2.3.

1 Coastal Processes
Coastal Processes
Coastal regions

 Where the land meets the sea is called the coast

 The coastline is the edge of the land marked through the high-water mark on a
low-lying coast or the foot of steep sloped coasts
 The area between the lowest tide point and the highest point is known as
the shore
 Tides are usually twice a day, but vary from coast to coast and with the time of
the year
 The difference between low and high tide is known as the tidal range
 The tide controls high low and high the waves can work
 It is the action of waves and currents that contribute to coastal features

Waves

 Waves are marine processes that erode, transport and deposit material
 Waves are formed by winds blowing over the surface of the sea
 The size of a wave depends on:
o The speed of the wind
o The fetch (distance the wind travels)
o The amount of time the wind blows (in the same direction)
 The greater the strength, time and fetch of the wind, the larger the wave
 As a wave approaches the coast and enters shallower water, friction from the
seabed causes the wave to lean forward and eventually will crest and break onto
the beach
 The movement of water up the beach is called the swash, and the return
movement is the backwash

 There are two types of waves:

o Destructive waves erode the beach. They have a short wavelength, high-
frequency rate and a steep wave gradient. Their backwash is stronger
than their swash, which scours the beach, dragging material out to sea
o Constructive waves are beach builders. They have a long wavelength,
low-frequency rate and a shallow wave gradient. The swash is stronger
than its backwash, which carries material up onto the beach and deposits
it there
 Comparison of Wave Type

Constructive Wave Destructive Wave

Swash Strong Weak

Backwash Weak Strong

Wavelength Long with low height Short with high height

Frequency Low (6-8 per minute) High (10-12 per minute)

Type of beach Sandy - depositional Shingle - erosional

Energy Low High

Exam Tip
Make sure you are familiar with the way waves are formed and their different
characteristics. Don't be surprised if you are asked to identify the type of wave.
Worked example

Circle the statement below that best describes the characteristics of a destructive
wave?

[1]

long wavelength & weak backwash

short wavelength & weak backwash

short wavelength & strong backwash

long wavelength & strong backwash

Answer

 The answer is a short wavelength & strong backwash [1]:

o A destructive wave has a short wavelength, high frequency rate, steep
wave gradient & a strong backwash

Marine erosion

 Destructive waves are responsible for the majority of erosion that happens along
a coast
 They cut into the coastline in four ways:
o Hydraulic Action
o Attrition
o Corrosion
o Abrasion
 The effects of attrition are enhanced when the waves move sediment further and
longer
o A large, rough bolder is eventually eroded into round sand grains (quartz)
the longer it stays in the water and the further it travels along the coast
 Rounded pebbles on a beach are known as shingle

Exam Tip

Make sure you know the difference between the four types of erosion, particularly
between abrasion (corrasion) and attrition. So many students confuse these two terms.
A tip for you, is to think of abrasion as rubbing with sandpaper or maybe you have
grazed your knees or elbows when you fell off your bike/skateboard? Those grazes
were abrasions on your knees/elbows etc.
Marine Transportation
  The sea transports sediment that it gets from erosion in the same way as a river
does
 Material in the sea arrives from many sources:
o Eroded from cliffs
o Transported by longshore drift along the coastline
o Brought inland from offshore by constructive waves
o Carried to the coastline by a river
 Once in the water, the material is moved in different ways:
o Traction
o Saltation
o Suspension
o Solution

Longshore Drift

 It is the main process of transportation along the coast

 Influenced by the prevailing wind, waves approach the beach at an angle
 As the waves break, the swash carries material up the beach at the same angle
 As the swash dies away, the backwash carries the material down the beach at
right angles (90°)
 The process repeats, transporting material along the beach in a zig-zag
movement

Process of longshore drift

 On coasts where longshore drift in one direction, beach sediment is transported

further down the coast
  If obstructed, sediment is prevented from moving and the area further along the
coast is deprived of sediment
 This causes two issues:
o Smaller beaches which are less attractive to tourists, causing a loss of
income
o Removes natural coastal protection

Worked example

Describe and explain the process of longshore drift

[4]

 Identify the command words and link to the key term

 Command words are 'describe and explain' - say what you see and why
 Your focus is on 'longshore drift' - what is it?

 Answer:


o Longshore drift is the process where the waves transport material [1],
such as sand along the beach in the direction of the prevailing
wind [1]. The swash moves material up the beach at an angle [1], as the
waves approach in a similar direction to the wind. The material then
moves back down the beach at 90° due to gravity [1], this is the
backwash. This movement continues along the beach in a zig-zag
motion [1] in the direction of the prevailing wind

Exam Tip

 You can gain full marks using well-annotated diagrams to support your answer.
Just as you like having a visual prompt, it helps the examiner to see that you do
know the answer. Sometimes a diagram is easier than actually writing it all out.
 Longshore drift does not form landforms, it is the process of suppling the
sediment for the process of deposition (which does form features)

Marine Deposition
 The movement of waves carries sand or shingle with them
o Swash carries onto a beach
o Backwash carries it away
 When a constructive wave carries sediment up the beach, the largest material is
deposited along the upper reach of the swash
 As the backwash moves back down the beach, it loses water and therefore
energy as it travels due to the porosity of the sand
  Consequently, the deposition of sediment gets progressively smaller, and the
beach is therefore, sorted by wave deposition, with the smallest mud particles
settling in the low-energy environment offshore
 If a destructive waveform due to a storm, then a large shingle is thrown above
the usual high tide level to form a ridge at the top of the beach called a berm

Sediment Deposition

2.3.2 Coastal Landforms

Erosional Landforms
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms

 Cliffs are steep or sloping rocks, with varying profiles dependent on geology and
topography
 The cliff face angle also depends on geology, but also wave attack at its base -
low energy waves are less destructive than high energy ones
 Many cliffs have a 'knick-point' around the high-water mark, called the 'wave-
cut notch', which is where the wave has undercut the rock
 Abrasion, corrosion and hydraulic action further extend the notch back into the
cliff
 As undercutting continues, the cliff above becomes unsupported and unstable
and eventually collapses
 The backwash of the waves, carries away the eroded material, leaving behind
a wave-cut platform
 The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat, leading to a coastal retreat
 The process of cliff retreat and wave-cut platform formation

Headlands and bays

 Found in areas of alternating bands of resistant (hard) and less resistant (soft)
rocks running perpendicular to oncoming waves (discordant coastline)
 Initially, less resistant rock (e.g. clay) is eroded back, forming a bay
 A bay is an inlet of the sea where the land curves inwards, usually with a beach.
 The more resistant rock (e.g. limestone) is left protruding out to sea as a
headland

 A headland usually features:

 o Cliffs along its sides
o Projects out to sea
o Usually longer than it is wide
o Geology is of resistant rock
 A bay usually has:
o A wide, open entrance from the sea
o A roughly, semi-circular shape extending into the coastline
o Land that is lower than the headlands surrounding it
o A bay may or may not have a beach

Caves, arches and stacks

 As waves approach the shore, their speed is reduced as they move along the
sea floor
 This changes the angle of the waves, and they will turn so the crest becomes
parallel to the coast - known as wave refraction
 This refraction concentrates erosive action on all sides of the headland
 Any weaknesses in the headland are exploited by erosional processes of
hydraulic action, abrasion and corrosion
 As the crack begins to widen, abrasion will begin to wear away at the
forming cave
 The cave will become larger and eventually breaks through the headland to form
an arch
 The base of the arch continually becomes wider and thinner through erosion
below and weathering from above
 Eventually, the roof of the arch collapses, leaving behind an isolated column of
rock called a stack
 The stack is undercut at the base by wave action and sub-aerial weathering
above, until it collapses to form a stump
 The formation of a cave, arch, stack and stump

Exam Tip

Make sure that you can draw and annotate the formation of this feature as it is a popular
question in the exams.

Remember that attrition is not part of the formation of this feature; attrition is the
knocking together of rocks to smooth and round them.

Corrosion is an active part of the formation of these features, as all salt water is slightly
acidic and most rock contains some soluble minerals that will react with the salt water.

