CHAPTER-2 MOTION

NOTES

ANSH SINGH 6/4/24 PHYSICS

 Motion, Forces and Energy
Physical Quantities and Measurement
Techniques
 Length:

o The metre rule can measure distances of a few centimetres (cm) and the nearest

millimetre (mm).

o A tape measure will be used for measuring longer distances.

o Ensure the line of sight is at 90 degrees to avoid parallax error.

 Volume

o A measuring cylinder can measure liquid volume and volume change when

measuring irregular objects. (Ensure you measure from the bottom of the meniscus)

 Time

o Clock, Digital Timers (reading to 0.1s or better) to measure time intervals

Finding the Thickness of 1 Paper

 Measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper.

 Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for one sheet

Système International (SI) Units

SI Units Units
Length metre (m)
kilogram
Mass
(kg)
Time seconds (s)
Standard Notation is always in the power of 10

1. 4000 = 4 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 4×1034×103

2. 400 = 4 × 10 × 10= 4×1024×102

All answers in this IGCSE Physics syllabus can be written in 2 or 3 significant

figures.

Common Length Conversions

Measurements Units in meters

1 decimetre (dm) 10−110−1 meters

(m)

1 centimetre (cm) 10−210−2 meters

(m)

1 millimetre (mm) 10−310−3 meters

(m)

1 micrometre 10−610−6 meters

(μm) (m)

1 nanometre (nm) 10−910−9 meters

(m)

Measurements Units in meters

1 kilometre (km) 103103 meters (m)

1 gigametre
(Gm) 109109 meters (m)
 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Vector
✔ magnitude, X direction ✔ magnitude, ✔ direction
Force, Weight, Velocity, Acceleration,
Distance, Energy, Temperature,
Momentum, Electric Field Strength and
Speed, Time, Mass
Gravitational Field Strength
Calculating Vectors (Calculation or Graphically)

If forces W and Q are acting at right angles to each other from a point

Calculate the magnitude by using:

𝐹=𝑊2+𝑄2F=W2+Q2

Calculate the force by using:

tan⁡(𝑥)=𝑊𝑄tan(x)=QW

Motion
Speed: the distance travelled per unit of time.

Use the equation

𝑣=𝑠𝑡v=ts

Where:

 v is speed (m/s)

 s is displacement (m)

 t is time (s)
 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑=𝑑𝑡AverageSpeed=td

Velocity: the speed in a given direction.

Distance-Time Graphs

Distance-Time Graphs
1 Acceleration
2 At rest
3 Deceleration
4 Constant Speed

Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-Time Graphs

1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration
Acceleration

Acceleration: the change in velocity per unit of time.

𝑎=𝑣−𝑢Δ𝑡=Δ𝑣Δ𝑡 a=Δtv−u=ΔtΔv
Where:

 a is acceleration
 v is the final velocity

 u is the initial velocity

 Δt is the change in time.

The difference between the initial and final velocity finds the change in velocity.

 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

 Δv = v − u

NOTE: Deceleration is the same as Negative Acceleration.

Calculating Acceleration on Speed-Time Graphs

Free Fall

 The acceleration of free fall “ɡ” for an object near the surface of the Earth is constant

and is approximately 9.8 m/s².

 Do note! In free fall, there is No Air Resistance.

 From 2023 onwards, the instructions will tell you to use 9.8 m/s². This detail is very

important for numerous calculations in this chapter.

Terminal Velocity
1. As speed increases, air resistance increases.

2. The acceleration will decrease.

3. Eventually, air resistance = weight, leading to zero resultant force. This reaches

terminal velocity.

4. When the parachute is deployed, the parachute surface area increases, leading to

increased air resistance, decelerating the skydiver.

5. As the skydiver decelerates, air resistance will decrease until it equals the weight. A

new terminal velocity is reached again.

6. At last, when it touches down, the velocity quickly drops to zero.

Mass and Weight

Mass: a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to the

observer. The mass of a body is a measure of the amount of matter in it.

Weight: a gravitational force on an object that has mass.

Gravitational field strength g: as force per unit mass.

The equation for gravitational field strength is :

𝑔=𝑊𝑚g=mW

 Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the acceleration of free fall.

 Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance.

