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MODULE 2: BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF COMMON

FARM ANIMALS

Introduction
It is important that you, as students, understand the function of different basic
animal organ systems and parts. Animal behaviour may vary according to their type of
organ systems. The function of some system changes as they grow and reproduced and
become old. As you finish this module, you are expected to establish a concrete
understanding about the anatomy and physiology of farm animals.

Lesson 1
Definition of terms
The structure of animal body is arranged into particular systems that have their
specific functions. The basic and smallest elements sharing certain characteristics are
called cells. According to the function we distinguish e.g. nerve cells, fat cells or liver
cells. The majority of cells contain a nucleus which carries genetic material. Cells
together form tissue which is grouped to form organs. The most widespread is
connective tissue including cartilage and bone the function of which is to separate and
support other tissue and organs. Other types of tissue are e.g. adipose tissue
(providing energy storage and insulation), epithelial tissue (protecting and lining
surfaces of many body organs), muscle (allowing movement) or nervous tissue
(generating and conducting electric signals in the body). Each body organ has a
specific shape and is composed of various types of tissue that provide complex
physiologic activities. Two or more organs usually together with other tissue that
provide particular types of body functions are called body organ systems.
Anatomy - The study of the structures of living things, derived from the Greek work “to
cut up.”
External anatomy – are structures found outside the body which an integral part of the
organ system located internally

Internal anatomy – are organs and organ systems which functions in a well-coordinated
manner to enable survival, growth and reproduction.

 Macroscopic Anatomy (gross anatomy) - Seen with the naked eye by

dissection of organs and organ systems.

 Microscopic Anatomy - Viewed with a microscope.

o Cytology: the study of cells
Cell – Smallest unit of protoplasm
Tissue – Groups of cells with same general function e.g.,
muscle, nerve.
Organ – Two or more types of tissues e.g., skin, kidney,
intestine, blood vessels
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Organ system – Several organs e.g., respiratory, digestive,

reproductive systems
o Histology: the study of the four basic types of tissues.
Comparative Anatomy – is the study the structures of various species of animals with
particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in
classification.

Physiology - The science that deals with the functions of the living organism and its
parts.

Figure 1: Anatomical direction terms

The following terms are used to describe locations on the animal body.

 Dorsal: pertains to the upper surface of the animal.

 Ventral: relates to the lower and abdominal surface.

 Cranial (or anterior): applies to the front or head.

 Caudal (or posterior): pertains to the tail or rear.

Table 4: Nomenclature for Systematic Anatomy

Organ system Name of study Chief structure

Digestive Splanchnology Stomach and intestines
Respiratory Splanchnology Lungs and air passages
Urinary Splanchnology Kidneys and bladders
Reproductive Splanchnology Ovaries and testes
Muscular Myology Muscles
Skeletal Osteology Bones
Endocrine Endocrinology Ductless glands
Nervous Neurology Brain, spinal cords, nerves
Integumentary Dermatology Skin
Cardiovascular (circulatory) Angiology Heart, vessels
Lymphatic (immune) Immunology Lymph nodes, thymus
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Lesson 2
Internal anatomy / Organ system

Nervous system

Figure 2.Nervous system of the horse

The nervous system transmits information to and from the various parts of the
body. The two major parts of the nervous system are the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is located in the skull and
vertebral column and is the master control system for the entire body; it consists of the
brain and the spinal cord.
The nerves that radiate from the central nervous system to all other parts of the
body make up the peripheral nervous system. The sensory nerve fibers of the peripheral
nervous system carry information to the central nervous system where it is analyzed and
appropriate responses are transmitted to the body. The autonomic nervous system is a
part of the peripheral nervous system that controls those activities of the body under
automatic control.

Division of nervous system

1. The central nervous system (CNS) – the main processing unit of the body,
includes the brain and spinal cord
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) – is compose of nerves emerging
from the CNS
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Division of peripheral nervous system

a. Somatic – supplies and receives fibers (neurons) to and from

the skin skeletal muscles, joints and tendons.
b. Autonomic/visceral - supplies and receives fibers to and from
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands.

