force per unit area (P=F/A)

2. ∆p = ρg∆h (liquid)

Thermal physics:

In term of force and arrangement of molecules

How liquid differs from gas?

Why gas expand more than liquid? (liquid and

solid are same reason)
Eg：上图加粗字加 between atoms
1. absolute zero 绝 对 零 度 （ -273°c ） particles have no
 kinetic energy

evidence for kinetic modal :(random motion of particles in a

suspension)

atoms and molecules are far too small to see.

Microscope is used to view smoke particles

Brown motion: (liquid or gas)

භ Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly , frequency

changing direction.(air molecular are small)

භ smoke particles are hit by air molecules

භ Massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving

molecules

Air molecular are very fast moving.

changing direction of each collision

How to exerts pressure?

Molecules of air 直径是 10 的－10 次方米

A smoke particle 直径是 10 的－7 次方米

T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273 （Kevin temperature）

pV = constant(P1V1=P2V2)
for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature

at a constant pressure

thermal capacity：

The average kinetic energy of gas 与温度成正比

When the temperature of a body rises, its internal energy

increases and its molecules vibrate more.

Melting:( solid turns to liquid)

1. Melting start there is no increase in temperature. Because thermal

energy is used to break bonds between particles of the solid.

Boling(liquid turns to gas)

Boling start, there is no increase in temperature. Because thermal

energy is used to break bonds between particles of the liquid.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at any temperature and only
occurs at the surface of the liquid. ( boiling is reach the specific temperature ‘boiling point’
and occurs throughout the liquid)

How to evaporate?

Evaporation cools a body

热膨胀的应用及其后果： tran

双金属恒温器：当温度过高时，双金属
片弯曲，使触点分离，知道温度足够低
时，金属片再次变直，触点接触，以保
持稳定的温度。
热胀冷缩
Thermal properties:
Conduction:(metal are good conductors, non-metal are poor conductors)(at most in

solid)

Conduction in metal :

Convection:( liquid and gas)

1. A convection current is a movement of a fluid that
carry energy from a warmer place to a cooler one.
2. Convection : movement of the material itself
3. Conduction: without material itself moving
 1. the fluid warms up, the particles are warmer become
less dense and rise.
2.they cool and fall back to the heat source,creating a
cycle called convention current.(空调在高出的原理)
密度较低的金属较轻，因此它被周围密度较大的金属
向上推起
Radiation：辐射（通过 electromagnetic waves 将热
量从一个地方传到另一个地方，不需要介质）
热辐射主要是红外线（红外线是电磁光谱的一部分）

1. All object emit infrared radiation, the hotter the

object, the greater the infrared radiation is given.
 2. 影响红外线的因素（温度）

House insulator:
3.

keeping cool:
1. Gas is general used, because glass is a good
insulator
2. Air is removed from the gap between the double
walls, creating a vacuum

3.
4. Thermal energy transfer:
Carbon dioxide, absorb some of this thermal
energy and its warms our atmosphere
Sound:( mechanical wave)frequency do not change
Sound comes from a vibrating source(loudspeaker)

1. 产生声音的原因：
Vibrating sources cause the air around them to
vibrate, these vibrations are passed through the air
to our ears where they cause the eardrum to
vibrate and wo hear the sound.
2. Longitudinal wave: particles / molecules vibrate
towards in the direction of travel of the wave (move
 forwards and backwards) sound waves and P-
waves ultrosound
3. transverse wave: molecules vibrate perpendicular
to the direction of travel of the wave.(move up and
down) electromagnetic radiation, water waves and
seismic S-waves,light vibrating string,
(transimission of energy)

4. difference between longitudinal wave and

transverse waves.

5.传播声音需要介质(oscillating particles)
6. speed of sound is 330-350m/s in the air, speed of
sound in liquid is 1000-2000m/s
7.compression: molecular/ particles close together at a
higher pressure
8. rarefaction: molecular/ particles further apart in a
low pressure

9. o

11.an echo is a reflected sound wave

12. ultrasound as sound with a frequency higher than
20 kHz(medically used to look at structures ang
organs inside the human body,
Eg: to form image from a fetus in a pregnancy.
13. ultrasound in nondestructive testing of materials,
medical scanning of soft tissue and sonar including
calculation of depth or distance from time and wave
speed
14. find the speed of the sound:

Waves：
1. Wave transfer energy without transferring matter
2. Wave motion include:water waves / ropes /springs
3.
4.
5. Formula: v = f λ
The bigger the amplitude , the more energy the wave
transferred.

1. Refraction:
2. Reflection:
3. Diffraction:

Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all

unchanged
Light:（光沿直线传播），
Laser 激光：
平面镜成像:

Virtual image ： an image that cannot form on the

screen
Real image: an image that can form on the screen.