 The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on its mass.

 Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance.

Density
Density: mass per unit volume.

The equation for density is:

𝑝=𝑚𝑣p=vm

 p = density

 m = mass

 v = volume

With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid, of a regularly shaped

solid

Finding the Density of an Irregularly Shaped Object

 Use a balance to measure the mass of the object

 Find the volume using the water displacement method

 Use the formulae 𝑝=𝑚𝑣p=vm

Sinking Phenomenon

An object will sink in a liquid of lower density than its own

 e.g., Wood has a lower density than water, so it floats

 For, steel has a higher density than water, so it sinks

Forces
 A force is a push or a pull.

 Forces may produce changes in an object's size, shape and motion.

 Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may impede motion and produce

heating.

 Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid or a gas (air resistance).

Springs

Hooke’s Law

Extension is directly proportional to force

This is only true if the limit of proportionality is not exceeded

 The limit of proportionality is the point at which the load-extension graph becomes

non-linear.

Properties of Hooke’s Law

 The graph starts from the origin (0)(0)

 The graph is regular and in a straight line

Spring Constant

The spring constant 𝑘kis defined as force per unit extension. \n Recall and use the

equation:
 𝑘=𝐹𝑥k=xF

Where:

 F is the force or load (N)

 x is the extension (cm)

 k is the spring constant (N/m, N/cm, N/mm)

Forces And Resultants

 It has magnitude and direction (vector quantity)

 Usually, there is more than one force acting on the object

Newton’s First Law

 An object stays at rest or continues to move in a straight line at a constant speed

unless acted on by a resultant force.

For example, if these forces were absent, an object would move on forever

 The lesser the external forces opposing a moving body, the smaller the force needed

to keep it moving with constant velocity

Newton’s Second Law

𝐹=𝑚𝑎F=ma

 F= force

 m= mass

 a = acceleration

 This is the force that acts on an object going from point A to point B

Friction

Friction is the force that opposes one surface moving or trying to move.
 Static Friction: when the force is applied on the object at the start, and the friction is

at its highest value

 Dynamic Friction: when friction acts on the object when it moves, it is less than the

maximum value.

Centripetal Force

 The force that acts towards the curve's centre and keeps a body moving in a circular

path is called the centripetal force.

 Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force perpendicular to the motion.

 In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed increases (mass and

radius are constants).

 In a circular motion, if the radius decreases, the force needed increases (mass and

speed are constants). In a circular motion, an increased force is required to keep

speed and radius constant if mass is increased.

 the direction of the force is always towards the centre of the circle

Moments of Forces

 Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect.

The moment of a force is defined as

moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot

Applying the Principle of Moments

When a body is not moving the sum of the clockwise moments about any point

equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point. There is no

resultant moment on an object in equilibrium

𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒=𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒clockwise=anticlockwise
 Apply the principle of moments in situations with more than one force on each side of

the pivot.

Conditions for No Resultant Force

 no resultant force

 clockwise = anticlockwise

Center of Gravity

Centre of Gravity: the position at which all the mass of the object is acted at

 If the centre of gravity passes through the base of the object, the object can topple

Conditions for Making an Object Stable

 Lower the centre of gravity

 increase the area of the bottom

Momentum
Momentum: as mass x velocity (kg m/s)

The equation for momentum is 𝑝=𝑚𝑣 p=mv

Where:

 p is momentum

 m is mass

 v is velocity

The resultant force is defined as the change in momentum per unit of time:

𝐹=Δ𝑝Δ𝑡F=ΔtΔp

∴𝐹=𝑚Δ𝑣Δ𝑡∴F=ΔtmΔv

Impulse of a force: as force x time for which force acts:

 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒=𝐹Δ𝑡=Δ(𝑚𝑣)Impulse=FΔt=Δ(mv)

The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum

The general law of physics, according to which the quantity called momentum that

characterises motion, never changes in an isolated collection of objects; that is, the

total momentum of a closed system remains constant.

Energy, Work and Power

 Energy 'stores’ are kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear

electrostatic and internal (thermal).

 Energy is transferred between stores during events and processes.

 Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done), electrical currents (electrical

work done), heating, electromagnetic, sound, and other waves.

