Biology

LS1001

Lecture 5
15/12/2020
Autumn 2020

Dr Bijesh K Biswal
Department of Life Science, NIT Rourkela
Course Content

Introduction to application Biology in engineering science.

Brief introduction to different organism (Just we can teach them only five
kingdom classification, other animal and plant classification can be ignored
as it will be too much for the students in online mode)

Cells Introduction
Unicellular organism
Multicellular organism
Cell theory – History, Classical and Modern concepts

Cell Morphology
Prokaryotic cells and its classification based on shape, nutrition and cell
wall
Introduction to Archaea: only their habitat and functions in environment
Eukaryotic cells and its classification – Animal cells, plant cells, fungi and
single celled eukaryotes

Cell Anatomy
Ultrastructure of prokaryotes, Ultrastructure of eukaryotes
Cell multiplication
Prokaryotic multiplication - Asexual reproduction – Binary fission and
Budding (Prokaryotes and few eukaryotes)
Eukaryotic cell multiplication – Cell cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

Biomolecules
Proteins , Carbohydrates , Lipids , Nucleic acids

Central dogma of molecular biology

Introduction
Replication – replication (only prokaryotes we may discuss and we may
highlight the difference steps in eukaryotes)
Translation (only prokaryotes we may discuss and we may highlight the
difference steps in eukaryotes)
Transcription (only prokaryotes we may discuss and we may highlight the
difference steps in eukaryotes)
Ultrastructure of Prokaryotes
Ultrastructure of Prokaryotes
(Eubacteria)
Cell envelope
• Plasma membrane
• Cell wall
• Capsule/slime
Capsule/glycocalyx
• Gelatinous substance made of
polysaccharide or polypeptide or both
• When the amorphous viscid secretion
(that makes up the capsule) diffuses into
the surrounding medium and remains as a
loose undemarcated secretion, it is known
as slime layer
• Found in both gram positive and negative
bacteria
• Function
• Attachment to surface
• Protection against phagocytic engulfment,
killing or digestion
• Protection against desiccation
• Virulence factor
Capsule/glycocalyx
• They also exclude bacterial viruses and most
hydrophobic toxic materials such as detergents
• There are 14 different capsule types, which each
impart their own specific antigenicity
Cell envelope – Cell Wall

• Internal turgor pressure

• Porous in nature, small molecules can pass easily
• Rigid and provide shape to bacteria
• Peptidoglycan - poly-N-acetylglucosamine and N-
acetylmuramic acid
 Cell envelope –Cell/Plasma
Membrane

Fluid mosaic model

Singer and Nicolson (1972)

• Function Enclosed cytoplasm – constant and highly organized state

• Interacts with environment
• Transportation – Selective transportation of molecules (ions and
organic molecules
• Respiration, Photosynthesis, synthesis of lipids and cell wall
components
Cell envelope – Mesosome
• These are folded invaginations in the plasma
membrane of bacteria.

• These may be tubular, flattened disc-like or curved.

• They contain enzymes of electron-transport system.

• Function - respiration, secretion, synthesis of material

for cell wall and separation and distribution of
chromosomes to daughter cells
Extracellular structures - Pili
• These are protein tubes that extend out from the outer
membrane in many members of the bacteria

• They are generally short to medium in length and present

on the bacterial cell surface in low numbers

• A few organisms (e.g. Myxococcus) use pilus for motility

• They are involved in the process of bacterial conjugation

where they are called conjugation pili or "sex pili“

• Type IV pili (non-sex pili) also aid bacteria in gripping

surfaces
Extracellular structures – Flagella
• Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell
structures are flagella

• Flagella are whip-like structures protruding from the bacterial cell

wall and are responsible for bacterial motility (i.e. movement)

• The arrangement of flagella about the bacterial cell is unique to

the species
Extracellular structures – Flagella
Cytoplasm
• The fluid and all its dissolved or suspended particles is called
the cytoplasm of the cell

• Cytosol is the water-like fluid found in bacterial cells

• The cytosol contains all the other internal compounds and

components the bacteria needs for survival

• Proteins, amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, salts, vitamins,

enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and internal bacterial structures
all float around the cell in the cytoplasm

• All of these components are vital to the life of the cell and are
contained by the cell membrane
Cytoplasm – Genome and Plasmid
• Non enclosed by membrane
• This means that the transfer of cellular information
through the processes of translation, transcription and
DNA replication all occur within the same compartment
and can interact with other cytoplasmic structures like
ribosomes
• Circular double stranded DNA
• Exception few bacteria where linear Double stranded
DNA (e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi)
Cytoplasm – Genome and Plasmid
Cytoplasm – Genome and Plasmid
Cytoplasm – Genome and Plasmid
• Small independent pieces of DNA called plasmids that
often encode for traits that are advantageous but not
essential to their bacterial host (extra-chromosomal
DNA)
• Plasmids can be easily gained or lost by a bacterium
and can be transferred between bacteria as a form of
horizontal gene transfer
Cytoplasm – Genome and Plasmid
• There are two types of plasmid
integration into a host bacteria: Non-
integrating plasmids replicate as with
the top instance, whereas episomes,
the lower example, integrate into the
host chromosome
• F plasmid: These are also called sex
factors. The bacterial cell having this
plasmid is called F+ or donor cells and
other one not having it is F- or recipient
cell. This plasmid initiates conjugation
between F- and F+ bacteria
• R plasmid: This plasmid contains genes
that provide resistance to bacterial cells
against antibiotics
• Col Factors: The presence of this plasmid
makes bacteria to secrete colicins which
are antibiotics
Cytoplasm – Ribosomes
• The most numerous intracellular structure is the ribosome
• Site of protein synthesis in all living organisms
• Polyribosomes – chains of ribosomes on RNA
Eukaryotes
• Membrane bound nucleus
• Chromosomes made of DNA and histone
• Membrane bound organelles suspended in
cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm has cytoskeleton network
• Mitosis and Meiosis
• Genetic recombination
Eukaryotes

Kingdom
Eukaryotes – Protista
• Protista are simple
• Predominately unicellular eukaryotic organisms or
colony of cells
• Protists live in water, in moist terrestrial habitats, and as
parasites and other symbionts in the bodies of multicellular
eukaroytes.
Eukaryotes – Fungi
• Unicellular and multicellular
• The cells have cell walls but are not organized into
tissues
• They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain
nutrients through absorption. E.g. include sac fungi,
club fungi and yeast
Eukaryotes – Plantae
• Plants are multicellular organisms composed of
eukaryotic cells
• The cells are organized into tissues and have
cell walls
• They obtain nutrients by photosynthesis and
absorption
• Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and
flowering plants
Eukaryotes – Animalia
• Animals are multicellular organisms composed
of eukaryotic cells
• The cells are organized into tissues and lack
cell walls
• They do not carry out photosynthesis and
obtain nutrients primarily by ingestion
Examples include sponges, worms, insects,
and vertebrates.
Classification of animals
• Animal Kingdom is characterized by multicellular, eukaryotic
organisms

• Their cells lack cell walls

• They ingest and digest food (holozoic), hence they are heterotrophic

• Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor systems

• Majority of them are motile

• Reproduction is mostly sexual and embryological development is

present in them
Classification of animals
Basis of classification
• Though different animals differ in their form and
structure, there are some fundamental
similarities in them such as arrangement of
• Cellular level organization
• Body symmetry
• Nature of coelom
• Diploblastic or triploblastic nature of the body
wall
• Segmentation
 Cellular level organization
• Cells - the cells of the body form loose aggregates.
Sponges
• Tissue - cells of the animal carrying out the same
function are arranged in tissues. Jelly fish
(Coelenterates)
• Organs - tissue are grouped together to form organs,
each specialized for a particular function
(Platyhelminthes)
Body symmetry
Nature of coelom
Body wall

Coelenterates Platyhelminthes to Chordates

Plants Classification

The past taxonomic literature described three types of systems of

classification:

1. Artificial Classification: Based on few easily observable character like

Linnaeus System, i.e. trees, shrubs, herbs, etc. or floral characters
(particularly the number of stamens and carpels).

2. Natural Classification: These systems of classifications are based upon

overall resemblances, mostly in gross morphology, thus, utilizing as
many taxonomic characters as possible, to group taxa. Thus, the closely
related plants should naturally be grouped together. Based on wide array
of characters like Bentham and Hooker System (Dicot, Monocot and
gymnosperm)

3. Phylogenetic Classification: Based on many taxonomic characters as

possible in addition to the evolutionary interpretations like Engler and
Prantle’s system of classification
 Plants

Non-plant bodies Differentiated Plant

(Thalophytes) bodies
Thalophytes
Algae Vascular
Sea weeds Non-vascular
Seed Spore

Angiosperm Gymnosperm Bryophyta

Flowering Plant Non-flowering Pteridophyta
plants Liverwort
Monoc Cycas Moss
ots Cycad, ginkgo
Dicots Conifers
Pine
Vascular system Spikemosses,
clubmosses,
ferns,
quillworts
Plant Classification - Thallophytes

• This is a group of non-mobile organisms traditionally described

as "thalloid plants", "relatively simple plants" or "lower plants“
• The thallophytes are defined as having undifferentiated bodies
(thalli) Eg Algae

Brown Algae Laminaria Fucus Lichens

Algae
Plant Classification - Bryophytes

• They do not have true vascular tissue and are therefore called
"non-vascular plants
• This group is a collective term for mosses, hornworts, and
liverworts
• They produce neither flowers nor seeds and reproduce via
spores
• They are also called as amphibians of the plant kingdom
because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction
Plant Classification - Pteridophytes

• These are vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that
reproduce and disperse via spores
• The group includes ferns, mostly found in shaded areas of the
hills

Selaginella
Plant Classification - Gymnosperm
Pinus
• These are the plants in which seeds are
naked means they are not covered with
seed envelop or covering
• They include medium-sized or tall trees
• One of the gymnosperms, the giant
redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest
tree species
• The leaves in gymnosperms are well-
adapted to withstand extremes of
temperature, humidity and wind
• Leaves have thick covering known as
cuticle and sunken stomata that help to
reduce water loss
Plant Classification - Angiosperm

• These are the flowering plants where seeds

are covered with fruit
• These are exceptionally large group of plants
occurring in wide range of habitats
• They provide us with food, fodder, fuel,
medicines and several other commercially
important products
• They are divided into two classes: the
dicotyledons (Dicots) and the
monocotyledons (Monocots)
• The dicotyledons are characterized by having
two cotyledons in their seeds while the
monocolyledons have only one
Eukaryotic cell – Origin

• The set of ideas most favored by biologists to explain how

eukaryotic cells first came about is called the endosymbiotic
theory
• The eukaryotic cell evolved from a symbiotic community of
prokaryotic cells
• Specifically, the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are what
remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing bacteria and
cyanobacteria, respectively, whereas the rest of the cell seems
to be derived from an ancestral archaean cell
• The origin of the eukaryotic cell was a milestone in the evolution
of life
• Although eukaryotes use the same genetic code and metabolic
processes as prokaryotes, their higher level of organizational
complexity has permitted the development of truly multicellular
organisms
Eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell – Animal cell

• All animal cells are multicellular

• Animal cells are surrounded by plasma membrane and it contains

the nucleus and organelles that are membrane bound

• Animal cells are of various sizes and have irregular shapes

• Most of the cells size range between 10 and 100 micrometers and are
visible only with help of microscope

• Trillions of cells are found in the human body

• There are many different types of cells, approximately 210 distinct cell
types in adult human body

• Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids

 Disclaimer

All the materials are collected from different sources. The slides are only for
teaching purposes. Do not share them in private places.