4MTH312 (Graph Theory) - Examination Scope

and Mock Exam MEMO

Mr Philani R. Majozi
29 October 2023

Examination Scope and Mark Breakdown

Total Marks: 100
1. Basic Concepts and Terminology (20 marks)
ˆ Introduction to Graphs
ˆ Vertex, Edge, Degree
ˆ Directed and Undirected Graphs
ˆ Weighted and Unweighted Graphs
ˆ Paths, Cycles, and Connectivity
2. Trees (20 marks)
ˆ Properties of Trees
ˆ Spanning Trees
ˆ Minimum Spanning Trees: Kruskal’s and Prim’s Algorithms
3. Graph Coloring (20 marks)
ˆ Chromatic Number
ˆ Coloring Algorithms
ˆ Applications
4. Planar Graphs (20 marks)
ˆ Definitions and Properties
ˆ Kuratowski’s Theorem
ˆ Euler’s Formula
5. Network Flow (20 marks)
ˆ Maximum Flow Problems
ˆ Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm
ˆ Applications

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Mock Questions
1.1 Basic Concepts
a) List all the vertices and edges.
Vertices are the points in the graph, while edges are the lines connecting
the vertices.
Vertices: A, B, C, D, E, F
Edges: AB, BC, AD, BE, CF, DE, EF
b) Determine the degree of each vertex.
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges incident to it.

ˆ Degree of A: Edges incident to A are AB and AD. So, degree is 2.

ˆ Degree of B: Edges incident to B are AB, BC, and BE. So, degree
is 3.
ˆ Degree of C: Edges incident to C are BC and CF . So, degree is 2.
ˆ Degree of D: Edges incident to D are AD and DE. So, degree is
2.
ˆ Degree of E: Edges incident to E are BE, DE, and EF . So, degree
is 3.
ˆ Degree of F : Edges incident to F are CF and EF . So, degree is 2.

c) Identify all the paths from the top-left vertex (A) to the bottom-
right vertex (F).
A path is a sequence of vertices in which each adjacent pair of vertices in
the sequence is connected by an edge, and no vertex is repeated.
Paths from A to F :

(a) A → B → E → F
(b) A → D → E → F
(c) A → B → C → F
d) Is the graph cyclic or acyclic? Justify your answer.
A graph is cyclic if it has at least one cycle (a closed path in which the
first and last vertices are the same). In this graph, there are no cycles.
For example, there is no way to start at vertex A and return to A without
retracing an edge.
Answer: The graph is acyclic because it has no cycles.

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 e) Is the graph connected? Justify your answer.
A graph is connected if there is a path between every pair of vertices.
Looking at the graph, we can see that there is a path between any two
vertices.
Answer: The graph is connected because there is a path between every
pair of vertices.

2. Trees
2.1.

(a) Define a tree in graph theory.

A tree is an undirected graph in which any two vertices are connected by
exactly one path, and no cycles exist. That is, a tree is both connected
and acyclic.
(b) For a tree with 10 vertices, how many edges does it have? Justify
your answer.
For a tree with 10 vertices, it will have 9 edges.
Justification: A tree is defined as a connected graph with no cycles. This
means that every additional vertex we add to the tree requires exactly one
edge to connect it to the existing structure without creating a cycle. Thus,
for n vertices, there will always be n − 1 edges.
(c) Describe the difference between a spanning tree and a minimum
spanning tree.

ˆ Spanning Tree: A spanning tree of a graph is a subgraph that is a

tree and includes all the vertices of the original graph. It should have
n − 1 edges where n is the number of vertices in the graph. There
can be multiple spanning trees for a given graph.
ˆ Minimum Spanning Tree (MST): Among the spanning trees of
a weighted graph, the MST is the one with the smallest total edge
weight. That is, the sum of its edge weights is less than or equal to
the sum of the edge weights of any other spanning tree of the graph.