The Principle of the Conservation of Energy

 The principle of energy conservation states that energy is neither created nor

destroyed. It may transform from one type to another.

 Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to another. Unless energy is

added from the outside, a system always possesses the same quantity of energy.

 The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into electrical energy in a torch,

which is then converted into light and heat. This energy is either absorbed or

reflected by the environment.

Kinetic Energy Formula

Change in Gravitational Potential Energy

Energy Transfer Diagrams

Sankey Diagrams
 Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy transferred.

The Equation for (mechanical) Work Done is:

𝑊=𝐹𝑑=Δ𝐸W=Fd=ΔE

Units: Joules (J)

Where:

 W = Work Done

 F = magnitude of the force

 d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources

Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power generated, from:

Non-Renewable Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources

Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal
Nuclear Solar (EM Waves from the sun)
- Biofuels
Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun. These are:

 Coal: formed from dead trees that have used energy from the sun to produce

hydrocarbons that have become coal under pressure

 Biofuels: organic matter that is burned to produce energy

 Hydroelectric: energy relies on the sun’s energy to run the water cycle so energy can

be harnessed

 Wind - gets heated and rises and cooler air flows to fill the space
 Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured by photocells and turned

into energy

 Renewabili Availabilit Reliabilit Scal Environment

ty y y e al Impact
Wind ✓ high low high on birds
Solar ✓ high low high low impact
Geotherm Almost no
✓ low high low
al impact
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impact
Hydro- impacts
✓ high high high
electric marine life
Tidal ✓ high low low -
Greenhouse
Coal ☓ high high low
gases
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances
Boilers, turbines, and generators generate electricity in a power plant.

Efficiency

Efficiency=Useful energy outputTotal energy input×100Efficiency=T

otal energy inputUseful energy output×100

Power

Power: work done per unit of time and energy transferred per unit of time.
 𝑃=𝑊𝑡P=tW

𝑃=Δ𝐸𝑡P=tΔE

 P = power (watt)

 W = work done (J)

 ΔE = energy transferred (J)

 T = time (s)

Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area and measured in N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m

The equation for pressure is: 𝑝=𝐹𝑎 p=aF

Where:

p is pressure

F is force

a is area

Pressure in Liquids

Pressure beneath a liquid's surface changes with the liquid's depth and density. The

equation gives the change in pressure beneath the surface of a liquid:

change in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x change in depth

Δ𝑝=𝜌𝑔ΔℎΔp=ρgΔh

Where:

Δp = pressure difference in pascals (Pa)

ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)

g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)

Speed
 The speed of an object is the distance it travels per unit time
 Speed is a scalar quantity
o This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
 For objects that are moving with a constant speed, use the equation below to
calculate the speed:

 Where:
o Speed is measured in metres per second (m/s)
o Distance travelled is measured in metres (m)
o Time taken is measured in seconds (s)

A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited
bumble bee can have average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s

Average Speed
 In some cases, the speed of a moving object is not constant
o For example, the object might be moving faster or slower at certain
moments in time (accelerating and decelerating)
 The equation for calculating the average speed of an object is:

 The formula for average speed (and the formula for speed) can be
rearranged with the help of the formula triangle below:
How to Use Formula Triangles

 Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics
equations
 To use them:

1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the

equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
o If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
o If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make
sure to keep the order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!

 In the example below, to calculate speed, cover-up 'speed' and only distance
and time are left
o This means it is equal to distance (on the top) ÷ time (on the bottom)

How to use formula triangles

Worked example

Planes fly at typical speeds of around 250 m/s. Calculate the total distance travelled
by a plane moving at this average speed for 2 hours.
Step 1: List the known quantities


o Average speed = 250 m/s
o Time taken = 2 hours
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the total distance

total distance = average speed × time taken

Step 4: Convert any units


o The time given in the question is not in standard units
o Convert 2 hours into seconds:

2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s

Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

total distance = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m

Velocity
 The velocity of a moving object is similar to its speed, except it also
describes the object’s direction
o The speed of an object only contains a magnitude - it’s
a scalar quantity
 Velocity is therefore a vector quantity because it describes both magnitude
and direction
o e.g. ‘15 m/s south’ or ‘250 mph on a bearing of 030°’

 This means velocity can also have a negative value

o E.g. a ball thrown upwards at a velocity of 3 m/s comes down at a
velocity –5 m/s, if upwards is considered positive
o However, their speeds are still 3 m/s and 5 m/s respectively
 The equation for velocity is very similar to the equation for speed:

 Where:
 o v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o s = displacement, measured in metres (m)
o t = time, measured in seconds (s)
 Velocity is a vector quantity, so it uses displacement, s, rather than distance
which is scalar.