Refraction 折射：空气中的角永远大
Light 发 生 折 射 的 原 因 是 因 为 it travel at different
speed in different meterials.
Total internal reflection:全反射

1. Light travelling from optically dense medium to

optical less dense medium.
2. All light reflected
3. Angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

optical fibers: telecommunications 电信

telephone signals

Refraction of light:

Converging lens:
1. 定义：
converging lens 汇聚光线在 principle focus 交（中间
厚两边薄）

diverging lens 发散光线（中间薄，两边厚）

小孔成像（小灯泡成像）
物近像远大，物远像近小。X.
Magnifying glass 放大镜（converging lens）
Short sight 近视眼（视网膜太厚了，成像太前面了，
加个凹透镜，成像往后移）

Long sight 远视眼（视网膜太薄了，成像太后面了，

加个凸透镜，成像往前移）

Dispersion of light 光的扩散( different speed)

一进入 prism 开始色散

Visible light spectrum ： red

，organge，yellow，green，blue，indigo 靛，violet
紫 in order of frequency and in order of wavelength.

出来时，红光在最上面，紫光在最下面（折射最强）

Monochromatic 单 色 光 ： single frequency and only

one colour
Electromagnetic spectrum；
Electromagnetic spectrum 的性质：

例题：

(a) radio waves; radio and television

transmissions, astronomy, radio frequency
identification (RFID)
(b) microwaves; satellite television, mobile
phones (cell phones), microwave ovens
(c) infrared; electric grills, short range
communications such as remote controllers
for televisions, intruder alarms, thermal
imaging, optical fibres
(d) visible light; vision, photography, illumination
(e) ultraviolet; security marking, detecting fake
bank notes, sterilising water
(f) X-rays; medical scanning, security scanners
(g) gamma rays; sterilising food and medical
equipment, detection of cancer and its
treatment
4 Describe the harmful effects on people of
excessive exposure to electromagnetic radiation,
including:
(a) microwaves; internal heating of body cells
(b) infrared; skin burns
(c) ultraviolet; damage to surface cells and eyes,
leading to skin cancer and eye conditions
(d) X-rays and gamma rays; mutation or damage
to cells in the body

人造卫星的通信
的通信主要是通过微波(microwaves)
Natural satellites 天然卫星----moon
卫星通信在地球静止的轨道上 与地球以相同的速度
运行
距离地球表面 3500km 的上空运行（位于赤道附近）
卫星 powerful and transmit large amount of data. 所
以卫星电视，卫星电话很适合，但会有一点延迟。
（优点是 cover a large area）

低地球轨道距离地球表面 2000km 的地方，没有延迟，

需要多个卫星，因为一个卫星只能 cover small area

适合工作的波：
1. mobile phones and wireless Internet use
microwaves because microwaves can penetrate
some walls and only require a short aerial for
transmission and reception（因为微波可以穿透一
些墙壁，而且只需要一个短的天线就可以传输墙，
而且只需要一根短的天线就可以传输和接收。）
2. Bluetooth uses low energy radio waves or
microwaves because they can pass through walls
but the signal is weakened on doing so（因为它们
可以穿过墙壁，但这样做时信号会被削弱）
3. optical fibres (visible light or infrared) are used for
cable television and high-speed broadband because
glass is transparent to visible light and some
infrared; visible light and short wavelength
infrared can carry high rates of data（因为玻璃对
可见光和一些红外线是透明的；可见光和短波长的
红外线可以携带高速率的数据）

analogue and transals：

Signal pass through one or more regenerator which
clean up the signal, removing any distortion, the
regenerator can also boost the signals if it has lost
power.( 信号通过一个或多个再生器，这些再生器清
理信号，消除任何失真，如果信号失去动力，再生器
还可以提升信号。)

sound can be transmitted as a digital

or analogue signal
Magnesium :
1. like pole repel , unlike pole attract 同性相斥，异性
相吸
2. induced magnesium 感应电磁
magnesium attract materials by inducing
magnesium
3.

4.

Electricity：
1. 电学答题题型：
在一条之路上的电阻，当某一个电阻阻值减小，因
为总电阻不变，另一个电阻会增大

Electric charge:( positive and negative)

1. Unlike charges attract , like charges repals.
2. 单位 ：库伦©

3.
Electric field: region which electric charge
experiences a force
4. Conductors VS insulators
Conductors has electrons pass through the
materials . metal is best conductors cause they have
free electrons.
Insulators: electrons are tightly held to atoms and
hardly moves , they can transfer by rubbing.

