Intro To AnaPhy - 1763279319

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY with PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
© Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology Tenth Edition [Marieb, Elaine N.]
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy 3. Tissue Level

 The study of the structure and shape of the body  the simplest living creatures are
and its parts and their relationship to one another composed of single cells, but in
 Derived from Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) complex organisms such as trees or
apart (ana), which is related most closely to gross human beings, the structural ladder
anatomical studies because in such studies continues on to the tissue level
preserved animals or their organs are dissected  Tissues consist of group of similar
(cut up) to be examined cells that have a common function
 2 branches
 Gross Anatomy: deals with the structure of 4. Organ Level
organs and tissues that are visible to the  extremely complex functions become
naked eye; large, observable body structures possible
 Microscopic Anatomy: study of body  An organ is a structure composed of
structures too small to be seen with the naked two or more tissue types that perform
eye a specific function for the body
5. Organ System Level

Physiology  An organ System is a group of organs
 The study of how the body and its parts work or that work together to accomplish a
function common purpose
 physio = nature; ology = study of  Organ systems make up the living
 Subdivisions (examples) human being, or the organism
 Neurophysiology: explains the workings of
the nervous system 6. Organismal Level
 Cardiac physiology: studies the function of  the highest level of structural
the heart organization
 the sum of all structural levels
working together to keep us alive
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATIONS OF

THE HUMAN BODY
1. Chemical Level
 the simplest level of the structural ladder
 Atoms, the tiny building blocks of matter,
combine to form molecules such as water,
sugar, and proteins.
 Molecules, in turn, associate in specific ways
to form microscopic cells.
2. Cellular Level
 Cells are the smallest unit of all living things
 All cells have some common functions, but
individual cells vary widely in size and shape,
reflecting their particular roles in the body
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW
1. Integumentary System  Through its receptors, the nervous

 The external covering of the body, or the skin system keeps us in touch with our
 It waterproofs the body, and cushions and environment, both external and
protects the deeper tissues from injury internal.
 It excretes salts and urea in perspiration and
helps regulate body temperature 5. Endocrine System
 Temperature, pressure, and pain receptors  Like the nervous system, endocrine
located in the skin alert us to what is system controls body activities, but it
happening at the body surface. acts much more slowly
 The endocrine glands produce
2. Skeletal System chemical molecules called hormones
 Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and and release them into the blood to
joints travel relatively distant target organs
 It supports the body and provides framework  Endocrine glands include the pituitary,
that the skeletal muscles use to cause thyroid, parathyroids, adrenal, thymus,
movement pancreas, pineal, ovaries (female),
 It has a protective function and testes (male).
 Hematopoiesis takes place within the cavities  Growth, reproduction, and food use
of the skeleton by cells are all controlled (at least in
 The hard substance of bones acts as a part) by hormones.
storehouse for minerals
6. Cardiovascular System
3. Muscular System  The primary organs include the heart
 The muscles of the body have only one function— and blood vessels.
to contract, or shorten. When this happens,  Using blood as the transporting fluid,
movement occurs. Hence, muscles can be viewed the cardiovascular system carries
as the "machines" of the body. oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and
 The mobility of the body as a whole reflects the other substances to and from the
activity of skeletal muscles, the large, fleshy tissue cells where exchanges are
muscles attached to bones. made.
 When these contract, you are able to stand erect,  White blood cells and chemicals in
walk, leap, grasp, throw a ball, or smile. the blood help to protect the body
 The skeletal muscles form the muscular system. from such foreign invaders as
These muscles are distinct from the muscles of bacteria, toxins, and tumor cells.
the heart and of other hollow organs, which move  The heart acts as the blood pump,
fluids (blood, urine) or other substances (such as propelling blood out of its chambers
food) along definite pathways within the body. into the blood vessels to be
transported to all body tissues.
4. Nervous System
 The body’s fast-acting control system 7. Lymphatic System
 It consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves,  The role of the lymphatic system
and sensory receptors complements that of the
 The nervous system is the major controlling, cardiovascular system.
regulatory, and communicating system in the  Its organs include lymphatic vessels,
body. lymph nodes, and other lymphoid
 It is the center of all mental activity including organs such as the spleen and
thought, learning, and memory. tonsils.
 The lymphatic vessels return fluid leaked  Their role is to break down food and
from the blood back to the blood vessels so deliver the products to the blood for
that blood can be kept continuously dispersal to the body cells. The
circulating through the body. undigested food that remains in the
 The lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs tract leaves the body through the
help to cleanse the blood and house cells anus as feces.
involved in immunity.
10. Urinary System
8. Respiratory System  The body produces wastes as
 The job of the respiratory system is to keep by-products of its normal functions,
the body constantly supplied with oxygen and and these wastes must be disposed
to remove carbon dioxide. of. One type of waste contains
 The respiratory system consists of the nasal nitrogen (examples are urea and uric
passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, acid), which results when the body
and lungs. cells break down proteins and nucleic
 Within the lungs are tiny air sacs. Gases are acids.
transported to and from the blood through the  The urinary system removes the
thin walls of these air sacs. nitrogen-containing wastes from the
blood and flushes them from the body
9. Digestive System in urine.
 The digestive system is basically a tube  This system, often called the
running through the body from mouth to anus. excretory system, is composed of the
 The organs of the digestive system include kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, urethra.
small and large intestines, and rectum plus a  Other important functions of this
number of accessory organs (liver, salivary system include maintaining the
glands, pancreas, and others). body's water and salt (electrolyte)
balance and regulating the acid-base
balance of the blood.
11. Reproductive System 2. Control Center