Acceleration
EXTENDED

 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity

o In other words, it describes how much an object's
velocity changes every second
 The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:

 Where:
o a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
o Δv = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o Δt = time taken in seconds (s)

 The change in velocity is found by the difference between the initial and
final velocity, as written below:

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = v − u

 Where:
o v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)

 The equation for acceleration can be rearranged with the help of a formula
triangle as shown:

Speeding Up & Slowing Down

  An object that speeds up is accelerating
 An object that slows down is decelerating
 The acceleration of an object can be positive or negative, depending on
whether the object is speeding up or slowing down
o If an object is speeding up, its acceleration is positive
o If an object is slowing down, its acceleration is negative (sometimes
called deceleration)

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Worked example

A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. The velocity
of the train decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.

(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.

(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the
train is slowing down.

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Initial velocity = 50 m/s
o Final velocity = 42 m/s

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s
o Time taken, t = 30 s

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

a = −8 ÷ 30 = −0.27 m/s

Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration


o The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Exam Tip

Remember the units for acceleration are metres per second squared, m/s2. In other
words, acceleration measures how much the velocity (in m/s) changes every second,
m/s/s.

Did this video help you?

YesNo
Distance-Time Graphs
 A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object moving in a
straight line (from a starting position) varies over time:

This graph shows a moving object moving further away from its origin

Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

  Distance-time graphs also show the following information:
o If the object is moving at a constant speed
o How large or small the speed is

 A straight line represents constant speed

 The slope of the straight line represents the magnitude of the speed:
o A very steep slope means the object is moving at a large speed
o A shallow slope means the object is moving at a small speed
o A flat, horizontal line means the object is stationary (not moving)

This graph shows how the slope of a line is used to interpret the speed of
moving objects. Both of these objects are moving with a constant speed,
because the lines are straight.

Changing Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

 Objects might be moving at a changing speed

o This is represented by a curve
 In this case, the slope of the line will be changing
o If the slope is increasing, the speed is increasing (accelerating)
o If the slope is decreasing, the speed is decreasing (decelerating)
 The image below shows two different objects moving with changing speeds

Changing speeds are represented by changing slopes. The red line represents
an object slowing down and the green line represents an object speeding up.
 Using Distance-Time Graphs
 The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line
on a distance-time graph:

The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-

time graph

 The rise is the change in y (distance) values

 The run is the change in x (time) values

Worked example

A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train is travelling

at a constant speed.

Calculate the speed of the train.

Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph and label the magnitude of
the rise and run


o The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed
lines
o The rise and run magnitude is labelled, using the units as stated on
each axes

Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units


o The distance travelled (rise) = 8 km = 8000 m
o The time taken (run) = 6 mins = 360 s

Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph


o The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a
moving object:

Step 4: Substitute values in to calculate the speed

speed = gradient = 8000 ÷ 360

speed = 22.2 m/s

Worked example
Ose decides to take a stroll to the park. He finds a bench in a quiet spot and takes a
seat, picking up where he left off reading his book on Black Holes. After some time
reading, Ose realises he lost track of time and runs home.

A distance-time graph for his trip is drawn below.

a)
How long does Ose spend reading his book?
b)
There are three sections labelled on the graph, A, B and C. Which section
represents Ose running home?
c)
What is the total distance travelled by Ose?
Part (a)


o Ose spends 40 minutes reading his book
o The flat section of the line (section B) represents an object which
is stationary - so section B represents Ose sitting on the bench
reading
o This section lasts for 40 minutes - as shown in the graph below
Part (b)


o Section C represents Ose running home
o The slope of the line in section C is steeper than the slope in section A
o This means Ose was moving with a larger speed (running) in section C

Part (c)


o The total distance travelled by Ose is 0.6 km
o The total distance travelled by an object is given by the final point on
the line - in this case, the line ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis.
This is shown in the image below:

Exam Tip

Use the entire line, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to
award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used - so remember to draw these
directly on the graph itself!
Remember to check the units of variables measured on each axis. These may not
always be in standard units - in our example, the unit of distance was km and the
unit of time was minutes. Double-check which units to use in your answer.