The primary difference is related to the weights of the edges. While any
connected graph can have multiple spanning trees, there’s only one (or
possibly more than one with the same total weight) minimum spanning
tree, which minimizes the total edge weight.
(d) Using Kruskal’s algorithm, find the minimum spanning tree for
the given weighted graph.
The minimum spanning tree (MST) for the given weighted graph, obtained
using Kruskal’s algorithm, consists of the following edges:

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 (a) 5 − 6 with weight 1
(b) 1 − 3 with weight 2
(c) 3 − 5 with weight 3
(d) 1 − 2 with weight 4
(e) 4 − 5 with weight 6

The total weight for this MST is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16.

The edges listed above form the minimum spanning tree of the given graph
using Kruskal’s algorithm.

3. Graph Coloring
3.1.

(a) What is the chromatic number of a graph?

The chromatic number of a graph, denoted χ(G), is the smallest number of
colors needed to color the vertices of G such that no two adjacent vertices
share the same color. In other words, it’s the minimum number of colors
you can use to color a graph without any of its edges connecting vertices
of the same color.

(b) Given a graph, determine its chromatic number.

The chromatic number of the given graph, as determined by the greedy
coloring algorithm, is 3. This means that the graph can be colored using
at most 3 different colors such that no two adjacent vertices have the same
color.

(c) Explain the significance of graph coloring in real-world applica-

tions.
Graph coloring has numerous applications in the real world, including:

ˆ Scheduling Problems: Graph coloring can be used in time tabling

and scheduling tasks where certain tasks cannot be scheduled at the
same time.
ˆ Register Allocation: In compiler optimization, graph coloring is
used to allocate registers to variables in a way that variables in the
same register do not interfere with each other.
ˆ Frequency Assignment: In wireless networking, graph coloring
helps in assigning frequencies to stations so that two adjacent stations
do not have the same frequency.
ˆ Puzzle Games: Many puzzle games, such as Sudoku, can be repre-
sented as graph coloring problems.

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 ˆ Map Coloring: In cartography, the graph coloring problem repre-
sents the challenge of coloring a map in such a way that neighboring
regions have different colors.

(d) Briefly describe the greedy coloring algorithm.

The greedy coloring algorithm is a straightforward method of coloring
vertices in a graph. The primary idea is to assign the ”smallest” available
color to each vertex in sequence. Here’s a brief overview:

(a) Ordering: List the vertices in some order.

(b) Initialization: Start with the first vertex and color it with the first
color.
(c) Color Assignment: Move to the next vertex:
ˆ Examine its adjacent vertices. If they are colored, mark those
colors as unavailable for the current vertex.
ˆ Assign the smallest available color to the current vertex.
(d) Iterate: Continue the process until all vertices are colored.

The greedy algorithm does not necessarily produce the most optimal col-
oring, meaning the least number of colors for the entire graph. However,
it provides an upper bound for the chromatic number and is efficient in
its simplicity.

4. Planar Graphs
4.1.

(a) Define a planar graph.

A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn on a plane such that no
edges cross each other except at the vertices where they are joined. In
other words, it can be embedded in the plane in a way that its edges
intersect only at their endpoints.
(b) Is the given graph planar? Justify your answer.
The given graph can be redrawn without any of its edges crossing, as
follows:

(a) Place vertex 1 in the center.

(b) Surround vertex 1 with vertices 2, 3, and 5 in a triangular fashion.
(c) Connect vertices 2 and 3 directly.
(d) Connect vertices 2 and 4 such that vertex 4 lies outside the triangle
formed by vertices 1, 2, and 3.
(e) Connect vertex 4 to vertex 5 such that vertex 5 also lies outside the
triangle but on the opposite side of vertex 4.

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 (f) Connect vertex 1 to vertex 5 and vertex 3 to vertex 5, completing
the graph.