Diagrams：
Current:

The ammeter measure

Electromagnetic force:
1. 右手螺旋定律（大拇指代表电流方向，四指代表磁
感线绕行方向）
2.
电流方向是正电荷移动方向（负电荷和正电荷受力方
向相反）
Relay：

通电产生电流，通过螺线管会把铁做的东西吸引下来，
这时候会产生断路，没有电流，所以螺线管内没有电
流经过，铁的东西会回到原来的位置上，这样反复
Motor：dc. Current 直流电
Motor effect：

Commutator 可以使得 motor 不间断地朝一个方向旋

转
Electromatic induction 电磁感应：
1. How to generate electricity?发电机

本质是切割磁感线 produce emf

只有在 coil 里面上下移动，产生 induced current 感应电流。（generator 工作原理）

 tt

Emf 是电压表测出来的电压

电磁感应的原理：

实验用 centre-zero meter 来测量 centre zero meter 偏转方向取决于感应电流的运动方向

感应电流与 magnetic 运动方向相反

Increase emf induction 的因素：

发电机 produce ac conductor 交流电

Explain any motion of the coil:
1 Coil turns clockwise(电流
2 Current in coil reverse every half turn./when coil is in vertical position.

Factors of affect size of the deflection:

Use stronger magnets

Speed of movement of wire

Length of the coil

Lenz law（the direction of induced current）
magnetic move to right 但是根据 lenz law 要阻碍磁铁的运动，
所以 N 极在左边，S 在右边

Lenz law 答题题型：

1.磁铁穿过磁感线， galvanometer 指针怎么变（the
galvanometer deflects, and returned to zero）
Transformer:对交流电（ ac current ）
直流电不行

为什么使用高压电？
Transformer 怎么工作的？

Power 不变

温度升高，压强保持不变，空气质量怎么变？
mass (of air) in room decreases
 (because) air expands / vol of air increases / density of air decreases / appropriate use of pV =
nRT OR pressure argument e.g. pressure would have increased (with constant volume) if mass
constant
any ONE from: some air leaves room molecules collide harder or more (often) molecules
move faster/ have more energy molecules move further apart NOT molecules expand
1. 来自太阳的能量如何成为大坝后水中储存的能量
radiant/heat energy from Sun or radiation from Sun
energy from Sun raises temperature of water/heats water/melts ice
energy from Sun evaporates water
PE in cloud
rain
stored water has PE
2. Efficiency：
Efficiency=energy output / energy input=power output/ power input
3. Energy source to boil water to make steam in power stations:
Nuclear energy
4. Renewable and reliable resources : geothermal , nuclear fission
5. 球无法回弹到原来的地方为什么会失去重力势能？
The internal energy of the ball and its thbfrcompree
6. 小球从高空掉落能量转变的过程：
The ball is falling: gpe. To ke.
The ball hits the surface and change the direction：ke to strain energy
The ball is rising from the surface(bounce): strain energy to ke.
7. 大球小球同时从同一高度下落，时间比较：same (times) / air resistance negligible /
same acceleration
OR times different one has (more) air resistance
11.energy resources used to generate electricity without using any moving parts;(without
producing heat to boil water)
solar energy (hydroelectric)
12. 电能可以从核裂变中获得的过程：
Nuclear fuel , reactor and boiler , turbines , generator
13 那些能量无法从太阳获得？
Tidal energy , nuclear fission, geothermal energy
14. 发电机发电原理：movement of wire, in the magnetic field
15. 在动能公式中速度减半，质量减半
16. Speed-time graph 中 terminal speed 的 acceleration is zero
17. Acceleration always involves changing speed 是错的
18. Coal and petrol are stored of chemical energy
19. None- renewable ( fossil fuel)
20. Renewable ( wind biofuel solar)
Length and time:

1. biggest measuring cylinder is not accurate as original measuring cylinder

Centre of mass

1. 运动员撑杆跳能量转化：
Standing: has chemical energy
Run-up: kinetic energy gained
Pole bent: has strain / elastic energy
Rise: potential energy gained
Fall: kinetic energy gained
On mat: has thermal / heat / sound / strain / elastic energy

Thermal physics;

1. The process of conduction；

Solid/liquid is heated
Particles vibrate more
Energy is transferred to adjacent molecule collisions , transferring energy from hot to cold
regions
2. The process of convection:
When a section of fluid is heated, it becomes less dense.
This cause it to rise
Denser fluid falls to take its place and is then heated , causing it to rise
This sets up a convection current
3. The lid reduced the energy lost by convection
4. Water is a poor conductor of heat
5. Insulator 温度随时间变化下降不快
6. cooling( density of air increase)
7. heating( density of air decrease)
8. 冰箱的原理：cold air falls and warm air is displaced upwards
9. Radiation ( heat travel in greater speed)

Atom physics:
Atoms:
The atom consists of tiny positive nucleus surrounded by mainly

empty space with negative electrons orbiting.

Positive ions lose electrons and negative ions gain electrons

The nucleus contains two types of nucleons :positively charged

protons and neutral neutrons.