Subdivision of autonomic nervous system

a. Parasympathetic division – important for the control of

‘normal.’ e.g. Normal operation of digestive system.
b. Sympathetic – also called the ‘fight of flight’ division;
important in helping to cope with stress.

Major parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System

a. The Brain - The central information processing organ of the

body.
b. The Spinal Cord - Long, thin tubular bundle of nerves
connected to the brain.

2. Peripheral Nervous system

a. Somatic Nerves - Control voluntary muscles that provide

movement.
b. Autonomic Nerves - Control involuntary responses. (smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and organs)

Endocrine System

Hormones are organic catalysts that influence the growth and development of the
body; they are secreted by endocrine glands. These glands do not have ducts to
transport the hormones in the body. Blood passing through the gland absorbs glands
and the hormones that they secrete. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate
hormone production in many other endocrine glands. Interactions between the endocrine
glands, the level of hormone in the blood, and the actions of the target organs maintain
the appropriate level of hormones in the body by utilizing a feedback mechanism.
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Figure 3.Endocrine system of the horse

Major parts

1. Hypothalamus – an essential component of the endocrine system which

control the autonomic nervous system, reception of sensory impulses from
the viscera, controls the body temperature, regulation of body intake, thirst
center and etc.
2. Pituitary gland – with three lobes i. Anterior ii. Intermediate iii. Posterior
3. Thyroid gland – maintain the level of metabolism in the tissues optimal for
the normal function
4. Parathyroid gland – produces parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases
the level of calcium, absorption of phosphorus in the intestinal tract
5. Adrenal gland – divided into cortex and medulla, generally located in the
anterior part of the kidney
6. Adrenal medulla – emergency hormone, increase heart rate and
maintenance of blood pressure
7. Adrenal cortex – stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Related parts

Pancreas – secretes pancreatic juices with digestive enzymes.

Gonads – produce gametes and produce progesterone to maintain pregnancy
and secrete relaxin for the relaxation of the cervix during parturition.
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Cardiovascular System/Circulatory

The cardiovascular system comprises the heart, a network of vessels, and

lymphatic system. Its main function is to transport nutrients, oxygen and waste via blood
or lymph fluid. The heart is a cone-shaped muscular structure organ located in the
thoracic cavity and pumps blood through the whole body. Continuation of the heart is
represented by blood vessels which bring blood away from the heart (arteries), form a
close contact with tissue for exchange (capillaries) and bring blood back to the heart
(veins).

Figure 4.Circulation of blood and structure of the heart

Parts and functions

1. Heart - Produces blood pressure during systole

2. Blood – a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of
electrolytes and some non-electrolytes.
Three blood cells
a. Leukocytes (white blood cells) – responsible for the
defense/protection of the body
b. Erythrocytes (red blood cells) – contain red pigment
hemoglobin, carries oxygen for distribution to the different
tissues.
c. Thrombocytes (platelets) - platelets collects itself and sticks
into the wall of the injured site and liberate serotonin which
leads to local vasoconstriction.
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3. Blood vessels
a. Arteries – the blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away
from the heart.
b. Veins – carries un-oxygenated blood back to the heart.
c. Capillaries - Exchange nutrients and waste.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is closely connected not only with the cardiovascular, but
also with the immune system and plays an important role in defending the animal body
against such intruders as germs, microorganisms, cancer cells and other foreign bodies.
This system also helps to absorb excessive fluid and returns it into the blood stream.
The organs of lymphatic system are bone marrow, lymph, lymph nodes, lymph
vessels and capillaries, thymus, spleen and two ovoid masses of lymphoid tissue -
tonsils. Bone marrow is a spongy, fatty, vascular tissue which can be found in cavities of
large bones. It is a source of stem cells that include red and white blood cells and
thrombocytes. The lymph vessels which carry the lymph are closely associated with the
circulatory system vessels. This interstitial fluid picks up bacteria and transports them to
lymph nodes where they are destroyed. Lymph also moves away fats from the digestive
system. The spleen is an organ that houses, filters and cleans the blood and lymph fluid
that passes through it. The thymus, a small glandular organ, produces a hormone known
as thymosin that plays an important role in T-cell maturation.

Figure 5.Lymphatic system of the horse

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Parts and functions

1. Lymph nodes – bean-shape small bodies of lymphoid tissues located in the

strategic points in the body through which the lymph passes on its way to the
bloodstream.
2. Lymph vessels – a system of vessels draining from the lungs and from the
rest of the body tissues ending in the venous system.
3. Lymphatic structures
a. Lymph - an interstitial fluid, derived largely from the blood and in
similar composition with blood plasma
b. Tonsils - protects against bacteria.
c. Thymus - helps with immunologic cells.
d. Spleen - clears out old red blood cells.
e. Bone marrow - is a source of stem cells that include red and white
blood cells and thrombocytes

Respiratory system

The respiratory system exchanges gases between body tissue and external
environment. Oxygen in the air is inhaled from the external environment through the
nostrils of the muzzle and passes through pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi into the
lungs which help to transport oxygen into the blood and tissue. Here it is further
transformed into carbon dioxide which is carried back through vessels into the lungs and
is expelled (exhaled) out of the body. The oxygen is secured from the earth’s
atmosphere, which contains oxygen (20.95 percent), carbon dioxide (0.03 percent),
nitrogen (78.09 percent), and some rare gases (0.93 percent). Nitrogen and the rare
gases are inert from the standpoint of vertebrate animals. The amount of moisture in the
atmosphere varies considerably and does not affect the composition listed above.

Figure 6.Respiratory system of domestic animal and the structure of the lungs
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Parts and functions

1. Nostrils - Air is drawn into the system through the nostrils; air may also be drawn into
the system through the mouth.
2. Nasal cavity - Here the air is warmed and moistened and dust particles are filtered
out. Smelling also occurs here. The nasal cavity is separated from the mouth by the
hard and soft palates.
3. Pharynx - This is where the passages from the nostrils and the mouth are joined.
The air and food passages cross in the pharynx. The esophagus is the food
passage. The epiglottis is a flap of tissue that closes when food is swallowed, thus
preventing the food from entering the passage to the lungs. The epiglottis opens
when a breath is drawn in, allowing the air to pass to the lungs.
4. Larynx - Air passes from the pharynx through the glottis to the larynx, an area
composed of cartilage structures. The larynx contains vocal cords that vibrate when
air passes across them, producing sound.
5. Trachea - The larynx opens into the trachea; a tube that leads to the bronchi. The
wall of the trachea is lined with a series of C-shaped rings of cartilage. These help
to maintain the shape of the passage during breathing.
6. Lungs – the lungs are sometimes called ‘lights’ indicating their low specific gravity,
which is less than that of water. The inspiration and expiration of air occur in this
part.
7. Bronchi - At the lower end of the trachea, the tube divides into two branches called
the bronchi (singular bronchus). These branches lead to the two lungs of the animal.
The lungs of mammals are located in the thoracic cavity.
8. Bronchioles - Each bronchus keeps subdividing into smaller and smaller branches,
called bronchioles.
9. Alveoli - The bronchioles terminate in the alveoli (singular alveolus). The walls of the
alveoli are very thin, about one cell thick, and are covered by a film of fluid that acts
as a surfactant.

Digestive system
The digestive system serves for digesting and absorbing nutrients from thefood.
According to the type of diet in a natural state we classify animals into carnivores (“meat-
eaters”), herbivores (“plant-eaters”) and omnivores (“plant- and meat-eaters”).
The food enters the system by oral cavity where it is chewed and cut by teeth.
The tongue seizes and brings food mass to mouth and molars, mixes it with saliva, and
assists in swallowing into pharynx and then through esophagus into the stomach. The
stomach is an elastic muscular organ where the food is stored and digested with the
help of gastric juices. From the stomach the food passes through duodenum and other
parts of small intestine - jejunum and ileum, being broken up by intestinal juices and
juices produced by pancreas and liver.
The second to last part of the digestive system is the large intestine. It is a place
of fermentation and it consists of two parts: cecum and colon. The final stage of the
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alimentary canal is called the anus. Animals that regurgitate and remasticate the food
are called ruminants. Ruminants have a special type of stomach referred to as
compound stomach which is adapted for fermentation of ingested food by bacteria and
protozoa. It consists of three fore stomachs (rumen, reticulum, and omasum) and the
abomasum, the last one being very similar to the stomach of monogastrics.

Figure 7.Digestive tract of the horse

Figure 7.1.Digestive tract of the chicken (modified)

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Figure 7.2.Digestive tract of the cattle (Ruminant)

Figure 7.3.Digestive tract of the swine (monogastric)

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Commonly used terms

1. Prehension – the seizing and conveying of feed into the mouth.
2. Mastication – (chewing) the mechanical breakdown of feed into finer
particles.
3. Insalivation – the mixing of feed with saliva.
4. Digestion – breakdown of feed particles into suitable products for
absorption; may include: mechanical forces, chemical action, enzyme
activity; involves the processes used to prepare food for absorption
5. Enzymes – a complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes
in other substances within the body without being changes itself (organic
catalyst).
6. Absorption – transfer of substance from the gastro-intestinal tract to the
circulatory (blood or lymph) system.
Parts and functions
1. Mouth and buccal cavity – for prehension, mastication, and insalivation.
3 accessory organs
 Tongue – grasping food

 Teeth – mastication of food

 Salivary gland – produced saliva which contain water to

moisten food.
2. Pharynx – common passage for feed and air.
3. Esophagus – a muscular tube which connects to the stomach to the mouth.
4. Stomach – a muscular organ which is the site for feed storage, grinding and
mixing of feed, absorption, enzymatic action, and microbial fermentation.
5. Small intestine – has three divisions:

 Duodenum – an active site of digestion that receives

secretion from the pancreas, liver and intestinal walls.

 Jejunum – middle section that involved in nutrient

absorption.

 Ileum – last section, also involved in nutrient absorption.

6. Large intestine – also has 3 sections:

 Ceca – blind gut in poultry, first section which is relatively

large in the horse and rabbit: when will developed as in the
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horse contains many bacteria which produced enzymes

that digest fiber.

 Colon – middle section which involved in reabsorption of

water.

 Rectum – last section

7. Accessory glands:

 Pancreas – produces digestive enzyme needed in

digestive processes that take place in small intestine.

 Liver – secretes bile needed for the emulsification of fat in

the small intestine.
Types of animals based on their stomach structure:
1. Monogastric – simple stomach, one compartment stomach includes: swine and
horses.
The digestive pathway for feeds in monogastrics is:
Mouth --- esophagus --- simple stomach --- small intestine (duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum) ---large intestine (cecum, colon, and rectum)

2. Modified simple stomach – can be found in the poultry species with the following
modification: gizzard, crop and proventriculus
The Avian GI tract:
1. Mouth – does not contain teeth, but the bird’s beak is used to
collect particles of feed and break some large particles into
smaller pieces; a tongue and salivary gland is present that
contain salivary amylase.
2. Esophagus – the esophagus of most birds include an enlarge
area called the ‘crop’ as a temporary storage and moistening
of food.
3. Proventriculus – corresponds to the true stomach; the site of
HCI and pepsin production in the bird.
4. Gizzard/Ventriculus – a muscular area which contains grit; the
involuntary muscular contraction aid in the mechanical
breakdown of food.
The digestive pathway in poultry can be summarized as:
Mouth --- esophagus --- crop --- proventriculus (stomach) ---
gizzard --- small intestine --- large intestine --- cloaca --- vent
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The non-ruminant: a general term for those possessing a single stomach

compartments (as well as modified stomach) includes swine, poultry, and young
ruminant animals that have not developed a functional rumen, ( also dogs, cats, rabbits,
and a man)
3. Compound stomach/ Ruminants – with four compartments (in mature ruminants),
includes cattle, carabao, sheep, goat.
The digestive pathway in ruminants is:
Mouth --- esophagus --- reticulo-rumen- (processes of
regurgitation, remastication, reinsalivation and reswallowing) ---
reticulo-rumen --- omasum --- abomasum --- small intestine ---
large intestine and (cecum) --- rectum --- anus
The four compartments
1. Rumen – the main site of fermentation of feeds; the largest of the four
compartments.
2. Reticulum – regulates the passage of feed from the rumen the
succeeding compartments, aids the regurgitation of feed back to the
mouth.
3. Omasum – a round muscular organ which contains many muscular
laminae (sometimes called manyplies), further grinds and reduces the
feed into finer particles before the feed enters the abomasum.
4. Abomasum – the true stomach of the ruminants.