Since the graph can be redrawn without any of its edges crossing, apart
from where they meet at the vertices, it is a planar graph.
(c) State and explain Kuratowski’s theorem.
Kuratowski’s Theorem states that a graph is planar if and only if it
does not contain a subgraph that is a subdivision of K5 (the complete
graph on five vertices) or K3,3 (the complete bipartite graph on two sets
of three vertices).
Explanation: Both K5 and K3,3 are non-planar graphs. Kuratowski’s
theorem essentially tells us that any graph containing a subdivision of
these graphs (i.e., a graph obtained by inserting vertices into the middle
of edges) is also non-planar. It’s a key theorem in graph theory that
provides a criterion to check the planarity of a graph.
(d) Using Euler’s formula, verify if the given graph is planar.
For the second provided graph:
ˆ Number of vertices (V ) = 5
ˆ Number of edges (E) = 6
ˆ Calculated number of faces (F ) = 3

Using Euler’s formula for connected planar graphs:

V −E+F =5−6+3=2

Since the formula holds true with the result being 2, this provides evi-
dence that the graph might be planar. However, as mentioned earlier,
this doesn’t serve as a conclusive proof. Given that the graph can be
visually inspected to be drawn without overlapping edges, it is indeed
planar.
The graph is planar based on Euler’s formula and visual inspection.

5. Network Flow
5.1.

(a) Define the concept of network flow in graph theory.

Network Flow refers to the movement or flow of some quantity (like
goods, information, or resources) through a network. In graph theory, a
flow network is typically represented as a directed graph where each edge
has a capacity, indicating the maximum amount of flow it can carry. Two
special vertices exist in this graph: a source (often denoted as s) from

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 which the flow originates and a sink (often denoted as t) where the flow
terminates. The goal in many network flow problems is to maximize the
amount of flow from the source to the sink without violating the capacity
constraints on the edges.
(b) Given a flow network, determine the maximum flow using the
Ford-Fulkerson algorithm.
The Ford-Fulkerson algorithm is a method used to compute the max-
imum flow in a flow network. The procedure is as follows:

(a) Start with an initial flow (usually 0 for all edges).

(b) While there is a path from the source s to the sink t in the residual
graph (a graph that represents the capacities left after subtracting
the current flow), send as much flow as possible along this path.
(c) Update the residual capacities of the edges based on the flow just
sent.
(d) Repeat until no augmenting paths are left in the residual graph.

Applying the algorithm to the given flow network:

(a) Initialize all flows to 0.

(b) Find an augmenting path in the residual graph.
(c) Augment the flow along this path.
(d) Update the residual capacities.
(e) Repeat steps 2 to 4 until no more augmenting paths can be found.

After applying the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm to the given graph, the max-
imum flow from the source s to the sink t is found to be 14 units.

6. Breadth-First Search (BFS)

6.1.

(a) Describe the BFS algorithm.

Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that ex-
plores vertices in the order of their distance from the source vertex, where
distance is the minimum number of edges on the path from the source ver-
tex. The algorithm works in ”layers.” It first visits all vertices at distance
1, then all vertices at distance 2, and so on.
Steps for BFS:
(a) Start by initializing a queue with the starting vertex.
(b) Mark the starting vertex as visited.
(c) While the queue is not empty:

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 ˆ Remove the front vertex from the queue.
ˆ For each unvisited neighbor of the current vertex:
– Mark the neighbor as visited.
– Enqueue the neighbor.
(d) Continue until the queue is empty.
(b) How does BFS determine the shortest path in an unweighted
graph?
BFS can be used to find the shortest path in an unweighted graph because
it naturally explores vertices layer by layer, starting from the source vertex.
When BFS reaches a vertex, it is guaranteed that the path it took to reach
that vertex is the shortest possible path, as all paths of a shorter length
would have been explored in earlier iterations.
To find the shortest path using BFS:
(a) Modify the BFS algorithm to store the predecessor (or parent) of
each vertex.
(b) When a vertex is visited for the first time (i.e., dequeued), record the
vertex that led to its discovery as its predecessor.
(c) Once BFS completes, you can backtrack from the destination vertex
to the source using these predecessors to reconstruct the shortest
path.
(c) Given a graph, apply BFS to determine the shortest path be-
tween two specific vertices.
Applying BFS to the given graph, the shortest path between vertices 1
and 8 is:
1→3→6→8

(d) Discuss the time complexity of the BFS algorithm and its impli-
cations.
The time complexity of the BFS algorithm is O(V + E), where V is the
number of vertices and E is the number of edges in the graph.
Implications:

ˆ Linear Complexity: The BFS algorithm has linear time complex-

ity, which means that its running time grows linearly with the size of
the input (number of vertices and edges). This makes BFS efficient
for traversal of large graphs.
ˆ Memory Usage: BFS uses a queue to keep track of vertices to visit,
and in the worst case, all vertices of the graph could be in the queue
at the same time. Hence, the space complexity is also O(V ).