Sub-aerial weathering (from above) also contributes to the collapse of the arch and
stack.
Depositional Landforms
Beach

 Form in sheltered areas such as bays

 Deposition occurs through constructive wave movement, where the swash is
stronger than the backwash
 Beach formation usually occurs in the summer months when the weather is
calmer
 Sometimes sand from offshore bars can blow onto the shore by strong winds
  Blown sand can create sand dunes at the backshore of a beach

Spit

 An extended stretch of sand or shingle that extends out to sea from the shore
 Spits occur when there is a change in the shape of the coastline
 Or the mouth of a river, which prevents a spit forming across the estuary
 A spit may or may not have a 'hooked' end, depending on opposing winds and
currents
 A good example is Spurn Point, which stretches for three and half miles across
the Humber Estuary in the northeast of England

Stages of formation:

 Sediment is transported by the action of longshore drift

 Where the coastline changes direction, a shallow, sheltered area allows for
deposition of sediment
 Due to increased friction, more deposition occurs
 Eventually, a spit slowly builds up to sea level and extends in length
 If the wind changes direction, then the wave pattern alters and results in a
hooked end
 The area behind the spit becomes sheltered
 Silts are deposited here to form salt marshes or mud flats

Formation of a Spit
Bar

 When a spit grows across a bay, and joins two headlands together
 A bar of sand is formed (sandbar)
 Sandbars can also form offshore due to the action of breaking waves from a
beach

Lagoon

 A lagoon is where a small body of water is cut off from the sea
 A lagoon may form behind a bar or tombolo
 Lagoons do not last forever and may fill with sediment and form new land

Tombolo

 A tombolo is formed when a spit joins the mainland to an island

 Chesil Beach in Dorset is a tombolo, as the mainland is joined to the Isle of
Portland

Barrier island

 Barrier islands form parallel to the coast

 The main difference between a bar and barrier island is that a bar joins two
headlands, whereas a barrier island is open at one or both ends
Exam Tip

You may be asked to draw and label a diagram showing how depositional landforms
(beaches, spits etc.) are formed. You need to be able to show how sediment is
transported along the coast by waves. Practice drawing and labelling these diagrams so
you can reproduce any of them in the exam. Marks will be awarded for the accuracy
and completeness of your labelling and drawing.

Sand dunes

 Sand dunes are a dynamic environment, with changes occurring quickly

 Sandy beaches are usually backed by sand dunes due to strong onshore winds
which transports dried out, exposed sand
 Sand grains are trapped and deposited against an obstacle (rubbish, rocks,
driftwood etc) to form dunes
 Dune ridges move inland due to onshore winds pushing the seaward side to the
leeward side
 It is the interaction of winds and vegetation that help form sand dunes

Formation of a sand dune

 Windblown sand is deposited against an obstruction - pebble or driftwood

 As more sand particles are caught, the dunes grow in size, forming rows at right
angles to the prevailing wind
 Over time, the ridges of the dunes will be colonized and fixed by vegetation in a
process called succession
 The first plants (pioneer species) have to deal with:
o Salinity
 o Lack of moisture as sand drains quickly (highly permeable)
o Wind
o Temporary submergence by wind-blown sand
o Rising sea levels

Coastal Dune Succession

 Embryo dunes
o Wind-blown dried sand is trapped by debris and deposition begins
o Pioneer species such as Lyme Grass and Sea Couch Grass begin to
colonise
o There is little soil content and high pH levels (alkaline)
o Embryo dunes are very fragile and reach a maximum height of 1 metre
 Fore dunes
o The embryo dunes bring some protection against the prevailing wind
o This allows other species of plant to grow such as Marram Grass
o Marram grass begins to stabilise the dune with its root system
o These plants add organic matter to the dunes making the dunes more
hospitable for plants that later grow
o A microclimate forms in the dune slack
o Maximum height is 5 metres
 Yellow dunes
o These are initially yellow but darken as organic material adds humus to
the soil
o Marram grass still dominates the vegetation, but more delicate flowering
plants and insects are found in the dune slacks
o 20% of the dune is exposed, down from 80%
o Height does not exceed 8 metres
 Grey dunes
o Grey dunes are more stable, with less than 10% of exposed sand and
have a good range of biodiversity
o Soil acidity and water content increase as more humus is added
o Shrubs and bushes begin to appear
o Height is between 8 - 10 metres
  Mature dunes
o As the name suggests, these are the oldest and most stable of the dunes
o They are found several hundred metres or more from the shoreline
o The soil can support a variety of flora and fauna such as oak trees and
alders (climax vegetation)
o This is the final stage in succession which is known as the climax
community stage

Worked example

Figs. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, show three coastlines.

Identify each of the following landforms:

(i)
landform W in Fig. 3.1
[1]
(ii)
landform X in Fig. 3.2
[1]
(iii)
landform Y in Fig. 3.2
[1]
(iv)
landform Z in Fig. 3.3.
[1]
  Answers:

o W - Wave-cut platform
o X - Beach
o Y - Sand dunes
o Z - Cliff

2.3.3 Coastal Ecosystems

Coral Reefs
 Coral reefs and atolls are formed through the build-up and compression of the
skeletons of lime secreting, marine animals called polyps
 Living coral polyps are found in the upper and outer part of the coral reef only
 Their skeletons are hard, calcareous masses, which form when one generation
dies and the next grows on top, creating an upward and outward reef
 There must be a solid surface to begin the growth of corals, this can be from a
shipwreck or debris from elsewhere
 Coral reefs run parallel to the coast, with breaks where river mouths exit
 Coral reefs are very sensitive and cannot grow anywhere

 Corals are scattered throughout the tropical and subtropical Western Atlantic and
Indo-Pacific oceans, generally within 30°N and 30°S latitudes
 Western Atlantic reefs include these areas: Bermuda, the Bahamas, the
Caribbean Islands, Belize, Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico
 The Indo-Pacific Ocean region extends from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf
through the Indian and Pacific oceans to the western coast of Panama
 Corals grow on rocky outcrops in some areas of the Gulf of California
 The Great Barrier Reef in northern Australia is renowned for its great biodiversity
and size and can be seen from space
 Their distribution is controlled by four factors:
o Temperature
o Light
 o Water depth
o Salinity

Features of coral reefs

Global Features

Corals cannot tolerate water temperatures below 18°C but grow best at 22°C – 25°C. Some can
Temperature stand temperatures as high as 40° C for short periods. This is why coral reefs normally grow
between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer -30° of the equator

Light Corals need light for photosynthesis due to the algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in their tissue

Corals are generally found at depths of less than 25m where sunlight can penetrate. The water must
Water
also be clear and clean to allow for optimum photosynthesis to occur

Salinity Since corals are marine animals, they need salty water to survive, ranging from 32-42% salt water

 At a local level, other factors will affect development:

o Wave action - corals need well oxygenated, clean water and wave action
provides this
o Exposure to air - although corals need oxygenated water, they cannot be
exposed to air for too long or they will die
o Sediment - all corals need clear, clean water. Any sediment in the water
will block normal feeding patterns by reducing the availability of light
affecting the photosynthesis of the microscopic algae 'zooxanthellae' living
in polyp tissue. The corals provide algae with home and compounds for
photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce food, oxygen and help
remove wastes

Types of coral reefs:

Type Example Features

 These are low, narrow bands of coral, running parallel to the coast and form around a
Coral Coast of land mass. They are covered by narrow, shallow lagoons at high tide. Their outer
Fringing
Fiji edges slope steeply down into the sea beyond. The landward side of the reef has a
higher outer edge that rises to the high tide level.

They range from 500m to several kilometres from the coast and are separated by wide
Great Barrier,
Barrier deep lagoons below the depth at which the polyps can live. The Great Barrier Reef
Australia
has almost 3000 reefs, separated by channels stretching more than 2300km.

These are narrow, ring-shaped reefs, consisting of a coral rim that encircles a deep
Maldives
Atolls lagoon. Sometimes, they may encircle and protect an island. Channels between islets
Suvadiva Atoll
connect a lagoon to the open ocean or sea.
Exam Tip

The Great Barrier Reef in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia is a
good example of a barrier reef.