Figure 7.4.Four compartment stomach of ruminant

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Additional unique features of the ruminants include:

1. Esophageal groove – begins at the base of the esophagus when
stimulated by sucking forms a tube which empties into the
abomasums; function: to direct milk obtained from the sucking to
escape microbial digestion in the rumen.
2. Rumination – the process which permits an animal to forage and
ingest feed rapidly, the complete chewing at the later time.
3. Eructation – (belching of gas) allows for removal of large volumes
of gas produced in the rumen.

Excretory system/Urinary
The urinary system is formed by kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra.
Renal system serves for excretion of metabolic waste products through urine and
regulates the amount and composition of extracellular fluids. Kidneys are a pair organ
having different shapes in different animals. Most animal species have bean-shaped
kidneys, however, in horses we can find heart-shaped kidneys and in cattle lobulated
ones. Ureter can be characterized as a smooth muscle lined tube which transmits urine
from renal pelvis to urinary bladder. Urine is stored in a hollow smooth muscular organ
called urinary bladder and further conveyed to exterior by urethra.

Figure 8.Excretory system/Urinary

Parts and functions
1. Kidney –paired, bean-shaped organs located on either side of the vertebral
column against posterior abdominal wall and it is site of urine formation
through nephron.
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2. Ureter – the paired ducts that carry away the urine from the kidney to the
urinary bladder.
3. Urinary bladder – a membranous sac that serve for temporary retention of
urine and discharge to urethra.
4. Urethra – the canal that carries off the urine from the urinary bladder and in
male serves as the passageway for semen.

Reproductive system
The reproductive system is different in males and females. The main function
of the male reproductive system is to form sperm and transport it into the female. Sperm
as well as male sex hormones are produced in testis, whereas scrotum helps to regulate
and keep the right temperature for sperm maturation. Sperm is transmitted via urethra
into the copulatory organ – penis that gets rigid and erected to penetrate female. Female
reproductive system produces ova and provides the environment needed for fetus
development. The main female reproductive organs are: ovary where the ovum is
produced, oviduct where the fertilization happens, uterus where embryo and fetus
develop and grow, cervix of the uterus that serves as a kind of barrier being closed
during pregnancy and female copulatory organs vagina and vulva (the beginning of
female reproductive tract). An organ containing the mammary glands of female
quadruped mammals, especially ruminants such as cattle, goats, sheep and deer, is
called udder.

Figure 9.Reproductive tract of the cow

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Figure 9.1 Reproductive tract of the bull

Figure 9.2.Female reproductive tract of the poultry

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Parts and functions (female)

1. Ovary – produces the ova and secretes the female sex hormone estrogen.
2. Infundibulum – portion of the uterine tube adjacent to the ovary, picks up
the egg when released by the ovary at the time of ovulation.
3. Oviduct/fallopian tube – structure that’s connects the ova from each ovary
to the respective horn of uterus. The site of fertilization and site of early
embryonic development.
4. Uterus – the site of implantation and serves in a nutritive and productive
capacity for the developing embryo.
5. Cervix – the neck of the uterus, a passageway of semen and protects the
uterus from foreign materials and secretes sticky mucus seal during
pregnancy.
6. Vagina – a tube extending from the cervix down to the vulva, receives penis
during copulation and provides a passageway for the fully developed fetus
during parturition.
7. Vulva – common passage way for the products of reproduction and urine.
8. Clitoris – a rudimentary organ situated ventrally to the vulva. It is
homologous to the glans penis in the male.
Parts and functions (male)
1. Testis – the paired primary sex organ of the male, produces sperm and
secretes androgen, the male hormone. In birds, it is located within the
body cavity.
2. Scrotum – a pouch of skin, the external covering of the testes from the
direct mechanical injuries, also provides testes an environment which is
few degrees cooler than the body temperature.
3. The excurrent ducts
a. Epididymis – the place for the maturation of the spermatozoa before
ejaculation
b. Ductus deferens/vas deferens – propels the spermatozoa from the
epididymis to the ejaculatory duct in the urethra during ejaculation.
c. Urethra – a canal starting from the junction of the ampulla and ends
at the opening of the penis and it’s the common passageway of
urine.
4. Accessory glands
a. Ampulla – the temporary storage of sperm until ejaculation time.
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b. Seminal vesicles – produce a secretion high in fructose which acts