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 ˆ Shortest Path: In unweighted graphs, BFS guarantees the discov-
ery of the shortest path between the starting vertex and any other
vertex. This property makes BFS useful for a wide range of problems
where the shortest path or minimum number of steps is of interest.
ˆ Unweighted Graphs: It’s important to note that the BFS al-
gorithm gives the shortest path only for unweighted graphs. For
weighted graphs, algorithms like Dijkstra’s or A* should be used.

BFS is a foundational graph traversal algorithm with linear time com-

plexity, making it suitable for various applications in computer science,
including searching, pathfinding in unweighted graphs, and network broad-
casting.

7. Edge and Vertex Cover

7.1(a) Define edge cover and vertex cover in the context of graph theory.
Answer:
ˆ Edge Cover: An edge cover of a graph is a set of edges such that every
vertex of the graph is incident to at least one edge from the set. The goal
in many problems is to find a minimum edge cover, which is an edge cover
with the smallest possible number of edges.
ˆ Vertex Cover: A vertex cover of a graph is a set of vertices such that
every edge of the graph is incident to at least one vertex from the set. The
minimum vertex cover problem aims to find a vertex cover of the smallest
size.
7.1(b) Given a graph, determine a minimum vertex cover.
Answer: Using the greedy algorithm, a vertex cover for the given graph is
given by the vertices {1, 2, 3, 4}.
7.1(c) Describe the relationship between maximum matching and minimum
vertex cover in a bipartite graph.
Answer: In a bipartite graph, the Konig’s theorem establishes a relationship
between a maximum matching and a minimum vertex cover. The theorem
states: ”For any bipartite graph, the number of edges in a maximum matching
is equal to the number of vertices in a minimum vertex cover.”
7.1(d) Given a bipartite graph, find its maximum matching and minimum
vertex cover.
Answer: The maximum matching for the given bipartite graph consists of 3
edges. The minimum vertex cover for the given bipartite graph is an empty set.
This indicates that every vertex in the bipartite graph is part of the maximum
matching, and there’s no need for additional vertices to cover all edges.

8. Connectivity
8.1(a) Define vertex connectivity and edge connectivity of a graph.
Answer:

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 ˆ Vertex Connectivity (κ(G)): The vertex connectivity of a graph G
is the minimum number of vertices that need to be removed to make G
disconnected (or trivial, in the case of a complete graph). In other words,
it represents the smallest number of vertices whose removal disconnects
the graph.

ˆ Edge Connectivity (λ(G)): The edge connectivity of a graph G is the

minimum number of edges that need to be removed to make G discon-
nected. It represents the smallest number of edges whose removal discon-
nects the graph.
8.1(b) Given a graph, determine its vertex and edge connectivity.
Answer: For the given graph:
ˆ The vertex connectivity (κ(G)) is 1.

ˆ The edge connectivity (λ(G)) is 1.

This means that removing just one vertex or one edge from the graph will
disconnect it.
8.1(c) Explain the concept of k-connected and k-edge-connected graphs.
Answer:
ˆ k-connected graph: A graph is said to be k-connected if its vertex
connectivity is k or more. In other words, a graph is k-connected if at
least k vertices need to be removed to disconnect the graph.
ˆ k-edge-connected graph: A graph is said to be k-edge-connected if its
edge connectivity is k or more. This means that at least k edges need to
be removed to disconnect the graph.

8.1(d) For a k-connected graph, discuss the implications on the number of

vertices and edges it must have.
Answer: For a graph to be k-connected:
ˆ It must have at least k + 1 vertices. This is because if it had k or fewer
vertices, removing k vertices would make the graph trivial, contradicting
the definition of k-connectivity.

ˆ It doesn’t necessarily provide a strict lower bound on the number of edges,

but a k-connected graph must be sufficiently dense to ensure that the
removal of k − 1 vertices still leaves the graph connected.
For example, a 2-connected (or biconnected) graph must have at least 3 vertices.
Similarly, a 3-connected graph must have at least 4 vertices, and so on.
Write in latex the previous

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9. Menger’s Theorem
9.1(a) State and explain Menger’s theorem.
Answer: Menger’s Theorem states that for any two non-adjacent vertices
u and v in a graph, the minimum number of vertices required to separate u and
v (excluding u and v themselves) is equal to the maximum number of internally
vertex-disjoint u − v paths. In other words, it relates the connectivity of two
vertices in a graph to the number of independent paths between them.
9.1(b) Discuss the significance of Menger’s theorem in understanding the
connectivity of graphs.
Answer: Menger’s theorem is a cornerstone in understanding the robustness
and connectivity of graphs. Its importance can be summarized as follows:
ˆ Robustness: The theorem offers a means to gauge the reliability of a net-
work. In communication networks, having multiple vertex-disjoint paths
suggests that there are several ways for data to traverse even if some paths
are compromised.
ˆ Vertex Connectivity: Menger’s theorem provides an efficient way to de-
termine the vertex connectivity of a graph without evaluating all potential
vertex cuts.
ˆ Alternative Paths: In fields like transportation and logistics, the theo-
rem can aid in identifying alternative routes between two points.
9.1(c) Given a graph, use Menger’s theorem to determine the minimum
number of vertices that need to be removed to disconnect the graph.
Answer: For the provided graph, we aim to determine the least number
of vertices necessary to disconnect vertices A and D. Using Menger’s theorem,
we identify the maximum number of internally vertex-disjoint paths between A
and D. For the vertices A and D, there exists only one vertex-disjoint path:
A → B → C → D. Hence, according to Menger’s theorem, removing just one
vertex (either B or C) will disconnect A and D.
9.1(d) Contrast Menger’s theorem with other connectivity concepts in graph
theory.
Answer: While Menger’s theorem elaborates on the number of vertex-
disjoint paths between two non-adjacent vertices, other connectivity concepts
in graph theory include:
ˆ Vertex and Edge Connectivity: These concepts describe the minimum
number of vertices or edges, respectively, that need to be removed to make
the graph disconnected.
ˆ k-connected and k-edge-connected Graphs: These denote the ro-
bustness of a graph’s connectivity. A k-connected graph stays connected
even after removing k − 1 vertices.
ˆ Components: This idea pertains to distinct connected subgraphs within
a graph. Contrarily, Menger’s theorem addresses the connectivity between
specific vertex pairs.

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In essence, Menger’s theorem provides a specific measure of connectivity be-
tween two particular vertices, while other concepts typically discuss the connec-
tivity of the entire graph or its resilience against vertex or edge removal.

10. Breadth-First Search (BFS)

10.1.
(a) Describe the BFS algorithm.
Breadth-First Search (BFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree or graph data structures. Starting at the tree root (or an arbitrary
node of a graph), BFS explores the neighbor nodes at the present depth
prior to moving on to nodes at the next depth level. The BFS algorithm
uses a queue data structure to keep track of nodes. It starts with the
source node, explores its neighbors, and then their unexplored neighbors,
and so on, until all the connected components of the graph are explored.

(b) Explain the primary difference between BFS and Depth-First

Search (DFS).
The primary difference between BFS and DFS lies in the order they explore
nodes:

ˆ BFS explores nodes level by level. It explores all nodes at the current
depth before moving to nodes at the next depth level.
ˆ DFS, on the other hand, explores as far as possible along a branch
before backtracking. It dives deep into a graph, following a path until
it cannot go further, and then it backtracks.

Another key distinction is in the data structures they use: BFS uses a
queue, while DFS uses a stack (or can be implemented using recursion).
(c) How does BFS determine the shortest path in an unweighted
graph? Illustrate with an example.
BFS determines the shortest path in an unweighted graph by exploring
nodes in increasing order of their distance from the source. It starts at
the source node and explores its neighbors, then the neighbors of those
neighbors, and so on. Since BFS explores nodes level by level, the first
time it reaches a node is the shortest path to that node.

10.2.
(a) Given a graph, apply BFS to determine the shortest path be-
tween two specified vertices.
The shortest path between vertices A and H in the graph is:

A→B→E→G→H

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 (b) Discuss the time complexity of the BFS algorithm and its impli-
cations.
The time complexity of the BFS algorithm is O(V + E), where V is the
number of vertices and E is the number of edges in the graph. This is
because each vertex and each edge is processed only once by the BFS
algorithm.
Implications:
ˆ BFS is efficient for sparse graphs (where E is much less than V 2 ) but
can be less efficient for dense graphs.
ˆ Since the BFS algorithm visits vertices in increasing order of their
distance from the source, it is particularly useful in scenarios where
we want to determine the shortest path in unweighted graphs.
ˆ The linear time complexity ensures that BFS can be applied to rela-
tively large graphs efficiently.
(c) In what scenarios would BFS be more appropriate than other
graph traversal methods?
BFS would be more appropriate in the following scenarios:
ˆ Shortest Path in Unweighted Graphs: When determining the shortest
path between two vertices in an unweighted graph, BFS provides an
efficient method as it explores all vertices at a given depth before
moving to the next depth.
ˆ Layered Approach: In problems where data can be naturally divided
into layers or levels, BFS can be used to process all data at one level
before moving to the next.
ˆ Connectivity: To check the connectivity of a graph or to identify
connected components.
ˆ Broadcasting: In network topology, BFS can be used in broadcasting
scenarios where a message needs to be sent to all users. It ensures
that users closest to the sender receive the message first.
On the other hand, DFS might be more suitable for scenarios like topo-
logical sorting, detecting cycles, or when the graph’s depth is significantly
smaller than its breadth.

11. Edge and Vertex Cover

11.1.
(a) Define edge cover and vertex cover.
An edge cover of a graph is a set of edges such that every vertex of the
graph is incident to at least one edge from the set. It’s not necessarily minimal,

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meaning there might be smaller edge covers, but a minimum edge cover is an
edge cover with the smallest possible number of edges.
A vertex cover of a graph is a set of vertices such that each edge of the graph
is incident to at least one vertex from the set. A minimum vertex cover is a
vertex cover of smallest size.
(b) Explain the relationship between the size of a minimum vertex
cover and the size of a maximum matching in a graph.
In any graph, the sum of the sizes of a maximum matching and a minimum
vertex cover is equal to the number of vertices in the graph. This relationship can
be particularly useful for certain computational problems, especially in bipartite
graphs where finding a maximum matching can also help determine a minimum
vertex cover.
(c) Given a graph, determine a minimum vertex cover and a min-
imum edge cover.
The minimum vertex cover for the graph consists of vertices: A, B, and C.
The minimum edge cover for the graph consists of the edges: A − D, B − E,
C − B, D − A, E − B, and F − E.

11.2.
(a) Describe an algorithmic approach to find the minimum vertex
cover in a bipartite graph.
To find the minimum vertex cover in a bipartite graph:
1. Start by finding a maximum matching in the bipartite graph using the
Hopcroft-Karp algorithm or other suitable methods.

2. Let U and V be the two disjoint sets of vertices in the bipartite graph.
Determine the unmatched vertices from U .
3. Use BFS (Breadth-First Search) to find all vertices that are at an even
distance from the unmatched vertices in U .

4. Then, find all vertices that are at an odd distance from the unmatched
vertices in V .
5. The minimum vertex cover will be the union of unmatched vertices in U
and the matched vertices in V that are reachable from the unmatched
vertices in U .

(b) Discuss the difference between edge cover and vertex cover
concerning real-world applications.

ˆ Vertex Cover: In real-world applications, a vertex cover can represent

scenarios where we want to select a minimal number of nodes (or locations)
to monitor or influence all connections or interactions in a network. For
instance, in a social network, a vertex cover can represent the minimum
number of people who have direct or indirect connections to everyone else.