It is the world's largest coral reef system with over 2,900 individual reefs and 600
islands that stretches for over 2,300 kilometres and can be seen from space.
Salt Marshes
Distribution of salt marshes

 Salt marshes are found all over the world and are not temperature dependant
 Like mangroves, they are an ecosystem of the intertidal zone
 They are typically very flat, with numerous channels running through them
 They form in:
o Coastal areas that are well sheltered, such as inlets and estuaries where
fine sediments can be deposited
o Areas behind spits and artificial sea defences where tidal waters can flow
gently and deposit fine sediments
o They form in brackish water
Features of salt marshes

 Salt marshes are communities of nonwoody, salt-tolerant plants

 They begin as tidal mud flats, gaining height as more sediment is deposited
 This builds up to and above the level, and frequency of tidal flooding ensuring
that the soil never dries out and remains muddy and sticky
 Pioneer species of halophyte plants begin to colonise
 As these plants die and add nutrients to the soil, sediment builds up. This makes
the conditions more favourable and other species start to develop.
 The process of the development of vegetation, over time is known
as succession. In a salt marsh, this is known as a halophyte
 The lower marshes are flooded daily by the rising tide.
 They are good coastal defences in some areas, acting as a natural buffer against
coastal erosion and flooding
 However, in many areas they have been reclaimed for agriculture or
development, and are threatened by human activities

Mangrove Swamps
Distribution of mangroves

 Both mangroves and coral reefs are found in warm tropical waters, however,
unlike the sensitive coral reefs, mangroves are highly adapted to changing
conditions
 This has made them the most successful ecosystems on Earth
 Global Distribution of Mangroves

 Originate from south-east Asia and spread across the globe

 Mainly found in warm tropical waters and coastal swamps within 30° N and S of
the equator
 Some have adapted to more temperate conditions and have colonized as far
south as New Zealand's North Island
 They grow in the intertidal zone of the coast
 South-East Asia has mangroves with the highest biodiversity in the world

Characteristics of mangroves

 Mangroves are trees that live on the coastline

 They sit in water between 0.5 to 2.5 metres high
 They range in size from small shrubs to trees over 60m high
 They have numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and form
dense thickets
 They need high levels of humidity (75 - 80%) and rainfall per annum (1500 - 3000
mm)
 Ideal temperature is around 27° C but are adapting to more temperate climates
 Mangrove root system is complex, with a filtration system to keep salt out
 Some have snorkel like roots that stick out of the mud to help them take in air
 Others use 'prop' roots or 'buttresses' to keep their trunks upright in the soft
sediment at the tidal edge
 Prop Roots Mangrove Root Systems
Snorkel Roots

 It is the roots that trap mud, sand and silt which eventually builds up the intertidal
zone into the new land
 At the same time, the mangrove is colonizing new intertidal areas
 The fruits and seedlings of mangroves can float and can travel many kilometres
on ocean currents
 As they drift with the incoming tide, they become lodged in the mud and begin to
grow, colonizing new areas

Worked example

Explain one physical factor that influences the distribution of mangrove

ecosystems

[3]

 You would gain 1 mark for identifying a way:

o Temperature, light, water depth, salinity, wind direction, level of shelter
 Then 2 marks for development and further explanation

 Answer
o Coastal mangroves need a high temperature of around 27° C otherwise
they will not grow, although some mangroves have adapted to more
temperate conditions such as New Zealand
o Mangroves need shallow water between 0.5 to 2.5 metres in depth, but
can survive where the tidal ranges go slightly above or below this level
o Mangroves need high levels of humidity between 75 and 80% to enable
them to grow
o Coastal mangroves need a high level of rainfall between 1500 and 3000
mm per annum, this can be gained from rainfall or moisture in the air
making tropical climates ideal
 2.3.4 Coastal Opportunities &
Hazards
Coastal Opportunities
 There are many opportunities that the coast can bring:
 Development including:
o Homes
o Shops
o Hotels
o Roads
o Schools
o Restaurants etc.
 Nature reserves
 Swimming and sports
 Industry
 Fishing and aquaculture
 Tourism
 Agriculture
 Ports and harbours

Coastal Hazards
 Coastal hazards can be either natural or human induced
 Natural hazards include storms, flooding and tsunamis
 Human actions cause a variety of issues as shown in the table below:

Opportunities Consequences Impacts

Loss of habitats and species diversity;

Dredging and disposal of harbour sediments;
visual pollution; lowering of
changes in land use - ports, harbours and
groundwater table; saltwater ingress;
Urbanisation and transport airports; road, rail and air congestion;
water pollution; health
water abstraction; wastewater and waste
risks; eutrophication; introduction of
disposal
invasive species
 Loss of habitats and species diversity;
Land use changes; power stations; extraction
water pollution; eutrophication; heat
of natural resources; processing effluents;
Industry and visual pollution; decreased input of
cooling water; windmills; river dams, weirs
fresh water and sediment to coastal
and barriers; tidal barrages
zones; coastal erosion

Loss of habitats and species diversity

Land reclamation; fertiliser and pesticide
Agriculture water pollution; eutrophication; river
use; livestock densities; water abstraction
channelisation; coastal squeeze

Overfishing; impacts on other species

as a result; litter and oil on beaches;
Ports and harbours; fish processing facilities;
water pollution; eutrophication;
Fisheries and aquaculture fishing gear; fish farm effluent: shrimp
introduction of invasive alien species
farming
(IAS); habitat damage and changes in
marine communities

Development and land use changes, such as: Loss of habitats and species diversity;
golf courses; road, rail and air congestion; disturbance of habitats, migration
ports, harbours and marinas; water patterns, landforms; visual pollution;
Tourism and recreation
abstraction; wastewater and waste disposal; lowering of water table; saltwater
boat tours and water activities - snorkelling, ingress in aquifers; water pollution;
skiing, surfing etc. eutrophication; human health risks
Exam Tip

Remember that if you are asked to draw on a case study, you MUST name and locate
the place and also use place names to locate specific features.

Natural coastal hazards

 Coastal hazards arise from a number of factors:

o Storm surges - a rapid rise in sea level caused by really low-pressure
storms (e.g. tropical storm)
o Storm tides - occur when there is a combination of high tide and low-
pressure storm
o Tsunamis - large sea waves due to underwater earthquakes. The closer
to the coast, the bigger the impact
o King tides
o Sea level rise due to global warming
o High river discharge after a storm - when combined with a spring tide,
water in the estuary cannot discharge into the sea causing a backflow of
water and flooding
 Any number of these hazards bring coastal flooding
  The biggest impacts are felt by emerging countries, although the biggest costs
are to MEDCs

Tropical storms

 Hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones are all types of tropical storms, the only
difference is where they form:
o Hurricanes form in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean and Northeast Pacific
o Typhoons form in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
o Cyclones form in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean
 In the northern hemisphere they form between May and November
 Between October and May in the southern hemisphere
 A tropical storm can destroy coastal areas and kill people and the effects are
worse in LEDCs due to lack of economic funds
 Other impacts are:
o Destruction of buildings and infrastructure
o Heavy rainfall and storm surges
o Loss of ecosystems, trees, land, crops and animals
o Ships are wrecked at sea and sunk
o Power and communications are lost
o Costs can run into the millions of $ and the effects are greatest in heavily
populated areas
 Managing tropical storms is difficult but some of the ways to reduce the risks are:
o Sea walls and artificial levees to prevent flooding
o Evacuation plans for the population
o Satellite tracking and early warning systems
o Build homes and buildings to withstand strong winds
o Raise homes above storm surge levels and have strong shutters on
windows
o Emergency supplies and shelters
o Have storm insurance

Changing sea levels

 Rising sea levels produce submergent coastlines, with rias and fjords
 Falling sea levels produce emergent coastlines, with relic features such as
raised beaches, cliffs with caves, arches etc.
 Sea levels have risen and fallen many times in the past
 During the last Ice Age, sea levels fell as the water was locked up in glaciers and
ice sheets, rising again as the ice melted
 Sea levels are linked to global warming and will have a significant effect on many
low-lying coasts and islands
 Many Pacific Ocean islands, such as Kiribati and Tuvalu are at risk of being
completely submerged by rising sea levels
 This issue is made worse as many of the world's densely populated areas are
located on coastal lowlands
  New York and Miami in the US are major cities vulnerable to sea-level rise as the
cities are built at sea level

Influence of geology

 Geology shapes the coastline over time, place and space

 A coastline made up of softer rocks such as sands and clays will be easily
eroded by destructive waves to form low, flat landscapes such as bays and
beaches
 Coastlines of more resistant, harder rock will take longer to erode and produce
rugged landscapes such as headlands
 The differences between hard and soft rocks will also impact the shape and
characteristics of cliffs

Hard Rock Soft Rock

Shape of cliff High and steep Generally lower and less steep

Cliff face Bare rock and rugged Smoother; evidence of slumping

Foot of cliff Boulders and rocks Few rocks; some sand and mud

Erosion

 The impact of erosion along the coast is seen globally, however, on local scale
geology has the biggest effect
 Areas that are made of less resistant rock such as limestone, sandstone and
boulder clay will erode faster than those coastlines made up of more resistant
rock such as granite
 Longshore drift and destructive waves removing sand from beaches exposes the
base of cliffs to higher energy destructive processes
 Coastal management can increase rates of erosion further along the coast -
using groynes to slow down longshore drift depletes sediment elsewhere and
creates shallow beaches which exposes the shore to erosion
 Coastal erosion threatens many islands placing residents and tourist resorts at
risk
 Tourist and coastal developments all speed up the rate of erosion and remove
natural coastal protection such as mangroves, coral reefs, sand dunes and salt
marshes