原子由微小的正核组成，周围主要是空旷的空间，有负电子在运行。

当原子失去或获得电子时，就会形成正离子和负离子。

核子包含两种类型的核子：带正电的质子和中性的中子。

Nucleus:
1. composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and
neutrons nucleus 的组成
answer: very small nucleus surrounded by electrons
in orbit / neutrons and protons in nucleus

2.

2. isotopes( atoms of the same element

have same proton numbers but
different neutrons )
1.
2.f
or
ming ions: an atom have equal amounts of positive and negative
charges so it can be neutral overall.
Radioactivity：辐射
1． Sources of natural background radiation 自然的
1).the air is radioactive, it contains a radioactive
gas
2). The ground contains radioactive substance
3). Our food and drink
 4).cosmic rays , some of the radiation comes from
the sun some from further out the space

2. Source of artificial background radiation 人为的

1. Medical resources
2. Nuclear weapons testing is done underground 核武器
3. Fly in an aircraft
4. detect radiation
ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector
connected to a counter

1. Geiger counter( count per second/ counts per minute )

2. Background radiation :
在 15 counts/min 的 时 候 图 像 变 水 平 ， 说 明 背 景 辐 射 是
15counter/min
当没有检测物品在 GMtube 上检测，但有示数，说明这个示
数是 background radiation

3. radioactive decay 放射性衰变（ some nuclei are unstable

and emit radiation to become more stable）random
why unstable?
This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
This is commonly due to the nucleus have too many protons or
neutrons.
Eg:

 Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable

o It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12

Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or

because they have too many or too few neutrons

Emission of radiation in the nucleus:

Random process is spontaneously 自动的
外在因素比如温度不会影响 radioactive decay

Types of emission of radiative : ( random

and spontaneously)
根 据 不 同 的 charge ， 在 electric 和
magnetic field 中用 flaming left hand rule
判断正电荷运动方向
  Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles

o Therefore, beta particles are deflected more in the electric field

and alpha is deflected less

In magnetic field

 They are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite

charges 只要知道他们 deflect 就可以了

 
Alpha particles 在烟雾报警器怎么样电离的？
alpha (particles emitted from 某种元素)
move close to / hit molecules in the air (between the
metal plates)
removing electrons (out of the molecules)
three types of particles 穿透力：

 The ionising effects depend on the kinetic energy and charge of

the type of radiation

 The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is

o This means alpha radiation is the most ionising as it has a charge

of +2
 o A beta particle has a charge of –1 so is moderately ionising

o This means gamma radiation is the least ionising as it has a

charge of 0 (no charge)

 The higher the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is

o This means alpha particle is still the most ionising because it has

the greatest mass

o However, a beta particle is very light (it is an electron) but travels

at high speeds, therefore, it has a lot of kinetic energy and is still

moderately ionising

o Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so is weakly ionising。

Radioactive decay：
 Therefore, Isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to:

o An excess of neutrons in the nucleus

o The nucleus being too heavy

 A nucleus decays to increase its stability by reducing the number of

excess neutrons

o This is done by alpha or beta decay

 If the nucleus has too much energy, this is given off in the form of

radiation
 o This is often gamma radiation

 During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

o The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei

Half life:半衰期

Use of radiation:
 Radiation is used in a number of different ways:

1. Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer

2. Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)

3. Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)

4. Determining the age of ancient artefacts

5. Checking the thickness of materials

6. Smoke detectors (alarms)

3. atom contains something
repels -particles
that

The sense of scale:

 Nuclear reactor ： 为 什 么 surrounded by the thick concrete
walls( 有 辐 射 ， 对 人 体 有 害 ， thick concrete walls stop the
radiation)
 Ionization

How ionizing happens?

Effect on radioisotopes on cells

Safety precautions :安全措施
1. Wear protective suit
2. Radioactive hazard labels 辐射危险标签
3. Record keeping 记录确保放射性物质没有暴露过长时间
4. Remote operating of scanners 扫描仪远程操作
5. Storage boxes for sources 储存放射性物质的盒子
6. Photographic file dosimeter badges 用来检测一个人的暴露
量，到安全极限会提醒
Unstable isotopes
decays

Smoke detectors

About
430 years
Thickness measurement:

自动调整纸张厚度
Fault detection 故 障 检
测
Uses related to cell damage –radiation therapy 细胞损伤放射性治疗相关用途
1. cancer treatment 癌症治疗
2. food irradiation 食物照射
3. sterilization 灭菌
uses related to detectability –radioactivity tracing 辐射追踪
1. medicine（用 tracer technetium-99）
2. engineering（trace underground water flow）
use related to radioactive decay—half life and radiocarbon dating 放射性碳测年龄
1. radiocarbon
dating （ detect how
old the objects or
materials are ）
Earth and solar system: