PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.

CHAPTER 1: HUMAN ANATOMY DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY:

- study of the normal structures of the human body and their A. Cell Physiology
relationships with one another.
- the study of the functions of living cells
- the word ANATOMY was derived from Greek word tome meaning “cut
into” implying study of structures by dissection of dead human bodies. - the cornerstone of human physiology

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY - study of the different functions of the normal B. Special Physiology - is the study of the functions of specific organs
structures of the human body and the involved processes of how these
e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart function
body parts work.
C. Systemic Physiology - includes all aspects of the functions of specific
DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY:
organ systems.
A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy - study of normal structures of the
e.g. cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and reproductive
human body big enough to be studied by unaided eye.
physiology.
This includes:
1. Systemic Anatomy – study of structures of specific body systems D. Pathologic physiology - is the study of the effects of diseases on organ or
e.g. nervous and circulatory systems. system functions.
2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body regions
e.g. head region, thoracic region. HOMEOSTASIS
3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the body surface of - refers to the existence of a stable internal environment
the different visceral organs. - Negative feedback loop
B. Microscopic Anatomy - study of structures of the human body through
use of microscope. HEMEOSTATIS REGULATION
This includes: 1. Autoregulation – occurs when the activities of a cell, tissue, organ or
1. Cytology – chemical and microscopic study of cells organ system change automatically when faced with some environment
variation.
2. Histology – study of normal tissues of the body
e.g. when the cells lack oxygen they release chemicals dilating blood vessels
C. Embryology - study of development of the human body from fertilization in the area.
of ovum up to the period of extra uterine life.
2. Extrinsic regulation – results from the activities of the nervous system or
D. Neuroanatomy - study of normal microscopic, gross features and endocrine system, organ systems that can control or adjust the activities of
development of the nervous system. many different systems simultaneously.
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
e.g. during exercise, nervous system commands the increase of heart rate Fundamental types of tissues:
so that blood will circulate faster.
1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscular 4. Nervous
ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESSES:
4. ORGAN LEVEL – composed of different types of tissues joined
1. Metabolism – includes all the chemical processes that occur in the body. together for some specific functions.

2. Responsiveness – the body’s ability to react to changes in environment Examples:

both internally or externally
1. each named bone in the body-liver
3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human body, either the whole 2. each named muscle in the body
body or individual cells or even the organelles within these cells. 3. heart
4. brain
4. Growth – an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size
5. SYSTEM LEVEL – composed of related organs with some common
or number of cells.
definite functions.
5. Differentiation – development of cells from an unspecialized to a e.g. Cardiovascular system – the heart and each named blood
specialized state. vessel are organs belonging to the system.

6. Reproduction – formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement BODY SYSTEMS
or the production of a new individual
1. Integumentary system – the skin and its appendages/DEEPER TISSUES
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY FROM INJURIES

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL – includes atoms, the smallest unit of matter and e.g. hairs and nails
the molecules with two or more atoms joining together.

Example of atoms: C, H, O, Ca,

2. Skeletal system – composed of bones and certain cartilaginous parts like
Example of molecules: carbohydrates, fats, proteins in the chest and nose

2. CELLULAR LEVEL – above the chemical level, the cell is the structural
unit of the body. It is composed of group of molecules performing
3. Articular system – consisting of joints and their associated bones and
specific functions.
ligaments
3. TISSUE LEVEL – group of cells similar in structure and function
4. Muscular system
together with their intercellular substance.
- comprising all skeletal muscles.
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
- the primary functions of this system is locomotion. 10. Reproductive system (genital system)

5. Nervous system – consisting of the brain and spinal cord central nervous - comprising of various organs that are concerned with reproduction.
system) and the nerves arising from them (peripheral nervous system). - Because of their close association, especially in the adult male, the
urinary and genital systems are often referred to as the urogenital
- parts of the nervous system concerned chiefly with regulation of system.
visceral activity (e.g. of the heart and stomach) are referred to as
the autonomic nervous system 11. Endocrine system – consisting of ductless glands (e.g. the hypophysis
cerebri or pituitary gland) which produce secretions called hormones that
- because of their closed developmental and functional associations,
are carried by the circulatory system to all parts of the body.
the special sense organs (sight, hearing, taste and smell) are
usually described with the nervous system CELLS
- the master system that controls and coordinates the activities of
o Smallest units of life
all other systems.
o Perform all activities necessary to maintain life
6. Circulatory system or vascular system - comprising the heart and blood o e.g. metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion,
vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and the lymphatic system composed reproduction
of lymph nodes and vessels.
TISSUE- Made up of different types of cells
7. Digestive system (alimentary system)
1. Epithelial - covers and protects
- composed of oral cavity, pharynx, and gut, 2. Connective - binds and supports other tissues
- it extends from the mouth to anus. 3. Muscle-Movement
- associated with it are glands (e.g. the pancreas and liver). 4. Nervous- connects sensory structures to motor structures
- concerned with the assimilation of food. 5. Homopoeitic

8. Respiratory system Organs- Tissues with same function grouped together.

- -comprising the lungs and a system of tubes by which the air reaches Examples: liver, stomach
them.
- concerned with the exchange of oxygen &carbon dioxide Systems- A group of organs that perform a common function.
9. Urinary system

- composed of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and excretory passages.

- concerned with the elimination of waste material in the urine.
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
BODY REGIONS: a. imaginary vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to
the median plane, dividing it into anterior (front) and posterior
1. Head – where brain and face with eyes, nose, mouth and ears are found.
(back) portions.
2. Neck – connects head and trunk b. named after the coronal suture of the skull, which is in coronal
plane.
3. Trunk 4. Horizontal plane or transverse plane or X-section– imaginary
a. Thorax – with heart and lungs planes passing through the body at right angles to both the median
b. Abdomen – with most parts of digestive system and urinary system and coronal planes dividing the body to upper and lower parts
c. Pelvic cavity and Perineum – with reproductive organs and distal parts SECTIONS OF THE BODY
of digestive and urinary system.
1. Longitudinal section or vertical section – body part is cut in the
4. Upper Extremities direction of the long axis of the body, or any of its parts. - may be
5. Lower Extremities cut in median, sagittal, or coronal planes
2. Transverse sections or cross section – are parts of the body
Cavities which are cut at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the body or
 Dorsal- cranial, spinal its parts.
 Ventral- thoracic, abdominopelvic 3. Oblique sections – are sections of the body that are not cut in
one of the anatomical planes of the body (e.g. they slant or deviate
ANATOMICAL POSITION – a person in the anatomical position is standing from these planes.
erect (or lying supine as if erect) with the head and eyes directed forward,
the upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing forward and the lower THE ANATOMICAL TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP
limbs together with the toes pointing forward. 1. Superior / Cranial/Cephalic –toward the head end
ANATOMICAL PLANES - Anatomical descriptions are also based on four of the body; Upper (the hand is part of the superior
imaginary planes that pass through the body in the anatomical position extremity)

1. Median plane – the imaginary vertical line passing longitudinally 2. Inferior / Caudal – away from the head;
through the body from front to back dividing it into right and left lower (foot is a part of lower extremity)
halves. 3. Anterior / Ventral - front
2. Sagittal plane – imaginary vertical planes passing through the body
parallel to the median plane dividing this into right and left parts. 4. Posterior / Dorsal - back

5. Medial – towards the midline; inner 5th finger and

1st toe

3. Coronal plane or frontal plane 6. Lateral – away from the midline; outer 1st finger
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
and 5th toe Eversion – sole facing laterally
Dorsiflexion – sole facing anteriorly
7. Proximal – towards or nearest the trunk or the Plantarflexion – sole facing posteriorly
point of origin of a part Supination – radius return the bones to their parallel position
Pronation – radius rotates over ulna
8. Distal – away from the trunk Protraction – Move forward
Retraction – move backward
9. Superficial / External
Elevation – closing of the mouth
10. Deep / Internal Depression – opening of the mouth