Speed-Time Graphs
 A speed-time graph shows how the speed of a moving object varies with time
o The red line represents an object with increasing speed
o The green line represents an object with decreasing speed

Increasing and decreasing speed represented on a speed-time graph

Acceleration on a Speed-Time Graph

 Speed-time graphs also show the following information:

o If the object is moving with a constant acceleration or deceleration
o The magnitude of the acceleration or deceleration
 A straight line represents constant acceleration
 The slope of the line represents the magnitude of acceleration
o A steep slope means large acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the
object's speed changes very quickly
o A gentle slope means small acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the
object's speed changes very gradually
o A flat line means the acceleration is zero - i.e. the object is moving
with a constant speed
 This image shows how to interpret the slope of a speed-time graph

Using Speed-Time Graphs

 The distance travelled by an object can be found by determining the area
beneath the graph

The distance travelled can be found from the area beneath the graph

 If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the object is accelerating or
decelerating) then the area can be determined using the formula:
  If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area
can be determined using the formula:

Worked example

The speed-time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for 160 seconds.

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey.

Step 1: Recall that the area under a velocity-time graph represents the
distance travelled


o In order to calculate the total distance travelled, the total area
underneath the line must be determined

Step 2: Identify each enclosed area


o In this example, there are five enclosed areas under the line
o These can be labelled as areas 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as shown in the image
below:
Step 3: Calculate the area of each enclosed shape under the line


o Area 1 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 40 × 17.5
= 350 m
o Area 2 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 30 × 17.5 = 525 m
o Area 3 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 20 × 7.5 = 75 m
o Area 4 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 20 × 17.5 = 350 m
o Area 5 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 70 × 25 = 875 m

Step 4: Calculate the total distance travelled by finding the total area under the
line


o Add up each of the five areas enclosed:

total distance = 350 + 525 + 75 + 350 + 875

total distance = 2175 m

Interpreting Speed-Time graphs

EXTENDED

 If there is a change in an object's speed, then it is accelerating

 An object may accelerate at a steady rate, this is called constant

acceleration
o On a speed-time graph this will be a non-horizontal straight line
  An object may accelerate at an increasing rate
o On a speed-time graph this would be an upward curve with
an increasing gradient

 An object may accelerate at a decreasing rate

On a speed-time graph this would be an upward curve with a decreasing gradient

Did this video help you?

YesNo
Acceleration of Free Fall
 In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration
 This is called the acceleration of freefall (this is also sometimes called
acceleration due to gravity)
 In the absence of air resistance, Galileo discovered that all objects (near
Earth's surface) fall with an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s 2

 This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity will increase by
9.8 m/s
 The symbol g also stands for the gravitational field strength, and can be
used to calculate the weight of an object using its mass:

weight = mass × gravitational field strength

W = mg

Motion of Falling Objects

EXTENDED

Falling Objects without Air Resistance

 In the absence of air resistance, all objects falling in a uniform gravitational

field, fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their mass

 So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object

will increase at a steady rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.
 In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration

Falling Objects with Air Resistance

 Objects falling through fluids (fluids are liquids or gases) in a uniform

gravitational field, experience two forces:
o Weight (due to gravity)
o Friction (such as air resistance)
 A skydiver jumping from a plane will experience:
o A downward acting force of weight (mass × acceleration of freefall)
o An upward acting force of air resistance (frictional forces always
oppose the direction of motion)

 The force of air resistance increases with speed. This is illustrated in the
image below:

Debbie initially accelerates downwards due to her weight. The upwards air
resistance increases as she falls until it eventually grows big enough to
balance the weight force
  Initially, the upwards air resistance is very small because the skydiver isn't
falling very quickly
o Therefore, there are unbalanced forces on the skydiver initially
 As the skydiver speeds up, air resistance increases, eventually growing large
enough to balance the downwards weight force
 Once air resistance equals weight, the forces are balanced
o This means there is no longer any resultant force
 Therefore, the skydiver's acceleration is zero - they now travel at
a constant speed
 This speed is called their terminal velocity

 When the skydiver opens the parachute, the air resistance increases
o This is due to the increased surface area of the parachute opening
 The upward force of air resistance on the skydiver increases, slowing the
acceleration of the skydivers fall
o The skydiver decelerates
 Eventually, the forces balance out again, and a new slower terminal
velocity is reached

Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during the descent

Worked example

A small object falls out of an aircraft. Choose words from the list to complete the
sentences below:

Friction Gravitational field strength Air pressure

Accelerates Falls at a steady speed Slows down

(a) The weight of an object is the product of the object's mass and the __________.

(b) When an object falls, initially it ____________.

(c) As the object falls faster, the force of ______________ acting upon the object
increases.

(d) Eventually the object ______________ when the force of friction equals the force
of weight acting on it.

Part (a)

The weight of an object is the product of the object's mass and the gravitational
field strength.


o The weight force is due to the Earth's gravitational pull on the object's
mass as it falls through a uniform gravitational field

Part (b)

When an object falls, initially it accelerates.


o The resultant force on the object is very large initially, so it
accelerates
o This is because there is a large unbalanced force downwards (its
weight) - the upward force of air resistance is very small to begin with

Part (c)

As the object falls faster, the force of friction acting upon the object increases.


o The force of air resistance is due to friction between the object's
motion and collisions with air particles
o Collisions with air particles slow the object down, so air itself produces
a frictional force, called air resistance (sometimes called drag)

Part (d)

Eventually the object falls at a steady speed when the force of friction equals the
force of weight acting on it.


o When the upwards air resistance increases enough to balance the
downwards weight force, the resultant force on the object is zero
 o This means the object isn't accelerating - rather, it is moving at
a steady (terminal) speed

Exam Tip

The force of gravity on an object with mass is called weight. If asked to name this
force make sure you use this word: Don’t refer to it as “gravity” as this term could
also mean gravitational field strength and so would probably be marked wrong.

Likewise, remember to identify air resistance as the upwards force on a falling

object. This force gets larger as the object speeds up, but the weight of the object
stays constant. Don't confuse 'air resistance' with 'air pressure' - these are two
different concepts!

Exam questions about terminal velocity tend to involve the motion of skydivers as
they fall

A common misconception is that skydivers move upwards when their parachutes are
deployed - however, this is not the case, they are in fact decelerating to a lower
terminal velocity

 An object is said to decelerate if its speed is decreasing over time, i.e. its
acceleration is negative
o On a speed-time graph this would be a downward line
 If the line is a non-horizontal straight line, deceleration
is constant
 If the line is a curve with an increasing gradient, deceleration
is increasing
  If the line is a curve with a decreasing gradient, deceleration
is decreasing

Calculating Acceleration
EXTENDED

 The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a

speed-time graph

How to find the gradient of a speed-time graph

Worked example

Tora is training for a cycling tournament.

The speed-time graph below shows her motion as she cycles along a flat, straight
road.
(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the speed-time graph is Tora’s acceleration
the largest?

(b) Calculate Tora’s acceleration between 5 and 10 seconds.

Part (a)

Step 1: Recall that the slope of a speed-time graph represents the magnitude
of acceleration


o The slope of a speed-time graph indicates the magnitude of
acceleration

Therefore, the only sections of the graph where Tora is accelerating is

section B and section D

o Sections A, C, and E are flat – in other words, Tora is moving at a

constant speed (i.e. not accelerating)

Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope


o Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D

Part (b)

Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a speed-time graph gives the acceleration


o Calculating the gradient of a slope on a speed-time graph gives the
acceleration for that time period

Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph
 
o A gradient triangle is drawn for the time period between 5 and 10
seconds below:

Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and state this as the acceleration


o The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated
using:

acceleration = gradient = 5 ÷ 5 = 1 m/s2


o Therefore, Tora accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds

Exam Tip

Use the entire slope, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to
award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used - so remember to draw 'rise'
and 'run' lines directly on the graph itself!

BY- ANSH SINGH ..@