 The reproductive system exists primarily to  2nd component of homeostatic control
produce offspring. mechanism
 The testes of the male produce sperm. Other  Determines the level (set point) at
male reproductive system structures are the which a variable is to be maintained
scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and the  Analyzes the information it receives
duct system, which carries sperm to the and then determines the appropriate
outside of the body. response of course of action
 The ovaries of the female produce eggs, or
ova; the female duct system consists of the 3. Effector
uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina. The uterus  3rd component of homeostatic control
provides the site for the development of the mechanism
fetus (immature infant) once fertilization has  Provides the means for the control
occurred. center’s response (output) to the
stimulus
 Information flows from the control
center to the effector along efferent
HOMEOSTASIS pathway
 The results of the response then feed
Homeostasis back to influence the stimulus, either
 The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable by depressing it (negative feedback)
internal conditions even though the outside so that the whole control mechanism
world is continuously changing shut off; or by enhancing it (positive
 In general, the body demonstrates feedback) so that the reaction
homeostasis when its needs are being continues at an even faster rate
adequately met and it is functioning smoothly
 Although the literal translation of homeostasis
is “unchanging” (homeo = the same; stasis =
standing still), the term does not really mean
an unchanging state.
 Instead, it indicates a dynamic state of
equilibrium, or a balance in which internal
conditions change and vary but always within
relatively low limits
Homeostatic Controls
1. Receptor
 1st component of homeostatic control
mechanism
 Some type of sensor that monitors and
responds to changes in the environment
 It responds to changes, called stimuli, by
sending information (input) to the control
center
 Information flows from the receptor to the
control center along the afferent pathway
Negative Feedback Mechanism THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

 The net effect of the response to the stimulus is to
shut off the original stimulus or to reduce its Anatomical Position
intensity  Also known as standard anatomical
 Most homeostatic control mechanisms are position, refers to the specific body
negative feedback mechanism orientation used when describing an
individual’s anatomy.
 Standard anatomical position of the
human body consists of the body standing
upright and facing forward with the legs
parallel to one another. The upper limbs,
or arms, hang at either side and the palms
face forward.
 If the body is lying flat instead of standing
upright, with the same positioning of the
limbs, it is known as the supine position.
 Standard anatomical position provides a
clear and consistent way of describing
human anatomy and physiology.
Positive Feedback Mechanism