Worked example

Study Fig. 2a. Suggest two ways changes in sea level have created coastal
landforms
 [4]

 This question tells you to use the figure to show how changes in sea level have
created coastal landforms
 You must identify features and then develop your answer to suggest how it was
formed due to changes in sea levels
 If you do not refer to the figure, you will not gain full marks

 Possible answer:

Strategy Description Advantages Disadvantage

Has be repeated regular

Beaches absorb wave
Pumping or dumping sand and is expensive
energy
Beach replenishment shingle back onto a beach to
replace eroded material Can impact sedim
Widens beach front
transportation down th

Helps to stabilise sand dunes or

Fencing, hedging, and beaches Cheap method to protect Hard to protect larger
replacing vegetation against flooding and erosion coastline cliffs
Reduces wind erosion
 Prevents sudden loss of
large sections of cliff
The angle of a cliff is reduced to
Cliff re-grading Regrading can also slow Does not stop cliff e
reduce mass movement
down wave cut notching at
base of cliffs as wave
energy is slowed

Disruptive to people w
and homes are lo
No expensive construction
Existing coastal defences are
costs
abandoned allowing the sea to Cost of relocation c
Managed retreat
flood inland until it reaches higher expensive
Creates new habitats such
land or a new line of defences
as salt marshes
Compensation to peo
businesses may not b

o From the figure we can see where the sea level has decreased [1]. This
has created an emergent coastline [1] with a relic cliff and raised
beach [1]. Over time, the raised beach has become vegetated, supporting
the observation of changing sea levels [1]
o Wave action [1] from previous sea levels has eroded the relic cliff to
expose a wave-cut notch [1], showing that sea levels used to be higher
than the present [1]. This has led to a relic cliff and sea cave showing
further back than the current cliff face in the figure [1]

2.3.5 Coastal Management

Managing the Impacts of Coastal Erosion
 There are conflicting views about using a particular type of engineering for
coastal defence
 Most coastal managers aim to use a range of methods depending on the value of
what is being protected
 This method is known as Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
 ICMZ aims to use a combination of methods to best reflect
all stakeholder's needs

Soft engineering methods

 Soft engineering works with natural processes rather than against them
 Usually cheaper and do not damage the appearance of the coast
 Considered to be a more sustainable approach to coastal protection
 However, they are not as effective as hard engineering methods
 Soft Engineered Defences

Strategy Description Advantages Disadvantages

Very expensive to bui

maintain

It can be damaged if the

A wall, usually concrete, and Most effective at preventing both
is not maintained in fro
Sea Wall curved outwards to deflect the erosion and flooding (if the wall is
wall
power of the waves high enough)
Restricts access to the

Unsightly to look
Stops material moving d
coast where the material
been building up and pr
Wood, rock or steel piling the base of a cliff else
built at right angles to the Slows down beach erosion
Groynes shore, which traps beach Starves other beaches o
material being moved by Creates wider beaches Wood groynes need mai
longshore drift to prevent wood r

Makes walking along the

difficult
Cheaper method of construction
Large boulders are piled up to Boulders can be erod
Rip-rap Works to absorb wave energy
protect a stretch of coast dislodged during heavy
from the base of cliffs and sea
walls
Cheapest form of coastal defence
Wire cages can break, a
need to be securely tie
Wire cages filled with stone, Cages absorb wave energy
Gabions
concrete, sand etc
Not as efficient as other
Can be stacked at the base of a sea
defences
wall or cliffs
Revetments Sloping wooden or concrete Work to break the force of the Not effective in stormy c
fence with an open plank waves
structure Can make beach inacces
Traps beach material behind them people

Set at the base of cliffs or in front Regular maintenance is n

of the sea wall
Visually unattract
 Cheaper than sea walls but not as
effective
Effective at breaking wave energy
before reaching the shore Expensive to bui
Large concrete blocks, rocks
and boulders are sunk Beach material is built up Can be removed in heav
Off-shore barriers offshore to alter wave
direction and dissipate wave Low maintenance Can be unattracti
energy
Maintains natural beach Prevents surfing and s
appearance

Hard engineering methods

 Hard engineering involves building some form of sea defence, usually from
concrete, wood or rock
 Structures are expensive to build and need to be maintained
 Defences work against the power of the waves
 Each type of defence has its strengths and weaknesses
 Protecting one area can impact regions further along the coast, which results in
faster erosion and flooding
 Hard engineering is used when settlements and expensive installations (power
stations etc) are at risk - the economic benefit is greater than the costs to build

Hard Engineered Defences

Prediction

 Early warning systems allow communities to prepare (evacuate or take shelter)

before flooding occurs
 Two methods are used to help forecast coastal flooding:
o Past records (diaries, newspapers, government/council records etc)
 These will identify areas that are at high risk of flooding and their
frequency
o Modern technology - GIS, satellite and computer monitoring, weather
stations (local and national) etc
 These allow for forecasting and tracking potential hazard events i.e.
 Tropical storms - track the storm's path and associated
storm surge
 Earthquakes - size and position if underwater and possible
tsunami outcome
 Both these methods of forecasting help officials to say when and where the event
will occur
 It indicates the possible strength and scale of the flooding, and the likelihood of
damage and death
Prevention

 Prevention is about taking action that reduces or removes the risk of coastal
flooding
 Actions include:
o Flood defences
 These are built along high-risk stretches of coast
o Emergency centres
 Centrally placed on higher ground where people can be safe from
flooding
o Early warning systems
 Allows for preparation or evacuation of an area
o Education
 Informing local people on what to do if and when a flood occurs
o Planning
 Planning any new development away from high-risk-areas
 Designing buildings to cope with low levels of flooding
 Elevating buildings so that flood waters can pass underneath
 Flood proof buildings with raised foundations (fixed or
mechanical)
 Reinforced barriers
 Dry flood proofing - sealing a property so that floodwater
cannot enter
 Wet flood proofing - allows some flooding of the building
o Buffer zones
 Areas of land are allowed to flood before reaching settlements
 This allows the energy in the surge to dissipate slowing
down the distance the floodwater will travel
 It can mean moving people away from the coast which could
be controversial

Coastal strategies

 Management of coastal regions is performed by identifying coastal cells

 This breaks a long coastline into manageable sections and helps identify two
related risks:
o The risk of erosion and land retreat
o The risk of flooding
 Identification allows resources to be allocated effectively to reduce the impacts of
these risks
 The 'cost to benefit' is easier to calculate using coastal cells

Shoreline management plans

 Shoreline Management Plans (SMP) set out an approach to managing a

coastline from flooding and erosional risk
  The plans aim to reduce the risk to people, settlements, agricultural land and
natural environments (salt marshes etc.)
 There are four approaches available for coastal management, with differing
costs and consequences:
 Hold the line
o Long term approach and the most costly
o Build and maintain coastal defences so the current position of the
shoreline remains the same
o Hard engineering is the most dominant method used with soft engineering
used to support
 Advance the line
o Build new defences to extend the existing shoreline
o Involves land reclamation
o Hard and soft engineering is used
 Managed realignment
o Coastline is allowed to move naturally
o Processes are monitored and directed when and where necessary
o Most natural approach to coastal defence
o Mostly soft engineering with some hard engineering to support
 Do nothing
o Cheapest method, but most controversial of the options
o The coast is allowed to erode and retreat landward
o No investment is made in protecting the coastline or defending against
flooding, regardless of any previous intervention
 Decisions about which approach to apply are complex and depend on:
o Economic value of the resources that would be protected, e.g. land,
homes etc
o Engineering solutions - it might not be possible to 'hold the line' for moving
landforms such as spits, or unstable cliffs
o Cultural and ecological value of land - historic sites and areas of unusual
diversity
o Community pressure - local campaigns to protect the region
o Social value of communities - long-standing, historic communities

Worked example

Explain how gabions protect the coast

[2]

 The command word here is 'explain', therefore, there needs to be development of

the answer for the full marks
 Examples include:
o Gabions absorb/dissipates/reduces the wave's energy/power, [1] and this
reduces the impact of the waves at the foot of cliffs and seawalls, which
reduces/prevents coastal erosion [1]
 Case Study - Super Typhoon Haiyan
Background

 Typhoon Haiyan (locally called Yolanda) was one of the strongest ever-recorded
tropical storm to hit the Philippines
 It made landfall on the 8th of November 2013 as a Category 5, with sustained
winds of over 195 mph (315 km/hr)
 The Philippines are a series of islands located in the South China Sea, east of
Vietnam and north of Indonesia
 The islands regularly suffer from typhoons that sweep in from the southwest
every year during the tropical storm season
 The islands sit in an area of usually warm ocean water, however, at time of
storm, the sea temperature was 30°C
 Sea level rise (since 1900, has increased 20cm around the world) is a factor as
higher seas are known to contribute to greater storm surges
 Abstracting too much groundwater has caused parts of the country to sink
 Tacloban stands at the end of a bay that is funnel shaped and this squeezes
water into destructive storm surges

Formation of tropical storms

 All tropical storms need warm, deep water (>27°C and >70 m depth) and
sufficient spin from the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force), hence why they form
between 5-20° N and S of the equator
 Warm water encourages evaporation from the sea surface, and as the air rises, it
cools, condenses, releases latent heat and forms large thunderclouds
 Heat from below causes further vertical growth and this creates an intense low
pressure
 Tropical storms begin with a merging of several storms on the eastern side of an
ocean
 A major low-pressure cell develops and as winds are drawn in, the whole
system begins to spin anticlockwise and westwards
 Winds rotate around a central eye, where cold air descends creating an area
of calm
 The strongest winds are within the wall of the eye.