as vehicle for sperm transport
c. Prostate gland – produce a viscous secretion which stimulates
sperm activity and gives the semen its characteristic odor.
d. Cowper’s gland/ bulbourethral gland – a small paired gland located
either side of the urethra below the prostate gland and discharging a
secretion into the semen.
e. Penis – an erectile tissue; function: drain the urinary bladder of urine
and deposit the spermatozoa to the vagina (some animal into the
uterus) during copulation.
f. Semen – consist of sperm cells and the secretions of the accessory
glands.

Muscular system
In conjunction with the skeletal system, the muscle system provides form,
support, and movement for the body. It also generates body heat in the chemical
processes that provide energy for the movement of the muscles. The skeletal muscle
system is the primary one involved in movement. The smooth muscle system is involved
in digestion and other activities of the internal organs of the animal. The cardiac muscle
system maintains a rhythmic heartbeat that keeps the blood circulating throughout the
body.
Types of muscle
1. Skeletal (Striated Voluntary)
Much of the flesh referred to as meat in farm animals is composed of skeletal
muscle (also called striated voluntary muscle). It is called striated because it has dark
bands that cross each muscle fiber. These bands can be seen when the muscle is
examined under a microscope. The cell nucleus is located near the periphery of the cell.
Skeletal muscle may be subdivided into two types based on color. Muscle that is
involved with sustained work is generally red in color. Muscle that is activated on a more
intermittent basis is white or pale in color. Skeletal muscles exist in bundles enclosed in
connective tissue (perimysium) that contains many muscle fibers (composed of
sarcoplasm) of varying lengths that are cylindrical in shape. Muscle fibers are enclosed
in a sheath made up of connective tissue (sarcolemma). The entire muscle is covered by
a sheath of connective tissue (epimysium). Myofibrils are the component parts of muscle
fiber. Two types of myofilaments (myosin, or thick, and actin, or thin) are found in the
myofibril. The muscle contracts when the thin myofilaments slide past the thick
myofilaments. Both myosin and actins are proteins.
The skeletal muscle is usually attached to the skeleton by tendons. One end of
the muscle is att ached to a relatively immovable part of the skeleton (referred to as the
origin) and the other end to a more movable part of the skeleton (referred to as the
insertion). When the muscle contracts, it usually moves the bone at the insertion point a
greater distance than the bone at the origin point.
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Figure 10.Basic structure of meat