 Positive feedback mechanisms are rare in the
body because they tend to increase the original
disturbance (stimulus) and to push the variable
farther from its original value.
Directional Terms
 Directional terms allow medical personnel and
anatomists to explain exactly where one body
structure is in relation to another.
Regional Terms
 Regional terms describe anatomy by dividing the  Using these terms helps increase the
body parts into different regions that contain accurate description and identification of
structures involved in contributing similar the particular region of interest or region
functions. affected by the disease.
Body Planes and Sections B. The frontal plane divides the body or
 A plane is an imaginary, two-dimensional surface an organ into an anterior (front)
that passes through the body. It is an imaginary portion and a posterior (rear) portion.
line that divides the body into halves. The frontal plane is often referred to
 A body section is a slice of the body taken from a as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin
particular plane. It is a two-dimensional surface of for “crown.”)
a three-dimensional structure that has been cut.
C. The transverse (or horizontal)
plane divides the body or organ
Types of Body Planes horizontally into upper and lower
A. The sagittal plane divides the body or an portions. Transverse planes produce
organ vertically into right and left sides. If this images referred to as cross sections.
vertical plane runs directly down the middle of
the body, it is called the midsagittal or median
plane. If it divides the body into unequal right
and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane
or less commonly a longitudinal section.
Body Cavities B. Ventral Cavity

 The human body, like that of many other  The thoracic cavity is the more
multicellular organisms, is divided into a number superior subdivision of the anterior
of body cavities. cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib
 A body cavity is a fluid-filled space inside the body cage.
that holds and protects internal organs.  The thoracic cavity contains the
 Human body cavities are separated by lungs and the heart, which is
membranes and other structures. The two largest located in the mediastinum.
human body cavities are the ventral cavity and  The diaphragm forms the floor of
the dorsal cavity. These two body cavities are the thoracic cavity and separates
subdivided into smaller body cavities. it from the more inferior
abdominopelvic cavity.
A. Dorsal Cavity
 The cranial cavity is the space inside the  The abdominopelvic cavity is the
bony skull largest cavity in the body.
 houses the brain  No membrane physically divides
 protected by the bones of the skull and the abdominopelvic cavity.
cerebrospinal fluid  The abdominal cavity houses the
 The spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) digestive organs.
extends from the cranial cavity nearly to the  The pelvic cavity is enclosed by
end the vertebral column the pelvic bones and houses
 encloses the spinal cord some urinary organs,
 protected by the vertebral column and reproductive organs, and some
cerebrospinal fluid structures of the digestive
system.
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

 Because the abdominopelvic cavity is quite large  The quadrants are then simply named
and contains many organs, it helps to divide it up according to their relative positions-that is,
into smaller areas for study. right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower
 A scheme commonly used by medical personnel quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant
divides the abdominopelvic cavity into four more (LUQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
or less equal regions called quadrants.
 Another system, used mainly by anatomists,

divides the abdominopelvic cavity into nine
separate regions by four planes.
CELL DIVERSITY (Cell Types and Functions)
1. Cells that connect body parts: 3. Cells that move organs and body parts:
 Fibroblast. The elongated shape of this cell  Skeletal muscle and smooth
lies along the cable-like fibers that it secretes. muscle cells. These cells are
It has an abundant rough ER and a large elongated and filled with abundant
Golgi apparatus to make and secrete the contractile filaments, so they can
protein building blocks of these fibers. shorten forcefully and move the
bones or change the size of internal
organs.
 Erythrocyte (red blood cell). This cell

carries oxygen in the bloodstream. Its
concave disc shape provides extra surface
area for the uptake of oxygen and streamlines
the cell so it flows easily through the 4. Cell that stores nutrients:
blood-stream. So much oxygen-carrying  Fat cell. The huge spherical shape of
pigment is packed in erythrocytes that all a fat cell is produced by a large lipid
other organelles have been shed to make droplet in its cytoplasm.
room.
2. Cell that covers and lines body organs:

 Epithelial cell. The hexagonal shape of this 5. Cell that fights disease:
cell is exactly like a "cell" in a honeycomb of a  Macrophage (a phagocytic cell).
beehive. This shape allows. epithelial cells to This cell extends long pseudopods
pack together in sheets. An epithelial cell has ("false feet") to crawl through tissue
abundant intermediate filaments that resist to reach infection sites. The many
tearing when the epithelium is rubbed or lysosomes within the cell digest the
pulled. infectious microorganisms it takes up.
6. Cell that gathers information and controls BODY TISSUES

body functions:
 Nerve cell (neuron). This cell has long Tissues
processes (extensions) for receiving  Group of cells that are similar in structure
messages and transmitting them to other and function
structures in the body. The processes are  Tissues are organized into organs such
covered with an extensive plasma membrane, as the heart, kidneys, and lungs. Most
and a plentiful rough ER synthesizes organs contain several tissue types, and
membrane components. the arrangement of the tissues
determines each organ's structure and
what it is able to do.
 Four primary types: epithelial tissue
(covering), connective tissue (support),
nervous tissue (control), and muscle
tissue (movement)
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Also known as epithelium (epithe =
laid on, covering)
7. Cells of reproduction:  It is the lining, covering, and glandular
 Oocyte (female). The largest cell in the body, tissue of the body
this egg cell contains several copies of all  Glandular epithelium forms
organelles, for distribution to the daughter various glands in the body
cells that arise when the fertilized egg divides  Covering and lining epithelium
to become an embryo, covers all free body surfaces
 Sperm (male). This cell is long and (outer layer of the skin, body
stream-lined, built for swimming to the egg for cavities)
fer-tilization. Its flagellum acts as a motile  Because epithelium forms the
whip to propel the sperm. boundaries that separate us from the
outside world, nearly all substances
that the body gives off or receives
must pass through epithelium
Functions of Epithelial Tissue

 Epithelial functions include
protection, absorption, filtration,
and secretion
 The epithelium of the skin protects
against bacterial and chemical
damage
 The epithelium lining the respiratory
tract has cilia, which sweep dust and
other debris away from the lungs.
 Epithelium specialized to absorb
substances lines some digestive
system organs such as the stomach
and small intestine, which absorb
food nutrients into the body.
 In the kidneys, epithelium both absorbs and A. Simple Epithelia: The simple epithelia
filters. are most concerned with absorption,
 Secretion is a specialty of the glands, which secretion, and filtration. Because simple
produce such substances as perspiration, oil, epithelia are usually very thin, protection
digestive enzymes, and mucus. is not one of their specialties
i. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Classification of Epithelium  It is a single layer of thin squamous
Each epithelium is given two names. The first cells resting on a basement
indicates the relative number of cell layers it has, and membrane. The cells fit closely
the second describes the shape of its cells. together, much like floor tiles.
 This type of epithelium usually forms
 Based on cell arrangement (layers) membranes where filtration or
 Simple epithelium: one layer of cells exchange of substances by rapid
 Stratified epithelium: more than one cell diffusion occurs.
layer  Simple squamous epithelium is in the
air sacs of the lungs, where oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged,
and it forms the walls of capillaries,
where nutrients and gases pass
between the tissue cells and the
blood in the capillaries.
 Simple squamous epithelium also
forms serous membranes, or serosae,
the slick membranes that line the
ventral body cavity and cover the
organs in that cavity.
ii. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

 Simple cuboidal epithelium, which is
one layer of cuboidal cells resting on
 Based on cell shape a basement membrane, is common in
 Squamous cells: flattened like fish scales glands and their ducts (for example,
 Cuboidal cells: cube-shaped like dice the salivary glands and pancreas). It
 Columnar cells: shaped like columns also forms the walls of the kidney
tubules and covers the surface of the
ovaries.
iii. Simple Columnar Epithelium

 It is made up of a single layer of tall
cells that fit closely together. Goblet
cells, which produce a lubricating
mucus, are often seen in this type of
epithelium. Simple columnar
epithelium lines the entire length of
the digestive tract from the stomach
to the anus. Epithelial membranes
that line body cavities open to the
body exterior are called mucosae.
iv. Pseudo-stratified Columnar Epithelium ii. Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified

 All of the cells of pseudo-stratified columnar Columnar Epithelia
epithelium rest on a basement membrane.  Stratified cuboidal epithelium typically
 However, some of its cells are shorter than has just two cell layers with (at least)
others, and their nuclei appear at different the surface cells being cuboidal in
heights above the basement membrane. shape.
 As a result, this epithelium gives the false  The surface cells of stratified
(pseudo) impression that it is stratified; hence columnar epithelium are columnar
its name. cells, but its basal cells vary in size
 Like simple columnar epithelium, this variety and shape. Both of these epithelia
mainly functions in absorption and secretion. are fairly rare in the body, found
 A ciliated variety (more precisely called mainly in the ducts of large glands.
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)
lines most of the respiratory tract. The mucus iii. Transitional Epithelium
produced by the goblet cells in this epithelium  It is a highly modified, stratified
traps dust and other debris, and the cilia squamous epithelium that forms the
propel the mucus upward and away from the lining of only a few organs— the
lungs. urinary bladder, the ureters, and part
of the urethra. All these organs are
part of the urinary system and are
B. Stratified Epithelia: Stratified epithelia consist of subject to considerable stretching.
two or more cell layers. Being considerably more  Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal
durable than the simple epithelia, these epithelia or columnar; those at the free surface
function primarily to protect. vary in appearance. When the organ
is not stretched, the membrane is
i. Stratified Squamous Epithelium many-layered, and the superficial
 It is the most common stratified epithelium in cells are rounded and domelike.
the body. It usually consists of several layers When the organ is distended with
of cells. urine, the epithelium thins, and the
 The cells at the free edge are squamous cells, surface cells flatten and become
whereas those close to the basement squamous-like.
membrane are cuboidal or columnar.  This ability of transitional cells to slide
 Stratified squamous epithelium is found in past one another and change their
sites that receive a good deal of abuse or shape (undergo "transitions") allows
friction, such as the esophagus, the mouth, the ureter wall to stretch as a greater
and the outer portion of the skin. volume of urine flows through that
tube-like organ. In the bladder, it
allows more urine to be stored.
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Connective tissue, as its name suggests, B. Cartilage
connects body parts. It is found everywhere in  Cartilage is less hard and more
the body. It is the most abundant and widely flexible than bone.
distributed of the tissue types.  Its major cell type is chondrocytes
 Connective tissues perform many functions (cartilage cells)
but they are primarily involved in protecting,  It is found in only a few places in the
supporting, and binding together other body body. Most widespread is hyaline
tissues. cartilage, which has abundant
collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery
Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue matrix with a glassy (hyalin = glass),
 Variations in blood supply. Most connective blue-white appearance.
tissues are well vascularized (that is, they  It forms the supporting structures
have a good blood supply), but there are of the larynx, or voice box,
exceptions. Tendons and ligaments have a attaches the ribs to the
poor blood supply, and cartilages are breastbone, and covers the ends
avascular. Consequently, all these structures of many bones, where they form
heal very slowly when injured. (This is why joints. The skeleton of a fetus is
some people say that, given a choice, they made largely of hyaline cartilage;
would rather have a broken bone than a torn but by the time the baby is born,
ligament.) most of that cartilage has been
 Extracellular matrix. Connective tissues are replaced by bone. The
made up of many different types of cells plus exceptions include the
varying amounts of a nonliving substance epiphyseal (growth) plates in
found outside the cells, called the long bones, which allow the
extracellular matrix. bones to grow in length during
youth.
 Although hyaline cartilage is the most
A. Bone abundant type of cartilage in the body,
 Bone, sometimes called osseous tissue, is there are others. Highly compressible
composed of osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in fibrocartilage forms the cushion-like
cavities called lacunae ("pits") and disks between the vertebrae of the
surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix spinal column. Elastic cartilage is
that contains calcium salts in addition to large found in structures, with elasticity. For
numbers of collagen fibers. example, it supports the external ear.
 Because of its rock-like hardness, bone has
an exceptional ability to protect and support
other body organs (for example, the skull
protects the brain).
C. Dense Connective Tissue  Because of its loose and fluid nature,

 Dense connective tissue, also called dense areolar connective tissue provides a
fibrous tissue, has collagen fibers as its main reservoir of water and salts for the
matrix element. surrounding tissues, and essentially
 Crowded between the collagen fibers are all body cells obtain their nutrients
rows of fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells) that from and release their wastes into
manufacture the building blocks of the fibers. this "tissue fluid."
 Dense connective tissue forms strong,  When a body region is inflamed, the
rope-like structures such as tendons and areolar tissue in the area soaks up
ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal muscles the excess fluid like a sponge, and
to bones; ligaments connect bones to bones the area swells and becomes puffy, a
at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and condition called edema. Many types
contain more elastic fibers that tendons. of phagocytes wander through this
 Dense connective tissue also makes up the tissue, scavenging for bacteria, dead
lower layers of the skin (dermis), where it is cells, and other debris, which they
arranged in sheets. destroy.
D. Loose Connective Tissues: Relatively speaking, ii. Adipose Tissue

loose connective tissues are softer and have more  Adipose tissue is commonly called fat.
cells and fewer fibers than any other connective tissue Basically, it is an areolar tissue in
type except blood. which adipose (fat) cells
predominate.
i. Areolar Tissue  A glistening droplet of oil occupies
 Areolar tissue, the most widely distributed most of a fat cell's volume and
connective tissue variety in the body, is a soft, compresses the nucleus, displacing it
pliable, "cobwebby" tissue that cushions and to one side.
protects the body organs it wraps.  Because the oil-containing region
 It functions as a universal packing tissue and looks empty and the thin rim of
connective tissue "glue" because it helps to cytoplasm containing the bulging
hold the internal organs together and in their nucleus looks like a ring with a seal,
proper positions. fat cells are sometimes called signet
 A soft layer of areolar connective tissue called ring cells.
the lamina propria underlies all mucous  Adipose tissue forms the
membranes. Its fluid matrix contains all types subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin,
of fibers, which form a loose network. In fact, where it insulates the body and
when viewed through a microscope, most of protects it from bumps and extremes
the matrix appears to be empty space, which of both heat and cold.
explains the name of this tissue type (areola =
small open space).
 Adipose tissue also protects some organs  Still, we must recognize that blood is
individually - the kidneys are surrounded by a quite atypical as connective tissues
capsule of fat, and adipose tissue cushions go.
the eyeballs in their sockets.  Blood is the transport vehicle for the
 There are also fat "depots" in the body, such cardiovascular system, carrying
as the hips and breasts, where fat is stored nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases,
and available for fuel if needed. and many other substances
throughout the body.
iii. Reticular Connective Tissue

 Reticular connective tissue consists of a
delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers
associated with reticular cells, which 3. MUSCLE TISSUE
resemble fibroblasts.  Muscle tissues are highly specialized
 Reticular tissue is limited to certain sites: It to contract, or shorten, or to produce
forms the stroma (literally, "bed" or movement.
"mattress"), or internal frame-work, which can
support many free blood cells (largely A. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs such as  Skeletal muscle tissue is packaged
lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow. by connective tissue sheets into
organs called skeletal muscles, which
are attached to the skeleton. These
muscles, which can be controlled
voluntarily (or consciously), form the
flesh of the body, the so-called
muscular system.
 When the skeletal muscles contract,
they pull on bones or skin. As a result,
gross body movements or changes in
our facial expressions occur.
 The cells of skeletal muscle are long,
cylindrical, multinucleate, and they
E. Blood have obvious striations (stripes).
 Blood, or vascular tissue, is considered a Because skeletal muscle cells are
connective tissue because it consists of blood elongated to provide a long axis for
cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix contraction, they are often called
called blood plasma. muscle fibers.
 The "fibers" of blood are soluble protein
molecules that become visible only during
blood clotting.
B. Cardiac Muscle Tissue C. Smooth Muscle Tissue

 Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. As  Smooth, or visceral, muscle is so
it contracts, the heart acts as a pump and called because no striations are
propels blood through the blood vessels. visible. The individual cells have a
 Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has single nucleus and are
striations, but cardiac cells are uninucleate, spindle-shaped (pointed at each
relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly end).
together (like clasped fingers) at junctions  Smooth muscle is found in the walls
called intercalated discs. These intercalated of hollow organs such as the stomach,
discs contain gap junctions that allow ions to uterus, and blood vessels. As smooth
pass freely from cell to cell, resulting in rapid muscle in its walls contracts, the
conduction of the exciting electrical impulse cavity of an organ alternately
across the heart. becomes smaller (constricts when
 Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control, smooth muscle contracts) or enlarges
which means that we cannot consciously (dilates when smooth muscle relaxes)
control the activity of the heart. (There are, so that substances are propelled
however, rare individuals who claim they through the organ along a specific
have such an ability.) pathway.
 Smooth muscle contracts much more
slowly than the other two muscle
types. Peristalsis, a wavelike motion
that keeps food moving through the
small intestine, is typical of its activity.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE  Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs in