Typhoon Haiyan's timeline

Date - Nov 2013 Development

2nd An area of low pressure develops several hundred kilometres east of Micronesia

3rd Haiyan begins to track westward, deepening into a tropical depression

Classified as a typhoon and a low-level Public Storm Warning is issued by Philippines
5th
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA)
Declared a Category 5 super typhoon by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center. PAGASA raises
6th
storm warning to highest level, indicating expected wind speeds in excess of 115 mph
Haiyan's winds continue to intensify up to 195 mph. Haiyan makes first landfall at Guiuan,
7th
Eastern Samar without losing any intensity
Haiyan makes five more landfalls within the Philippines before passing into the South China
8th
Seas
10th Haiyan turns to the NW and makes landfall in Northern Vietnam, as a Category 1 typhoon

11th Haiyan finally weakens into a tropical depression

Path of Typhoon Haiyan November 2013

Typhoon Haiyan's characteristics

Lowest pressure 895 mb

Peak strength Category 5
Strength at landfall Category 5 with 195 mph winds
Highest sustained wind speed 196 mph
Radius of typhoon strength winds 53 miles
Rainfall 400 mm
Storm surge height 15 m

Preparation for Typhoon Haiyan

 The Philippines, despite being an LEDC, take disaster preparations seriously as

they have experience of typhoon impacts, as they are usually the first Pacific
landmass in a typhoon's track
 The Philippines have been practicing risk reduction and resilience for decades
and have published risk maps and provided evacuation shelters
 When Haiyan made first landfall, the International Charter on Space and Major
Disasters was activated, this allowed relief agencies, in times of disasters, to
have access to satellite data from space agencies to help in relief and recovery
 The military deployed planes and helicopters in advance to areas expected to be
worst hit
 Community buildings, such as convention centres, were designated as storm
shelters, but there were concerns that they would not withstand the wind
 As a result of years of community preparedness and education, there were
evacuations of whole islands, such as Tulang Diyot, with all 1000 residents
leaving ahead of Haiyan
 The local mayor won an award in 2011 for community work based on the “Purok
system”, which is where community members agree to deposit their own money
into a community fund, on a regular basis, for post-disaster assistance, rather
than waiting for government aid

Impacts of Haiyan

Total economic loss $13 billion

Homes damaged or destroyed 1.1 million
Displaced people 4 million
Number of deaths 6201
Number of people missing 1785
Number of injured people 28,626
Number of people affected 16 million

Impacts Short-term Long-term

Social  6201 people died  UN feared

 1.1 million homes possibility of the
lost spread of disease,
 more than 4 lack of food, water,
million displaced shelter and
 medication
 Areas less affected;
 Casualties 28,626
influx of refugees
from lack of aid
into the area
 16 million people
 Two months later,
affected
21,000 families were
 UN admitted its
still in 380
response was too
evacuation centres,
slow, amid
waiting to be
reports of
rehoused by the
hunger/thirst
government in
among survivors
bunkhouses that
needed to be built

 The Philippines
declared 'a state of
national calamity’
 Estimated at $13
 Asked for
billion
international help the
 Major sugar/rice
next day
producing areas
 President Aquino
were destroyed
was under growing
 Between 50,000
pressure to speed up
and 120,000 tons
the distribution of
of sugar was lost
food/water/medicine
 Over 130,000
Economic  Tacloban city was
tonnes of rice
decimated
were lost
 Debt is a major
 Government
obstacle for the
estimated that
Philippines, the
175,000 acres of
country is locked in
farmland was
a debt cycle, with
damaged (worth
more than 20% of
$85 million)
government revenue
spent on foreign debt
repayments

Environmenta  Loss of  An estimated 90 per

l forests/trees, and cent of the rural
widespread population in
flooding typhoon-affected
 Oil and sewage areas are small-scale
leaks; into local farmers
ecosystems  With 33 million
 Lack of sanitation coconut trees felled,
in days following international help
 lead to a higher
level of pollution
 Coconut
plantations were
has been sought to
said to be
mill the 15 million
'completely
tons of timber,
flattened'
lying rotting on the
(coconut equated
ground, attracting
to nearly half of
pests that threatened
the Philippines
healthy trees
agricultural
 Without a crop,
exports / is the
families would not
world's biggest
have cash to enable
producer of
local markets to
coconut oil
function
 Fishing
communities
were severely
affected

Immediate relief

 The immediate response was from the survivors, who searched flattened
buildings for bodies
 The government was criticised for being slow in its response, and people began
looting to find food supplies
 Roads were undamaged, but debris slowed rescue vehicles
 Airports and harbours were closed meaning emergency teams had to travel
slowly on foot, which hampered aid distribution
 International charities sent emergency supplies, centred on Tacloban airport with
the UK and USA sending diggers, land rovers and heavy lifting gear
 The European Commission released $4m in emergency funds and the UK Rapid
Response Facility provided $8m in aid
 Twelve IFRC (International Federation of the Red Cross) Emergency Response
Units worldwide were deployed
 The Philippines was also dealing with two prior natural disasters - 7.3 magnitude
earthquake a month earlier (October 2013) and Typhoon Bopha in 2012.
Together these disasters meant that the Philippines were low on resources -
financial, material and human

2.4.1 Collecting Weather Data

Weather Instruments
Stevenson screen

 This is a wooden box standing on four legs at a height of 121 cm to avoid heat
radiated from the ground and to have the thermometer bulbs at a standard heigh
of 125 cm
 They are painted white to reflect the sun's rays
 Made of wood to avoid the conduction of heat into it
 The sides are slatted (louvered) to allow free movement of air
 The rood is made of a double layer of wood with airspace between for insulation
 The screen is usually placed on a grass-covered surface, which reduces
radiating ground heat
 Readings must be taken at the same time each day
 These days, meteorological stations use automated digital recording instruments
that transmit data to the Met. Office's computers
 Instruments found inside include:
o Maximum-minimum thermometer (Six's thermometer)
o Wet and dry bulb thermometer - hygrometer
 Instruments found outside include
o Rain gauge
o Wind vane
o Anemometer
 Weather station layout is:
o Barometers and barographs are kept away from strong air movements,
direct sunlight and heat sources
o Thermometers are kept away from buildings that may radiate heat
o Wind vanes and anemometers are positioned in the open, away from
trees or buildings, and away from the nearest obstacle by at least three
times the height
o The rain gauge must be in an open space with a distance from the nearest
object twice its height
Exam Tip

You must know the difference between weather and climate.

Weather is what you get on a day-to-day basis - rain, sun, snow etc. and measured over
days.

Climate is what you expect - warm summers and cold winters if you are in the northern
hemisphere. Climate is measured over a longer period of time - 30 years.
Worked example

Describe and explain the ideal location of a Stevenson Screen.