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 In another example, in a transportation network, it might represent the
minimum number of stations where inspections or security checks need to
be placed to ensure every route is monitored.
ˆ Edge Cover: An edge cover can represent scenarios where we want to en-
sure that every node (or location) in a network is directly connected to or
influenced by a selected connection or interaction. For example, in a com-
munication network, an edge cover might represent the minimum number
of direct communication links required to ensure that every device or user
can send or receive data. In a transportation scenario, it might signify the
minimum number of direct routes required to ensure that every location
can be reached directly from another location without intermediate stops.

In essence, while a vertex cover focuses on covering interactions or connec-

tions through nodes, an edge cover emphasizes ensuring direct interactions or
connections between nodes. Depending on the specific requirements of a real-
world problem, one might be more relevant than the other.

12. Connectivity
12.1.
(a) Define vertex connectivity and edge connectivity.

ˆ Vertex Connectivity (κ(G)): The vertex connectivity of a graph G is

the smallest number of vertices whose removal disconnects G or makes
it trivial (reducing it to a single vertex). For a disconnected graph, the
vertex connectivity is 0. The vertex connectivity gives an idea of how
strongly a graph is connected.
ˆ Edge Connectivity (λ(G)): The edge connectivity of a graph G is the
smallest number of edges that need to be removed to disconnect G or make
it trivial. Like vertex connectivity, if the graph is already disconnected,
its edge connectivity is 0. Edge connectivity provides a measure of the
”redundancy” of the connections in a graph.

(b) Explain the importance of connectivity in network design, pro-

viding real-world examples.
Connectivity is crucial in network design for ensuring reliability, fault toler-
ance, and efficient communication. A well-connected network can continue to
function even if certain connections or nodes fail.

ˆ Internet Backbone: The global internet is built on a backbone of high-

capacity routes that connect major data centers and ISPs. These routes
are designed with high edge and vertex connectivity to ensure that the
failure of a single route (due to a cut fiber cable, for instance) doesn’t
isolate large portions of the internet. Traffic can be rerouted through
alternative paths.

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 ˆ Power Grids: Electrical power distribution systems are designed with
multiple paths to ensure that power can be rerouted if a particular line
or transformer fails. A well-connected power grid can prevent large-scale
blackouts.
ˆ Transportation Networks: Major cities often have multiple routes
(highways, roads) connecting them. If one major highway is closed due
to an accident, traffic can be rerouted through another route, ensuring
continued connectivity.
(c) Given a graph, determine its vertex and edge connectivity.
To determine the vertex and edge connectivity, we look for the smallest
number of vertices or edges whose removal would disconnect the graph.
For the provided graph:
ˆ Vertex Connectivity (κ(G)): Removing vertices B and E will discon-
nect the graph. So, the vertex connectivity is 2.
ˆ Edge Connectivity (λ(G)): Removing edges A − D, B − D, and B − E
will disconnect the graph. Thus, the edge connectivity is 3.

12.2.
(a) Discuss the implications of k-connectivity in graphs.
K-connectivity in graphs implies that there are at least k distinct paths
between any two vertices, and no set of k − 1 vertices (or edges for edge-
connectivity) can disconnect the graph. This robustness can have several impli-
cations:
ˆ Reliability: A k-connected network can tolerate the failure of k −1 nodes
or connections without losing its overall connectivity.
ˆ Redundancy: The presence of multiple paths provides alternative routes
for communication or transportation, ensuring continued operation in case
of localized failures.
ˆ Fault Tolerance: In computer networks, k-connectivity can allow for
load balancing and congestion management since multiple paths can han-
dle traffic simultaneously.
(b) How can one determine if a graph is k-connected?
To determine if a graph is k-connected:
1. Check if the graph has more than k vertices. If not, it can’t be k-connected.
2. For every pair of vertices, ensure that there are at least k vertex-disjoint
paths between them.
3. Alternatively, for vertex connectivity, check if no set of k − 1 vertices can
disconnect the graph. For edge connectivity, check if no set of k − 1 edges
can disconnect the graph.

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 Using algorithms like max-flow/min-cut, one can determine the minimum
number of vertices or edges whose removal can disconnect the graph, which
gives the vertex or edge connectivity, respectively.