11. Central
ANATOMICAL PLANES
12. Peripheral
1. Coronal / Frontal Plane
13. Parietal -Vertical planes
-running from side to side
14. Visceral
-Divides the body or any of its part into anterior and posterior
Terms of Movements
portion
- Various terms are used to describe the different movements of the
limbs and other parts of the body. 2. Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane
- Movements take place at joints where two or more bones meet or -Vertical plane
articulate with one another. -from front to back
-divides into right & left side
TERMS OF MOVEMENT
3. Horizontal / Transverse / axial
Flexion – contraction; decreases the angle between two body parts
-horizontal planes
Extension -straightening; increases the angle between two body parts
-divides the body into upper and lower parts
Abduction -movement away from the midline
Adduction -towards the midline 4. Median plane
Circumduction – movement of a body region in a circular manner -sagittal plane through the midline of the body
Rotation – rotate along axis; can occur within the vertebral column -from front to the back dividing it into right and left halves
Inversion – sole facing medially
o PROKARYOTIC- Do not contain nuclear
membrane/ envelope
CHAPTER2: Cell o EUKARYOTIC- contains true nuclear membrane/envelope
2 types of cell:
The cell is the basic unit of biological organization
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
Basic composition/3 main parts: - trilaminar
 Protoplasm/cytoplasm - semipermeable
 cell membrane 2. CYTOPLASM
 nucleus - colloidal
- with organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton
3. NUCLEUS
- with DNA in the form of:
- heterochromatin (inactive)
- euchromatin (active)

The Cell Membrane

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CELL
- Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins (TRILAMINAR)
1. Irritability/excitability -nervous tissue - the one to give shape
2. Conductivity- nervous tissue - acts as receptor sites
3. Contractility - muscle tissue - plasma membrane
4. Absorption & Secretion – Digestive Track
5. Excretion - excretory Membrane transport - selectively permeable membrane
6. Respiration- respiratory
7. Growth & Reproduction- different parts of the body - osmosis- DIFFUSION OF H20
8. Org - protein channels
  PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES aniz
  - active transport
atio
ORGANISM bacteria protist, fungi, plants
- fluid mosaic model
n
Animals

ORGANELLES few /none nucleus, mitochondria, TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE
endoplasmic
reticulum, etc. PASSIVE -greater concentration to lesser concentration
DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular
- SIMPLE DIFFUSION-HIGH TO LOW SOLUTE
cytoplasm Bounded by a - FACILITATED DIFFUSION-CARRIER
membrane - OSMOSIS
RNA and RNA and protein RNA synthesized in - FILTRATION
PROTEIN synthesize in the the nucleus / protein
same compartment in the cytoplasm ACTIVE- Lesser to greater concentration
CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ISOTONIC- EQUAL
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
HYPERTONIC- SHRINKING
1. CELL MEMBRANE HYPOTONIC- Swelling eventually; Lysis=Bursting
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
ENDOCYTOSIS- entry of particles towards the cell
Newly Discovered / Temporary to your cells
- Phagocytosis-cell eating
MELANOSOMES SECRETORY GRANULLES
- Pinocytosis-cell drinking
Non- Membrane Bound Organelles
EXOCYTOSIS- releasing; exit; extrusion of substance within the RIBOSOMES
cell
Cytoplasm of the Cell
1. The Mitochondria
Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid
 Powerhouses of the cell
- Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium  Cristae - inner folds where cellular respiration occurs
o Polar compounds go into solution  Synthesize ATP
o Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal suspension  Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number
 Also accumulate Ca+, synthesize nucleic acids and proteins,
With organelles, inclusions, cytoskeleton oxidation of fatty acids

