Theories of Migration

THEORIES OF MIGRATION
#8
* URBAN BIAS THEORY
* DEPENDANCY THEORY
* MODERNIZATION THEORY
INTRO:
Migration theories seek to understand the reasoning behind and motivations for the
decisions of individuals and households to move from one location to another – domestically or
internationally – as well as the factors that explain the maintenance of migration flows over time.
Different theories employ different concepts, assumptions, and frames of reference depending on
their discipline of origin and the time in which they were formulated.
URBAN BIAS THEORY
Urban bias theorists (Michael Lipton, 1977, 1984) argue that many underdeveloped
nations implement investment, tax, pricing and other policies that disproportionately favor urban
areas. The State enacts such policies because of pressure from various urban based groups such
as small scale capitalists, and urban workers. This bias in favor of the city has created a
discrepancy between the rural areas and urban areas with respect to consumption, wage, and
productivity levels.
In terms of consumption, wages and productivity because of this bias there is what we
call ECO DUALISM which basically means the discrepancy which exists between rural and
urban areas.
Such disparities translate into higher standards of living for the urban citizens and draw
migrants from poorer rural areas. The most important indicator of urban bias is the investment of
substantially more domestic capital in nonagricultural areas than in agriculture. Proponents argue
that investments to output ratio in non-agriculture is about twice as high as in agriculture. Other
theorists such as Griffin noted that reallocation of investible resources in favor of agriculture
would raise total national output, increase labor productivity in agriculture and consequently
reduce rural-urban income inequality and reduce rural urban migration. Such allocations would
provide farmers with machinery, roads, dams’ barns and sheds all of which would improve
productivity and welfare of rural dwellers and reduce rural urban migration. Lipton (1984)
argues that the real source of taxation against agriculture may not come from direct taxes but
through the practice of price twists. Price twists occur when the governments formulate pricing
and related policies that transfer resources from agriculture to urban areas/sector. For instance
government controlled markets have consistently twisted prices against peasant farmers in many
poor countries. Such government marketing institutions purchase agricultural products such as
coffee, groundnuts, maize, tea, cocoa from farmers at artificially low prices and then resell these
products on the export market at the prevailing world prices which are very high compared to the
price they give to rural farmers. The surplus accumulated by government through the sale of
agricultural produce is used to finance the industrial and other programs that benefit the urban
elite.
In Conclusion, urban bias theory states that the disparity in welfare between the rural and
urban areas increases rural to urban migration and reduces economic growth and efficiency in the
developing countries.
DEPENDANCY THEORY
Firstly, traditional dependency arguments suggest that foreign investment in agriculture

displaces peasants and pushes them to the city. This is compounded by the fact that many third
world farmers produce a variety of primary products/commodities (e.g. coffee, tea, cotton and
etc.) which are bought by government and exported. These farmers are damaged by low
international prices for their commodities from other adverse circumstances such as drought,
famine, and floods etc. which affect agricultural production thereby enhancing their town ward
movement/migration and inhibiting economic growth. Specialization in one or two agricultural
crops leaves farmers vulnerable to adverse conditions that affect crops. This consequently
increases their probability to move to urban areas.
Secondly, dependent development theory is concerned with factors that lead to a modern
sector development and economic expansion in developing countries. Foreign investment in
manufacturing and other related activities facilitate overall economic expansion and at the same
time creates inequalities between the urban and rural areas hence increasing the probability of
rural dwellers to migrate to urban areas. At the same time foreign investment in manufacturing
may also increase urban population growth. Rural inhabitants may perceive that increase
industrial activity will establish a superior quality of life in cities relative to that found in rural
areas. This argument is related to the so-called “bright lights theory” of urbanization which
asserts that people in the country side are attracted to the excitement and supposed opportunities
offered by the city.
Thirdly, quantitative studies completed in the last few years show that global debt crisis
and the International monetary Fund pressure increase over-urbanization (Bradshaw, Noonan
1993), inhibit growth and physical quality of life and increase political protest and domestic
riots. Since 1970s and especially during the 1980s, the growing Debt crisis has led to the
implementation of severe Structural Adjustment policies Mandated by the IMF and other
transnational Financial Institutions. The Structural Adjustment Programs resulted in less
government spending on health, education, food and other subsidized services. This was due to
government‘s servicing of the International Debt. This Debt crisis created hardships in the low
developed countries and the rural areas were affected most as agriculture was highly
underfunded in the name of Debt Servicing. Consequently the poor in rural areas moved town
wards as agriculture was not spared by the devastating effects of the Debt and SAP conditions.
MODERNISATION THEORY
According to the classical economists rural inhabitants are pulled to the urban areas
because of:
High industrial wages. The argument is that industrialization has been the engine of
urbanization in the past and will continue to be so in the future.
Migrants respond not only to the actual wage differential between the rural and urban
areas but to the expected wage differential. People will continue to move to urban areas as long
as their expected urban wages exceed their current rural wages.
Modernization theory generally views urbanization as a positive phenomena for the
following reasons:
 Urbanization facilitates (make easy) economic growth by increasing the modern
sector output in developing countries. Accordingly, large scale migration to urban
areas is a prerequisite for modern society.
 Secondly, city life is conducive to formation of modern ideas necessary for economic
growth and overall development. Third world cities contain modernizing institutions
such as the school, the factory, and the mass media all of which inculcate modern
values that facilitate economic development.
 Industrialization, education, and urbanization may provide more opportunities for

women to advance economically and socially. It is argued that more women will be
able to participate in the wage earning labor force if they have access to education
and industry. Education and industry are normally associated with lower fertility rates
which give women additional opportunities outside the household.
In short modernization theory assets that employment attracts people to the urban areas,
where they work in the modern sector occupations that facilitate national economic expansion. In
addition, urbanization, education, and industrial employment should increase labor opportunities
for women.

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THEORIES OF MIGRATION

URBAN BIAS THEORY

Firstly, traditional dependency arguments suggest that foreign investment in agriculture

 Industrialization, education, and urbanization may provide more opportunities for

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