13.1.
(a) State Menger’s theorem and discuss its significance in graph the-
ory.
Menger’s theorem is a foundational result in graph theory, connecting the
concepts of vertex and edge connectivity with the existence of independent paths
between vertices.
Statement of Menger’s Theorem: For any two non-adjacent vertices u and
v in a graph G:

1. The minimum number of vertices (not including u and v) whose removal

disconnects u and v is equal to the maximum number of independent u−v
paths (paths that don’t share any vertices other than u and v).
2. The minimum number of edges whose removal disconnects u and v is equal
to the maximum number of edge-disjoint u − v paths (paths that don’t
share any edges).
Significance in Graph Theory: Menger’s theorem provides a powerful tool for
understanding the ”robustness” of connections within a graph. By associating
the connectivity of two vertices with the existence of independent paths between
them, the theorem offers a clear methodology to measure and understand the
redundancy and vulnerability of networks. It bridges local properties (specific
paths between two nodes) with global properties (overall connectivity) of the
graph.
(b) Given a graph, use Menger’s theorem to determine the mini-
mum number of vertices that must be removed to disconnect it.
The given graph is complete in nature, meaning every pair of distinct vertices
is adjacent by an edge. To determine the minimum number of vertices that must
be removed to disconnect it, we need to identify a pair of non-adjacent vertices
and apply Menger’s theorem. However, since all vertices are adjacent in this
graph, Menger’s theorem’s usual application doesn’t directly apply.
Instead, we’ll use an intuitive approach: To disconnect a complete graph, we
would need to isolate a vertex, meaning we’d have to remove all other vertices.
In this graph with 7 vertices, removing 6 vertices would disconnect the graph.
So, the minimum number of vertices that must be removed to disconnect this
graph is 6.
(c) Explain the relationship between Menger’s theorem and vertex
and edge connectivity.
Menger’s theorem directly relates to the concepts of vertex and edge connec-
tivity. The theorem states that the minimum number of vertices (not counting
the end vertices) required to disconnect two non-adjacent vertices is equal to the
maximum number of independent paths between them. This number gives the

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vertex connectivity between those two vertices. Similarly, the minimum number
of edges required to disconnect two vertices is equal to the maximum number
of edge-disjoint paths between them, which gives the edge connectivity. Thus,
Menger’s theorem provides a way to determine the vertex and edge connectivity
of a graph.

13.2.
(a) How can Menger’s theorem be applied in network reliability anal-
ysis?
Network reliability analysis often involves assessing the vulnerability of a
network to failures. Menger’s theorem can be applied in this context to under-
stand how robust a network is against such failures. Specifically:
1. By determining the minimum number of vertices (or edges) that need
to be removed to disconnect the network (or parts of it), we can assess
the network’s vulnerability. A higher number indicates a more reliable
network as more failures are needed to disrupt connectivity.
2. Menger’s theorem can help in designing backup routes in communica-
tion networks. By identifying multiple independent paths between critical
nodes, one can ensure that even if one path fails, there are alternative
routes available.
3. It aids in identifying critical nodes or edges whose failure could be partic-
ularly detrimental to the network’s operation.
(b) Discuss real-world applications where Menger’s theorem plays
a crucial role in decision-making.
1. Internet Infrastructure: In designing robust internet backbones, Menger’s
theorem can help identify critical nodes and paths. Ensuring multiple
independent paths between major data centers can prevent large-scale
outages.
2. Transport Networks: In urban planning and transportation, Menger’s the-
orem can be used to ensure that there are multiple independent routes
connecting key locations, making the transportation system more resilient
to road closures or disruptions.
3. Power Grids: In electrical engineering, ensuring multiple independent
paths for electricity flow can prevent blackouts if certain lines or sub-
stations fail.
4. Supply Chain Management: Companies can use principles from Menger’s
theorem to ensure that they have multiple independent supply routes,
making their supply chain more resilient to disruptions.
Menger’s theorem, with its focus on connectivity and redundancy, plays
a pivotal role in any decision-making process where reliability and robustness
against failures are critical.

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