2.Ribosomes

 Distributed throughout cytoplasm

 Attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
ORGANELLES- MEGLP  No membrane covering
1. MITOCHONDRIA (chondriosome)  Site of protein synthesis
2. RIBOSOMES free ribosomes- protein for intracellular use
3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
a) Rough / Granular ER
b) Smooth / Non-granular ER Endoplasmic Reticulum
4. GOLGI COMPLEX (Dictyosomes) - System of membranes that makes up channels
5. LYSOSOMES - Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
a) Primary lysosome - CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN, LIPID SYNTHESIS
b) Secondary lysosome
c) Residual bodies Types of ER:
6. PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES
Rough: for protein synthesis attached ribosomes
7. MELANOSOMES
8. SECRETORY GRANULES - (protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
Smooth: fat transport and sex hormone synthesis, HCL

4.The Golgi Apparatus/Complex (Dictyosomes) Inclusions:

 Collection of flat saclike cisternae 1. GLYCOGEN

 Concentration and collection of cellular compounds 2. LIPID
 Storage warehouses of the cell 3. PIGMENTS
 Carbohydrate synthesis site a) Exogenous
 “packaging”/TRANSPORTATION OF PROTEIN b) Endogenous
1) lipofuscin
5.Lysosomes 2) melanin
 Digestive enzyme packages 3) hemoglobin
 with acid hydrolases 4) bilirubin
 Lack oxidases and catalases 4) CRYSTALS
a) Crystals of Reinke
b) Crystals of Charcot-Bottcher
Function (LYSOSOMES) Cytoskeleton
-play role in cellular defense 1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.)
2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.)
 digest stored food
a) Keratin- epithelial cells
 maintenance and repair of organelles
b) Vimentin- mesenchymal cells
 suicide agents for old or weak cells
c) Desmin- muscle cells
-primary lysosomes
d) Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of nervous system
-secondary lysosomes
e) Neurofilaments- neurons
-Residual Bodies
3) MICROTUBULES (25 nm in dia.)
6.PEROXISOMES/MICROBODIES
a. centrioles- determine polarity of cell
CONTAIN:
b. basal bodies- anchoring points of cilia and flagella
 CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2O and O2 c. cilia – line respiratory tract
 OXIDASE d. flagella- tail of spermatozoa

Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to each other (Composed of 9

7.MELANOSOMES
set of triplets fibers)
8.SECRETORY GRANULES
-Form spindle fibers during cell division
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
-Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells  10-20% of length
Cillia and flagella

-Hair like protrusion from cell membrane

-nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage

MITOSIS
 Cilia – line respiratory tract; move materials across cell
surface  Prophase
 Flagellium-propels cell through a medium  Metaphase
 Anaphase
The Nucleus  Telophase

-Control center of the cell

-Nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage 1. Prophase – chromosomes progressively shorten and thicken to form double
structures
 Chromatin - genetic material inside nucleoplasm  nucleolus gradually disappears
 Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation  mitotic apparatus begins to form
 degeneration of the nuclear membrane
INTERPHASE
 18-24 hours 2. Metaphase
 inactive / resting phase – chromatids align at the equatorial plane.

FOUR PHASES OF INTERPHASE 3. Anaphase

1. G1 (gap 1) phase – separation of sister chromatids and migrate towards the opposite poles by the
 (-) DNA synthesis translocation of the spindle microtubules.
 (+) RNA and protein synthesis
4. Telophase
 30-50% of length of interphase
nucleoli and nuclear membranes reappear at the opposite ends of the cell
2. G0 phase  mitotic apparatus gradually disappears
 a purse string constriction of bands of microfilaments appear at the
 cells pull out of the cycle
equatorial plate dividing the cytoplasm and eventually the daughter cells.
3. S (synthesis) phase
 DNA synthesis/replication
 35-45% of length of interphase

4. G2 phase
 phase before onset of mitosis KARYOTYPE
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
 23 PAIRS FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES:
 22 pairs: autosomes
 1 pair: sex chromosome 1. EPITHELIAL
 XX-FEMALE 2. CONNECTIVE
 XY-MALE 3. MUSCLE
4. NERVOUS

2 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION: CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

1.Mitosis
1. LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM - protection
2.Meiosis
2. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM – Secretion Functions of

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

epithelial tissues:

MITOSIS 1. Protection

 2 Daughter cells with exactly the same genetic material 2. Secretion

 Cellular division for growth, maintenance and repair
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
MEISOS
 one of the fundamental types of tissues of the body
 4 Daughter cells with half the genetic material
 Cellular division for Reproduction LINING / SURFACE EPITHELIUM
COMPOSITION:

 Epithelial Cells
 Extra Intercellular Substance

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Contiguous cells -closely packed together

 Basal lamina
 Avascular
 Sheet or layers

SUBTYPE OF LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM TISSUE

Based on the number of layers of cells:
CHAPTER3: Fundamental Tissues
1. Simple – single layer of cells
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
Pseudostratified – single layer of columnar 2) ciliated
shaped cells with nucleus at variable location
of the cell giving it false stratification or 2. STRATIFIED
appearance of several layers of cells; not all A. Stratified Squamous
apices of cells reach the surface (different  If it needs to be moist in the mouth or vocal activity
heights of columnar cells) you have stratified squamous non - keratinized
2. Stratified – more than one layer  In the skin where it is dry there is a presence of keratin
a. Transitional (UROTHELIUM – found in urinary so you have stratified keratinized
system) – several layer of cells where the B. Stratified cuboidal
shape changes according to functional status  Sweat glands and sebaceous gland were you have a
secretory function
of the organ

SPECIFIC SUBTYPES:

C. Stratified Columnar
 Lining cells of the ducts of salivary and mammary gland

D. Pseudostratified Columnar
 ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELL LAYER + SHAPE OP THE  lining of the respiratory tract
CELL AND ITS SPECIAL FEATURE LIKE PRESENCE/ABSENCE OF
CILIA OR KERATIN
1. SIMPLE(LAYERS)
A. Simple squamous(thin/flat)
 Blood vessels- single layer of flat cell for easier diffusion
of substances
 Lungs(alveoli)- have only single layer of cells so that
oxygen and carbon dioxide can easily pass through
B. Simple cuboidal C. Simple Columnar

 Secretion (secretory) or absorption

C. Columnar

1) non-ciliated
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
3. TRANSITIONAL
 There is a change in the shape of the cells depending on the
functional status; the organ is relaxed not stretch (thick GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
cells); organ is stretch (flatten cells)  ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS

1. UNICELLLULAR – 1 cell

2. MULTICELLULAR – more than 1 cells

 ACCORDING TO PRESENCE /ABSENCE OF

DUCTS

1. EXOCRINE - with ducts salivary glands

2. ENDOCRINE - ductless glands

 ACCORDING TO NATURE OF SECRETION

1. MUCUS -Secretes a thick and viscid product
; goblet cells
2. SEROUS -secretes a thin and watery product
; parotid gland
3. MUCO-SEROUS / MIXED - mixed secretion

; submandibular gland; sublingual gland

4. CYTOGENIC - glands that produce cells

; testis; ovaries
 ACCORDING TO FATE OF SECRETING CELLS

1. MEROCRINE -no destruction of the secretory cells; sweat

gland

2. APOCRINE - partial destruction of secretory cells;

mammary gland

3. HOLOCRINE - total destruction of secretory cells;

sebaceous gland

 ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
1. TUBULAR- elongated and collagen fibers are seen in the light
microscope. An important component is
a. SIMPLE proteoglycans made up of protein and
polysaccharide
1) simple tubular
3. Fluid
2) simple coiled tubular

3) simple branched tubular CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Found between other tissues

b. COMPOUND
1) compound tubular

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Enclosing and separating tissues

2. ALVEOLAR - Expanded
2. Connecting tissues to one another
a. simple alveolar 3. Supporting and moving
4. Storing energy
b. compound alveolar 5. Cushioning and insulating
3. TUBULO-ALVEOLAR – Combination of the two 6. Transporting
7. Protecting