[5]

 Ideas such as:

 In the open/away from buildings [1] so that it is not affected by heat from
buildings [1]
 Away from trees [1], so that it is not sheltered/to avoid being in the
shade/shadow [1]
 On grass [1] which does not absorb heat [1]
 Away from the general public [1] to avoid tampering/vandalism, etc. [1]
 5 @ 1 mark or development
Wind direction

 Wind direction is measured with a wind vane

 Direction is the compass point from where the wind is blowing - south, north,
north-east etc.
 The unit of measurement for wind direction is compass direction

Wind speed

 Wind speed is measured with an anemometer

 The unit of measurement for wind speed is m/s or km/hr
 The anemometer consists of 3 or 4 cups fixed on metal arms that rotate freely on
a 10m vertical shaft
 The stronger the wind, the faster the cups rotate, and more rotations are
recorded on the counter
 The digital handheld anemometers need to be held into the oncoming wind and
as the fan rotates, the number is shown on the screen
 Many anemometers are digital that transmit data directly to apps and computers
to show readings directly
 Wind vanes and anemometers are placed well away from any buildings or trees
that can interfere with air movement
 Buildings can create wind tunnels or slow airflow and therefore, affect the
accuracy of any reading
Precipitation

 Precipitation is any water that falls to earth - hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow
 Unit of measure is millimetres (mm)
 A rain gauge is used to measure precipitation
 At the same time each day, any water that has collected is poured into the
tapered measuring cylinder
 Measuring cylinder needs to be on a flat surface
  The water level is then read with the eye at the same level as the lowest part of
the meniscus of the water
 Measurements are then recorded; too small a reading and it is recorded as 'trace'

Temperature

 Unit of measurement is Celsius ° C, or Fahrenheit ° F depending on where you

are in the world
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer or thermograph
 Shade temperature is measured, as air temperature is variable due to
direct insolation and cloud cover
 Several types of thermometers can be used, but the most traditional is a Six's
thermometer, which houses a maximum and minimum thermometer in a U shape
 The following measurements can be done:
o Daily minimum temperature
 o Daily maximum temperature

o Average temperature calculations for one day

o Temperature range for 24 hrs - called the diurnal temperature range

o Mean monthly temperature is found by recording daily mean temperature
for one month and then dividing by the number of days in that month
o The sum of the mean monthly temperatures divided by 12 gives the mean
annual temperature
 A thermograph has an exposed bimetallic strip which deforms with a change in
temperature
 This change is transmitted to amplifying levers which trace a curve on a roll of
graph paper
 A vertical movement of 1 mm is equivalent to about 1°C
Exam Tip

You may be asked to calculate temperatures for a range of events for example:

 Lagos has a minimum temperature of 25°C and a maximum temperature of 35°C

for one day
 Calculate the diurnal temperature range
 Subtracting the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature (35 - 27 =
10°C range for one day)

 Dhaka has a mean maximum temperature of 25.5°C (March), and a mean

minimum temperature of 22.5°C (August)
 Calculate the mean annual temperature range
 Subtract the highest mean monthly temperature from the lowest monthly
temperature (27.5 - 24.5 = 3°C)
 3°C is the mean annual temperature range, so it stays a fairly constant
temperature all year round

Always add the unit to your answer as habit, or you could lose marks.

Humidity

 Humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air

 Wet and dry bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity and are
called a hygrometer
  Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour the air is holding in
relation to the maximum amount of water vapour it could hold at a
specific temperature
 Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air
 When the air is holding as much moisture as it can, it’s said to be saturated
 If the air is not saturated, water vapour evaporates from the wet bulb muslin, this
evaporation cools the bulb and the mercury contracts and registers a lower
temperature
 If the air is saturated with vapour, then evaporation is not possible, so both
thermometers show the same temperature

Pressure

 Air has weight and exerts pressure on the Earth's surface

 Sea level pressure is approximately 1.03 kg/cm²
 Pressure varies with altitude and temperature
 Unit of measurement is millibars (mb)
 Lines of pressure on a map are called isobars
 A barometer measures air pressure of which there are 3 types:
o Mercury barometer
o Aneroid barometer
 o A barograph
 Mercury barometer is a hollow tube with all the air extracted
 The open end is then placed in a bath of mercury
 Mercury is forced up the tube by atmospheric pressure on the mercury in the
bath
 When the two pressures equalise, mercury will stop rising in the tube
 The height of the column of mercury will change with air pressure:
o Rising as air pressure rises
o Dropping as air pressure falls
 Aneroid barometer has a partly vacuumed, corrugated metal chamber inside
 There is a strong metal spring within the chamber that prevents it from collapsing
 The spring will expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure
 Levers magnify these changes, and a pointer moves across a calibrated scale to
show atmospheric pressure at that time
 A barograph is a continuous reading of atmospheric pressure for one week
 Changes in pressures are traced on a rotating cylinder by a flexible arm
 The cylinder is covered by paper divided by 2-hour vertical lines
Worked example

Name the weather recording instruments with each of the following features

[6]

Feature Instrument
Cups
Funnel
Levers
Arrow
Corrugated metal chamber
Wick

 Answer
o Anemometer
o Rain gauge
o Barograph or thermograph
o Weather or wind vane
o Aneroid barometer
o Wet and dry bulb thermometer or hygrometer

Sunshine hours
  The amount of sunshine a place receives is measured by a Cambell-
Stokes sphere in hours and minutes
 The recorder is a glass sphere partly surrounded by a metal frame
 Sunlight is concentrated through the sphere onto a recording card placed
beneath the focal point
 The rays burn a trace on the card
 The length of the trace shows the sunshine duration at that location
 At day's end, the card is replaced

How it is used

 Sunshine recorder is placed in an open space, south-facing in northern

hemisphere or north-facing in southern hemisphere
 Make sure the recorder is outside, unaffected by shade and has direct exposure
to sun’s rays
o E.g. on roof of a building
o On a pedestal or stand
o Where the sun shines all day
 Make sure the paper (card or sheet) is inside
 The sun’s rays will scorch/burn the card (paper or sheet)
 At the end of the day, measure the length of the burn line, then convert to hours
and finally calculate the time it was sunny
 Record every 24 hours at the same time every day and stop at sunset to record
for the day
 Remove and replace the card (paper or sheet) each day into sunshine recorder

Clouds
  Cloud cover is measured in units of oktas
 Each okta represents one eighth of the sky covered by cloud
 0 oktas = clear sky, 8 oktas = total coverage
 Clouds are categorised according to shape and height using Latin terms
o Stratus which means layers
o Nimbus which means rainy cloud etc.
 Clouds consist of tiny water droplets or ice particles that are too light to fall to
Earth
 Clouds will form when air rises, cools and condenses into water droplets or ice
crystals if cold enough
 The tallest clouds form in the tropical regions, as the tropopause is at its
highest and clouds do not form beyond it
 Clouds only produce precipitation if they have enough water or ice particles
that can collide and join together
 The particles will then grow too big and heavy to be supported in the air and will
fall through the rising air currents
 Cumulonimbus and stratus are the only clouds capable of producing
precipitation
o Stratus clouds are just thick enough to produce drizzle
o Cumulonimbus clouds have strong rising air currents, vertical height and
thickness

Cloud Type Level Description Weather

Thin, white and made of ice crystals. Forms

Cirrus High above 6 km narrow wisps, threads or feathers (cirrus means Fine
hair-like)

Thin, white layers made of ice crystals with a

Cirrostratus High above 6 km Fine
wide horizontal spread, often covers whole sky

Cirrocumulus High above 6 km Thin, white, heaped cloud with ice crystals Fine

Can be thin and white or grey and thick with

Altostratus Medium 2-6 km Fine
layer of water droplets

Thick white, or grey looking, heaped cloud of

Altocumulus Medium 2-6 km Fine
water droplets
 Thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water
Stratus Low 0-2 km Fine drizzle
droplets with a fairly flat base

White with a darker, flat base and a

Cumulus Low 0-2 km billowy/globular upper surface. Made of water Sunny by day fine weather
droplets and can be compact or have height

White and grey partly heaped cloud made of

Stratocumulus Low 0-2 km Fine
water droplets

Base can be low or

Nimbostratus Thick, dark grey layers of water droplets Steady rain or drizzle
above 2 km

Dense, dark grey with vertical height,

commonly referred to as storm clouds. They
Low base, but cloud grow from cumulous clouds and have a billowy Very heavy rain, snow
Cumulonimbus usually extends to head. The head flattens if it reaches the showers or hail with thunde
high levels tropopause and will then spread out in an anvil r and lightening
shape. Composed of ice crystals at the higher
levels and water droplets at the lower levels
Tropical storms

 Tropical storm is the collective name for deep, low-pressure systems with spirals
of strong air
 They are known as:
o Typhoons in the South China Sea and west Pacific Ocean
o Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and west coast of Mexico
o Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and northern Australia
 Damage is caused by high winds, floods and storm surges
 Tropical storms are rated on the five-point Saffir-Simpson scale based on wind
speeds
 Tropical storms are considered major when they reach category 3 and have
wind speeds between 111-129 miles (178-208 kilometres) per hour
 A category 5 storm can deliver wind speeds of more than 157 miles (252km) an
hour
 The path of a hurricane can be erratic, so landfall is not easy to predict, and this
makes evacuation times short
 Tropical storms develop as intense low-pressure systems over the warm tropical
oceans
 Winds spiral rapidly around a calm central area known as the eye
 Tropical storms can be as much as 800 km in diameter, but winds are not
constant across that, they vary with the strongest and most destructive
winds being found within the eyewall