 When we think of nervous tissue, we think of two major ways: by regeneration and by
cells called neurons. All neurons receive and fibrosis. Regeneration is the replacement
conduct electrochemical impulses from one of destroyed tissue by the same kind of
part of the body to another; thus, irritability cells, whereas fibrosis involves repair by
and conductivity are their two major functional dense (fibrous) connective tissue, that is,
characteristics. by the formation of scar tissue, which
 The structure of neurons is unique. Their occurs depends on (1) the type of tissue
cytoplasm is drawn out into long processes damaged and (2) the severity of the injury.
(extensions), as much as 3 feet or more in the Generally speaking, clean cuts (incisions)
leg, which allows a single neuron to conduct heal much more successfully than ragged
an impulse over long distances in the body. tears of the tissue.
 However, the nervous system is more than  Tissue injury sets a series of events into
just neurons. A special group of supporting motion:
cells called neuroglia insulate, support, and  Inflammation sets the stage. Injured
protect the delicate neurons in the structures tissue cells and others release
of the nervous system the brain, spinal cord, inflammatory chemicals that make
and nerves. the capillaries very permeable. This
allows fluid rich in clotting proteins
and other substances to seep into the
injured area from the bloodstream.
Then leaked clotting proteins
construct a clot, which stops the loss
of blood, holds the edges of the
wound together, and walls off the
injured area, preventing bacteria or
other harmful substances from
spreading to surrounding tissues.
Where the clot is exposed to air, it
quickly dries and hardens, forming a
scab.
 Granulation tissue forms. Granulation
tissue is a delicate pink tissue
composed largely of new capillaries
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) that grow into the damaged area from
 The body has many techniques for protecting undamaged blood vessels nearby.
itself from uninvited guests or injury. Intact These capillaries are fragile and
physical barriers such as the skin and mucous bleed freely, as when a scab is picked
membranes, cilia, and the strong acid produced away from a skin wound. Granulation
by stomach glands are just three examples of tissue also contains phagocytes that
body defenses exerted at the local tissue level. eventually dispose of the blood clot
 When tissue injury does occur, it stimulates the and connective tissue cells
body's inflammatory and immune responses, and (fibro-blasts) that produce the
the healing process begins almost immediately. building blocks of collagen fibers
 Inflammation is a generalized (nonspecific) body (scar tissue) to permanently bridge
response that attempts to prevent further injury. the gap.
The immune response, in contrast, is extremely
specific and mounts a vigorous attack against
recognized invaders (bacteria, viruses, toxins).
 Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent

repair. As the surface epithelium begins to
regenerate, it makes its way across the
granulation tissue just beneath the scab. The
scab soon detaches, and the final result is a
fully regenerated surface epithelium that
covers an underlying area of fibrosis (the
scar). The scar is either invisible or visible as
a thin white line, depending on the severity of
the wound.
 The ability of the different tissue types to
regenerate varies widely. Epithelial tissues such
as the skin epidermis and mucous membranes
regenerate beautifully. So, too, do most of the
fibrous connective tissues and bone. Skeletal
muscle regenerates poorly, and cardiac muscle
and nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord are replaced largely by scar tissue.

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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY with PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

Anatomy 3. Tissue Level

5. Organ System Level

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATIONS OF

ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

1. Integumentary System  Through its receptors, the nervous

11. Reproductive System 2. Control Center

Negative Feedback Mechanism THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

Positive Feedback Mechanism

Body Cavities B. Ventral Cavity

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

 Another system, used mainly by anatomists,

CELL DIVERSITY (Cell Types and Functions)

 Erythrocyte (red blood cell). This cell

2. Cell that covers and lines body organs:

6. Cell that gathers information and controls BODY TISSUES

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

i. Simple Squamous Epithelium

ii. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

iii. Simple Columnar Epithelium

iv. Pseudo-stratified Columnar Epithelium ii. Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified

C. Dense Connective Tissue  Because of its loose and fluid nature,

D. Loose Connective Tissues: Relatively speaking, ii. Adipose Tissue

iii. Reticular Connective Tissue

B. Cardiac Muscle Tissue C. Smooth Muscle Tissue

4. NERVOUS TISSUE  Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs in

 Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent

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