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Characterized by large amounts of extracellular materials that separate Subtypes:
cells from one another
Fibrous/Connective Tissue Proper Collagenous- LCT, DRCT,
 Supports and binds
 large amounts of extracellular materials that separate cells from one DICT Elastic
another Embryonic
Components of Extracellular Matrix Mesenchymal Mucous
1.Protein fiber Specialized
Collagen Bone - compact, spongy
Reticular
Elastic Cartilage - hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

Adipose - brown, white, Reticular

2.Ground Substance
-is the shapeless background against which cells
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
 found only in the umbilical cord. Wharton’s jelly.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE 2. ADIPOSE
TISSUE 3. BONES
 Collagenous 4. CARTILAGES

A. LOOSE COLLAGENOUS OR LOOSE AREOLAR MUSCLE TISSUE

 consists of collagen and elastic fiber  main characteristic is its ability to contract or shorten
 most common cells found are fibroblast
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE:
 Fibroblasts- are responsible for the production of the fibers
of the matrix.  SKELETAL
 CARDIAC
B. DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS
 SMOOTH
 Same direction of collagen fibers

EXAMPLE: Tendon
C.DENSE IRREGULAR COLLAGENOUS
 Different direction of collagen fibers
EXAMPLE: Dermis (skin)
2.Elastic

 Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after being

stretched

CLASSIFICATION OF EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE

TISSUE Bones
1.MESENCHYMAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Compact /dense
 Source of all adult connective tissue  Spongy/ Cancellous
 Derived from mesoderm
 Delicate collagen fibers embedded in semifluid matrix Cartilages
 HYALINE CARTILAGE
2.Mucus Connective Tissue
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
 ELASTIC CARTILAGE 6. Regulates heat loss from body surface
 FIBROCARTILAGE 7. Acts as mini-excretory system, urea, salt, water is lost when
we sweat
8. Manufactures several proteins important to immunity
IV. NERVOUS TISSUE 9. Storage of Vitamin D precursor
- forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves 10. Contains cutaneous receptors that serve as sensors for touch,
- contains very important cells which are neurons and neuroglia pressure, temperature and pain

2 principal layers:
Integumentary System
1.Epidermis
Composed of
2.Dermis
1.Skin

 Heaviest, largest single organ

2.Skin Appendages:

 sweat glands
 sebaceous glands
 hairs
 nails

Skin – also called integument

Simply means covering
FUNCTIONS:
1. Keeps water and other precious molecules in the body
2. Keeps water out
Epidermis
3. Protects the body from external agent
4. Insulates and cushions deeper body organs  Superficial protective layer of the skin
5. Protects body from mechanical, chemical, thermal damage  Composed of Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium that varies
and also bacteria
in thickness
PANGANIBAN, BEVERLY.
 All but the deepest layers of epidermis are composed of dead cells palms
 Composed of 4-5 layers, depending on its location within the body -Contains a translucent substance called eleidin
 Palms and soles have five layers because these areas are exposed to
most friction 5. STRATUM CORNEUM
- 25-30 layers of flattened, scale like anucleated cells,
which are continuously shed as flake-like residues of cells
1. STRATUM BASALE - This surface layer is cornified and is the real protective
Composed of single layer of cells in contact with the layer of the skin
dermis - Cornification is brought on by keratinization and the
4 types of cells: hardening, flattening process that takes place as the cells
A) keratinocytes die and are pushed to the surface Friction at the surface of
- produce keratin which toughens & skin stimulates additional mitotic activity of stratum basale,
waterproofs skin resulting in the formation
B) melanocytes
- synthesize the pigment melanin providing a protective
barrier to UV radiation in sunlight

2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
- cuboidal or slightly flattened cells
-Contains several layers of cells
-Spiny appearance due to changed shape of
keratinocytes
-With limited mitosis
-This layer plus stratum basale are collectively
called Stratum Germinativum

3. STATUM GRANULOSUM
- Consists of only 3-4 flattened rows of cells
- Cells here appear granular due to the presence of
keratohyaline granules

4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (Clear Layer)

-Nuclei, organelles, and cell membranes are no longer
visible so this layer appears clear
-Exists only in the lips and the thickened skin of soles &