Figure 10.1.Skeletal. smooth and cardiac muscle

2. Smooth (Unstriated Involuntary)
Muscles that surround the hollow internal organs of the body, such as the blood
vessels, stomach, intestines, and bladder, are called smooth or unstriated involuntary
muscles. The two types of smooth muscle are visceral and multi-unit. Most of the
smooth muscle in the vertebrate body is visceral. Multiunit smooth muscle is found
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where better muscular control is needed, such as the sphincter muscle. Smooth muscles
are activated by the autonomic nervous system. Thus, they are not under the conscious
control of the mind, which is why they are called involuntary. They generally act more
slowly than the skeletal muscles. They do not have the myofibrils or dark striations found
in skeletal muscle. The color of smooth muscle is generally white; it does not have origin
or insertion points and is not attached to the skeleton. Smooth muscle can stretch, which
allows the organ it surrounds to expand. In addition to the myosin-actin mechanism,
smooth muscle contraction may be caused by other stimuli, such as chemicals and
hormones. Smooth muscle cells are smaller than skeletal or cardiac muscle cells and
appears spindle-shaped with, the nucleus located in the center of the cell.
3. Cardiac (Striated Involuntary)
Cardiac muscle is found only in the muscular wall (myocardium) of the heart. It is
striated in the same manner as skeletal muscle. The nucleus of the cell, however, is
centrally located, as in smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle cells are rectangular in shape
and the muscle fibers appear to branch. Contraction of the heart muscle normally begins
in the sinoatrial node that is located in the upper right atrium .Nerve stimulation is not
required for this contraction to occur. An important feature of the contraction mechanism
in cardiac muscle is that when contraction begins in the sinoatrial node it rapidly spreads
to the entire muscle.
Another feature is that a contraction is followed by a relaxation period during
which it cannot be stimulated to contract again. These properties result in the rhythmic
beating of the heart that is essential to the circulation of blood in the body.
Cardiac muscle contains two components not found in other types of muscle:
intercalated discs and Purkinje fibers. The intercalated discs are dark thickenings that
cross the muscle fibers and separate the cardiac cells. Purkinje fibers are specialized
muscle fibers that are found in the lateral ventricles of the heart. They are a part of the
contractile system, carrying the contraction impulses to the ventricle muscles. The
autonomic nervous system can speed up or slow down the rate of heart muscle
contraction but it does not start the contractions.

Skeletal system
The main functions of the skeletal system are to provide form, protection,
support, and strength for the body. With the muscles attached, the bones of the skeleton
act as levers permitting the animal to move. The bones also store minerals and the bone
marrow produces blood cells.

Types of Skeletal Systems

Skeletal systems may be rigid or hydraulic. Animals with rigid skeletal systems
are able to move because muscles are attached to the rigid skeleton and apply force
that results in movement. There are two types of rigid systems: endoskeletal and
exoskeletal. The endoskeleton is found on the inside of the body; the exoskeleton is
typically a hard shell on the outside of the body. Vertebrates such as farm animals have
endoskeletons. Arthropods such as insects and crustaceans generally have
exoskeletons. Animals such as worms do not have rigid skeletons. They achieve
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movement by the application of force to a fluid confined in a small space and surrounded
by muscle tissue. This is a typical hydraulic skeletal system. Octopus and starfish are
examples of other animals with hydraulic skeletal systems.
Kinds of Bones
The two kinds of bone material, cancellous and compact, are based on structure.
Cancellous bone material is spongy and generally found in the ends of long bones.
Compact bone material is composed of Haversian systems and is usually found on the
outside of bones and surrounding the bone marrow. The Haversian system is composed
of cylindrical or tubular structures of hard, inorganic material arranged in concentric
layers. In the center of the structure there is a Haversian canal through which blood
vessels and nerves pass. This type of bone structure is not found in small mammals
(such as mice) or birds. Bones may be divided into four classifications based on shape:
long, short, fl at, and irregular. Classification of the major bones of an animal’s body is
shown.
Long bones have more length than width and are generally cylindrical in shape.
Some long bones have modifications based on their function in the body. Short bones
come in a variety of shapes. Their length and width are nearly the same compared to
long bones. Flat bones are found mostly in the head, where they protect the brain.
These bones are composed of a spongy layer between two layers of compact bone. Flat
bones are usually thinner than other bones. Irregular bones have a variety of sizes and
shapes.

Parts of the Skeletal System

The three components of the skeletal system are the axial skeleton, pectoral
limb, and pelvic limb. The skull, vertebral column, and rib cage are the main parts of the
axial skeleton. The pectoral limbs are the front legs of the animal and the pelvic limbs
are the hind legs
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Table 5: Classification of Bones in Vertebrates

Skeletal Component Name of Bone Classification

Axial skull group of fl at &irregular bones
vertebra irregular bones
ribs modified long bones
Pectoral limb scapula modified long bone
humerus long bone
radius long bone
ulna long bone
carpus group of short bones
metacarpals long bones
fi rst & second phalanx long bones
third phalanx modified short bone
digital sesamoid bones short bones
Pelvic limb ileum modified long bone
ischium modified long bone
pubis modified long bone
femur long bone
patella short bone
tibia long bone
fibula modified long bone
tarsus short bone
metatarsus long bone