Category Wind Speeds Damage

74-95 mph
1 Some
119-153 km/h
96-100 mph
2 Extensive
154-177 km/h
111-129 mph
3 Devastating
178-208 km/h
130-156 mph
4 Catastrophic
209-251 km/h
157 mph or higher
5 Catastrophic
252 km/h
2.4.2 Weather Data
Calculations using Weather Data
Rainfall

 Daily, weekly, monthly and annual rainfall totals

 Always measured in mm
 Always plotted on a bar graph
 Mean (average) monthly and annual rainfall over a minimum of 30 years

Describing Annual Rainfall Amounts

Annual rainfall in mm Description of the amount

0 - 249 Very low

250 - 499 Low

500 - 999 Moderate

 1000 - 1999 High

Over 2000 Very high

Temperature

 Measured in °C or °F
 Always plotted as a line graph
 Calculations are:
o Diurnal (daily)
o Mean daily temperature
o Mean monthly temperature
o Annual range
o Mean annual range

Describing Temperatures

Temperature (°C) Description

Below -10 Very cold

-10 to -1 Cold

0-9 Cool

10 - 19 Warm

20- 29 Hot

30 and above Very hot

Describing Temperature Ranges

Temperature Range in °C Description

0-3 Very small

4-8 Small

9 - 19 Moderate
 20 and above Large

Wind

 Wind is measured in speed:

o Knots (Kts)
o Miles per hour (mph)
o Kilometres per hour (km/h)
 Direction is quoted from where the wind is blowing and not where it is going to,
using compass points
 This is important as it informs of what temperature and moisture is being brought
with it
 The most frequently occurring wind is called the prevailing wind (UK's
prevailing wind is from the southwest)
 The direction giving the strongest wind is called the dominant wind
 Wind is plotted on a map with wind barbs

Describing Wind Speeds

Wind Speeds (km/h) Description

Below 50 Calm, light, moderate or strong winds

50 - 100 Gale

101 - 118 Storm

119 and above Hurricane

Exam Tip

 Always make sure you state wind direction clearly, for example:
o The wind is coming from the east
o It is a westerly wind
 Saying the wind is in a northerly direction isn't clear enough and can be
misinterpreted

Pressure

 Pressure is measured in millibars (mb) and based against average sea level
pressure
 Mean (average) sea level pressure is 1013mb
 It is not totalled over time but on a time-basis depending on circumstances:
 o Following a storm or potential storm, pressure readings would be needed
hourly or more
o Forecast for a weekend would be a daily measurement
o Forecast for sailing may need an early morning reading and then later
etc.
 On a weather chart, lines joining places with equal sea-level pressures are called
isobars
 Isobars identify features such as anticyclones (areas of high pressure) and
depressions (areas of low pressure)
 Anticyclone (high pressure) winds tend to be light and blow in a clockwise
direction (in the northern hemisphere)
 Also, the air is descending, which reduces the formation of cloud and leads to
light winds and settled weather conditions
 Depressions (low pressure), air is rising and blows in an anticlockwise direction
around the low (in the northern hemisphere)
 The rising air cools, causing water vapour to condense which form clouds and
perhaps precipitation
 This is why the weather in a depression is often unsettled, there are usually
weather fronts associated with depressions.
 High pressure area surrounded by lower pressures are described as a high-
pressure system even if 1013mb are not reached
 Low pressure areas surrounded by higher pressure can have a central pressure
of more than 1013mb

Describing Pressure Systems

Pressure System in mb Description

1013 Sea level pressure

1013 and above High pressure or anticyclone

1013 and below Low pressure or depression

Relative humidity

 Measured via the relative humidity table and is found by looking at where the
depression of the wet bulb thermometer line intersects with the dry bulb
temperature line
 Humidity is shown as a percentage of temperature
 Relative humidity is controlled by temperature, the higher the temperature the
more water vapour the air can hold:
o If air is 20°C and holds 4 grams of water is has a relative humidity of 27%
 o 4g more water is added, so air is now 8g @ 20°C = 52% and so on until it
reaches saturation and moisture will start to condense (20°C still, but air
holds 15g of water = 100% humidity)
o However, if the temperature rises, then the air can again hold more water,
so the relative humidity drops (15g @ 23°C = 83% humidity or 15g @
32°C = 50% humidity etc.)
o But, if the temperature drops, then the air holds too much water, so the
excess water is released until equilibrium is reached

Worked example

Explain how a wind vane is used to show the direction from which the wind is
blowing

[2]

 The arrow / pointer turns / spins round / pushed by wind [1] and points to
N/E/S/W / compass direction (from which wind is blowing) [1]

2.4.3 Weather Data Interpretation

Interpreting Weather & Climate Data
Climate graphs

 A climate graph shows mean monthly temperatures and precipitation rates over
30 years
 They can be local, national, or global
 Precipitation is always shown as a bar graph and temperature as a line graph
 Describe the overall shape of the graph:
o Is the temperature line steep or gentle?
o Are there changes throughout the year?
o Always mention the months but do not give a month-by-month account

 Look for extremes:

o Note anomalies - something that isn't following a trend
o Summer has the hottest months and winter the coolest (Spring and
Autumn are not usually discussed)
o Note the highest and lowest temperature and rainfall plus the month in
which they occur
o Remember to quote units, e.g. Celsius or millimetres
 Identify the seasons when most rain or least rain falls:
o Equitorial climate regions have no seasons, but refer to seasons in other
locations
 o Remember that the southern hemisphere's seasons are reversed
compared to the northern hemisphere
 Summer in Australia is Nov - March
 Summer in Europe is June - Sept
 Work out the temperature range by subtracting the lowest number from the
highest
 Add the rainfall totals for each month together to work out the total annual
rainfall
o Divide this by 12 to find the average monthly rainfall

Dispersion graphs

 Useful for comparing sets of data

 Also illustrates whether the data forms groups or is dispersed (spread)
 Values are plotted on the vertical axis
 Can also be used to present the upper and lower values along with the mean,
median, mode and extreme values
 Reading a dispersion graph:
o Read the title to see what the graph is showing
o Read and understand what each axis represents
o Describe the overall pattern of the graph
o Identify anomalies in the data
o Complete any statistical analysis such as the mean, median and range
Wind rose

 The direction of wind for a specific place is shown on a wind rose

 Made of circles that radiate rectangles representing points of a compass
 Lengths of the rectangles show number of days or time that the wind blew from
that direction
 The number of days or hours when there is zero wind is shown in the centre of
the rose
Wind barbs

 When looking at a weather map, wind direction and strength are shown using
wind barbs
 Barbs point to the direction the wind is travelling from
 The arrow tip points to the direction of the wind
 Half barbs represent 5 knots, full barbs = 10 knots and flags = 50 knots
 A combination of these symbols shows overall speed of the wind and from where
it originates from
o A double flag = 100 knots
o A double flag and 3 full barbs with a half barb = 135 knots
Isoline and choropleth maps

 Isohyets are lines joining places with the same amount of rainfall
 Isotherms join places with the same temperature
 Isobars join places with the same pressure
 Isoline maps become choropleth isoline maps when shaded between the
isolines
o Shading is progressive from light to dark
o The heaviest (darkest) shading is for the largest value

Synoptic charts
  Meteorological station readings are plotted on synoptic charts
 They can show some or all of the following:
o Wind speed
o Wind direction
o Pressure patterns
o Weather fronts
o Cloud cover
o Temperatures

Worked example

Fig. 1.3 shows a student's record of cloud cover over two days. The student
recorded the amounts in oktas (eighths).
Choose from the values below and fill in the correct number of oktas for each
example.