Figure 11.Skeletal structure of poultry

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Figure 11.1.Skeletal structure of cattle

Integumentary system
The integumentary system is the largest organ system in animals. It serves as an
enclosing barrier to invasion by infectious organisms, protects the body internal parts
from damage and dehydration, regulates temperature, produces pigment, vitamin D,
stores nutrients and provides sensory perception. The integument of the animals is
formed of three main parts: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The biggest portion of
the integumentary system in animals is represented by hide.
Among the skin related structures we can include hair, glands, claws and
declaws, hooves and horns. The main types of hairs are guard hairs (primary hairs),
wool-type hairs (secondary hairs), tactile hairs (concerning the sense of touch) and
whiskers. An important part of the integumentary system is formed by sebaceous glands
located in dermis. They produce an oily matter called sebum which helps keep the skin
of animals soft and hydrated. The second types of glands are sweat glands being a part
of thermoregulatory system. Their primary function is to cool the organism; to a high
degree in horses and to a lesser degree in swine, sheep or goats. External covering of
distal digits is represented by claws. The remains of digits or hooves are called
dewclaws. In some species as in the cattle the size of dewclaws is much smaller than
the size of hoofs and so they never touch the ground, however e.g. in pigs they are only
a little smaller than hoofs, and can reach the soft ground or when jumping. Finally, some
hoofed animals as horses have no dewclaws.
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Figure 12.Integumentary structure of animal

The epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin that contains keratin and
squamous epithelial cells 3. The dermis: The middle layer of the skin which gives the
skin its elasticity and its ability to stretch 4. The hypodermis: The deepest layer of the
skin also referred to as the subcutaneous layer, stores fat.
The integumentary system consists of the:

 Skin

 Hair

 Finger and toenails

 Sebaceous glands

 Sweat glands
Parts of the skin
1. Epidermis - outermost layer of skin
2. Dermis - beneath the epidermis, consists of connective tissue
3. Hypodermis/ subcutaneous layer – subcutis, lowest layer of skin mainly houses
fat.
Function of the skin
1. Barrier Function
While the skin may seem like a delicate organ, its stupendous role becomes
apparent after an injury removes the skin from a region. In fact, preventing infections and
regulating body temperature are major challenges in burn victims. Layers of tightly
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bound, heavily keratinized, a nucleated cells provide the first line of defense by forming a
physical barrier. The mildly acidic nature of skin secretions also contributes towards
preventing pathogenic colonization. Lipids secreted by the skin are another chemical
barrier, preventing the loss of water, especially in dry or hot environments. Alternatively,
the skin also prevents the body from bloating in a hypotonic environment. Finally, the
integumentary system contains resident immune cells that are adept at clearing minor
infections.
2. Thermoregulation
Sweat glands are necessary for thermoregulation, whether it is while working up a sweat
during exercise or breaking a fever. Sweat allows the body to cool down. On the other
hand, goose bumps arising from the contraction of arrector pili muscles can keep the
body warm, especially in hairy mammals.
3. Excretion
Sweat and sebum also have an excretory role for water and fat soluble metabolites
respectively. For instance, excess vitamin B from supplements is removed through urine
and sweat.
4. Sensation and Chemical Synthesis
Nerve endings on the skin help in sensing touch, pressure, heat, cold as well as the
nature and intensity of damaging stimuli. The skin is also necessary for the production of
melanin that prevents damage from UV rays – whether it is a sunburn or skin cancer.
Upon exposure to the sun, in addition to melanin production, the skin also synthesizes
vitamin D that contributes to bone health and enhances bone density.
4
7

Lesson 3
External anatomy of common farm animals

Figure 13. External anatomy of the Rooster

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Figure 13.1 External anatomy of the Hen

Figure 14. External anatomy of the Duck

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Figure 15. External anatomy of the Turkey

Figure 16. External anatomy of the Swine

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Figure 17. External anatomy of the Goat

Figure 18. External anatomy of the Sheep

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Figure 19. External anatomy of the Cattle

Figure 20. External anatomy of the Horse

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