[2]

Choose from the following:

1 okta 3 oktas 7 oktas 8 oktas

 Answers:

o Example 1 = 7 oktas
o Example 2 = 3 oktas

2.5.1 Climate Characteristics

Equatorial Climate Characteristics
World climate distribution

 Climates vary across the world. The reasons for these climate types include:
o Latitude: with distance from the equator temperatures and sunshine
hours decrease as the solar radiation is more dispersed at the poles and it
has to pass through a greater amount of atmosphere
o Altitude: Increases in altitude lead to decreases in temperature
o Continentality: locations further inland heat up more quickly in the
summer and cool more quickly in the winter
o Ocean currents: warm and cold currents circulate in the oceans either
warming or cooling the adjacent land
o Aspect: in the northern hemisphere slopes facing south are warmer
 o Prevailing winds: winds coming from warmer areas bring warmer air,
increasing temperatures
o Pressure systems: areas usually affected by low pressure such as the
equator have rising air, condensation and cloud formation leading to more
precipitation, whereas areas affected by high pressure have dry conditions
due to the sinking air

Equatorial climate distribution

Distribution of the Equatorial Climate

Equatorial climate characteristics

Characteristics Equatorial Climate

 Low latitudes
 Within the Tropics 23.5° north and south of the equator
Location  Amazon in South America, New Guinea, South-east Asia,
Zaire Basin

 Over 2000mm
Annual Precipitation
 low range of mean monthly temperatures - 26-28°C
 Constant high temperatures
Temperature Range
 Diurnal range is about 7oC
  No seasons - hot and wet all year round
Seasons
 High, usually over 75-80%
Humidity
 Winds blow into the equatorial region from high pressure
areas to the north and south.
 The winds from the north blow from the north-east and the
Prevailing winds
winds from the south blow from the south-east.
 The winds are known as the trade winds

Climate graph for Iquitos, Peru

Factors influencing the equatorial climate

 There are a range of factors which influence the climate including:

o The midday sun is almost directly overhead all year meaning there is
maximum insolation
o Low pressure all year which leads to rising air, condensation, cloud
formation and high precipitation levels
o Dense vegetation cover leads to high levels of evaporation and
transpiration
o The warm air stores large amounts of water vapour until the temperatures
start to cool in late afternoon which then leads to heavy, daily convectional
rainfall
 Hot Desert Climate Characteristics
Hot desert climate distribution

Distribution of the Hot Desert Climate

Hot desert climate characteristics

Characteristics Hot Desert

 15° - 30° north and south of the equator (tropical and sub-
tropical)
Location  North Africa - Sahara, Southern Africa - Kalahari and
Namib, Australia. Middle East

 Below 250mm
Annual Precipitation
 Daytime temperatures can reach 50°C but average around
25°C
 Night-time temperatures below 0°C
Temperature Range
 Diurnal range is large up to 45°C
 Annual range is around 15°C

 Summer and winter

Seasons
  Low often between 10-30%
Humidity

 The winds are offshore blowing from the east across the
Prevailing Winds land, so they do not collect any moisture

Climate Graph for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Factors influencing the hot desert climate

 High pressure all year which means the air is descending and warming so
precipitation does not occur because the air is not rising
 Prevailing winds are often from over land masses which means they contain little
moisture
 Some deserts are in a rain shadow so there is little rainfall
 Cold ocean currents on the west side of continents may reduce summer
temperatures due to the cooling effect of the ocean

Influence of pressure systems

  Hot deserts form between 15o- 30o north and south of the equator as a result of
the atmospheric pressure systems
o Air rises at the equator and when it reaches the upper atmosphere it
moves north and south
o The air cools and starts to sink
o This creates a zone of high pressure at about 30o north and south of the
equator
o Due to the sinking air, warm air cannot rise, condense and form clouds.
This results in high aridity

Atmospheric Pressure Systems

Worked example

Explain how high atmospheric pressure influences the climate of hot deserts.

[3]

 Answer:
o Air is descending [1]
o It heats up/does not cool [1]
o Condensation does not occur/clouds do not form [1]
 o Precipitation is low/does not occur/drier/only has e.g. 250 mm per annum
etc [1]

2.5.2 Ecosystem Characteristics

Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem Characteristics
 The Tropical rainforest (TRF) biome is mainly found in a band between 15o north
and 15o south of the equator within the equatorial climate zone
 Covering only 6% of the Earth's surface the main areas of tropical rainforest
ecosystem are in the following countries;
o Amazon which is the largest remaining rainforest on Earth usually
associated with Brazil but covers parts of seven other countries
o Central America including parts of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama
o Central Africa including Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the
Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Equatorial
Guinea and Gabon
o Indo-Malaysia, including Malaysia, Indonesia and a number of other
countries in South-East Asia

Biodiversity

 TRFs contain the highest biodiversity of plants and animals on Earth

o Estimates range from over 50% to 80% of the world's plant and animal
species
o One 10km2 area can contain up to 1,500 flowering plants, 750 species of
trees, 400 species of birds and 150 species of butterflies

Nutrient cycle

 The TRFs have a continual growing season with high rainfall and temperatures
all year round
 The nutrient cycle is rapid
o Trees and plants lose their leaves all year round
o The high level of moisture and high temperatures leads to rapid
decomposition and recycling of nutrients
o Plants grow quickly which leads to a rapid uptake of nutrients from the soil
 Tropical rainforest nutrient cycle

 The result of this rapid nutrient cycle is that the soil in the TRF is not very fertile

Structure of the tropical rainforest

 The TRF has five distinct layers

o Ground layer (0m)
o Shrub layer (3-4m)
o Under canopy (15m)
o Canopy (30m)
o Emergents (45-55m)
 Tropical rainforest structure

Adaptations

 The plants and animals within the TRF are very well adapted to the climate
conditions

Plants Animals

Waxy leaves with drip tips - these ensure that

rainwater runs off the leaf and does not remain Sloth - algae grow in the fur of the sloth helping
which would encourage mould growth or break to camouflage it
the leaf

Buttress roots - these large roots above the

Toucan - has a large bill to reach and cut fruit
ground which help to support the very tall trees
from the branches of trees
because the roots below the surface are shallow
Lianas - vines which use the tall trees as support Primates - have prehensile tails to help them
to reach the sunlight climb trees
Epiphytes - these are plants which grow on Geckos - have large, flattened toe pads with
trunks and branches of trees getting nutrients
sticky scales which allow them to grip the
from air, rain or debris accumulating around the
smooth tree trunks
plant
Straight, smooth trunks - to reduce the number Stick Insects - their stick and leave shapes help
of epiphytes using the tree them to be camouflaged
Exam Tip

You may be asked to describe the rainforest vegetation characteristics. As well as

adaption features remember to include information about the different layers and
heights of each layer.

Food web

 As in all ecosystems the TRF has a complex food web which includes
o Producers
o Primary consumers
o Secondary consumers
o Tertiary consumers
Tropical rainforest food web
Worked example

Study Fig 1, which is a diagram showing information about a tropical rainforest

ecosystem in an area of equatorial climate

Suggest reasons why some animals live in the canopy but others live in the
ground cover in a tropical rainforest.

[3]

 You need to consider the adaptations and diets of the animals which may lead
them to live in a specific layer
 Answer:
o Some are able to climb/fly whereas others are not [1]
o Some need shelter/protection [1]
o Food supplies available (in canopy/at ground level) [1]
o Different habitats/nesting areas etc [1]

Hot Desert Ecosystem Characteristics

 Hot desert biomes are mostly found in a band around the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn
 Approximately 20% of the Earth's surface is covered by hot desert ecosystems
including in the following areas;
 o North America - the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the USA and Mexico
o South America - the Sechura Desert in Peru and the Atacama Desert in
Chile
o Africa - the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib and Somali Deserts
o Middle East - the Arabian Desert
o Asia - the Dasht-e Lut in Iran, the Gobi, Turkestan, Thar and Taklamakan
Deserts
o Oceania - the Australian Desert

Biodiversity

 Hot deserts have one of the lowest biodiversity of plants and animals on Earth
 The hot desert biome supports approximately 5000-6000 plant species, many
invertebrates and up to 20 species of bird

Nutrient cycle

 The growth of plants is limited due to the extremes of temperature and lack of
water
 The nutrient cycle is very slow
 Most nutrients are stored in the soil

Hot desert nutrient cycle

 Due to a lack of organic matter the soils are coarse, sandy and low in nutrients

Adaptations
  To be able to survive the extreme temperatures and lack of rainfall the plants and
animals are extremely well adapted

Plants Animals
Camels have a range of adaptations including two sets of
Low growing - this helps to avoid water loss due to eyelashes and nostrils which close to keep sand out of
strong winds their ears and noses. They also store fat in their humps so
they can survive for long periods without food or water
Fennec Fox - have large ears which help them to lose
Thick stems - used to store water
heat
Shallow roots - these spread out near the surface to catch Burrowing - many animals burrow to avoid the intense
whatever rain falls day time heat
Long roots - some plants have long tap roots instead of Insects and reptiles have waterproof skin to reduce
shallow roots to reach water deep underground water loss
Small leaves or needles - the smaller surface area Nocturnal - some animals hunt at night to avoid the
reduces water loss daytime heat

Food web

 As in all ecosystems hot deserts have a complex food web which includes
o Producers
o Primary consumers
o Secondary consumers
o Tertiary consumers
Hot desert food web