Law NONCANONICALPALILITERATURE 1931

NON-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE
Author(s): Bimala Churn Law

Source: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , 1931-32, Vol. 13, No. 2
(1931-32), pp. 97-143
Published by: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41688230
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Annals of the
Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute, Poona

■
Vol. xttt ] January 1932 [ Part II
NON-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE
BY
DR. Bimala Churn Law, m. a., Ph. d.. b. l.
The Pali eanon includes the books of the three Pitakas. The
works which are not included in those Pitakas are known as
non-canonical or extra-canonical.
The title Nëtlipakarana 1 as explained by Dhammapäla, means

exposition of that which leads to the know-
Nettipakaraija ledge of the Good Law. The Netti shows
1 This work has been edited by Prof. E. Hardy for the P. T. S. London,
and published by the said society in 1902. There is also a Burmese
edition of this text. The text is not entirely free from inaccuracies
but all such defects are pardonable when we remember that it is a
pioneer work. The text edited by the P. T. S. is based on the following
manusoripts ? -
( i ) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmese character
( see Catalogue of the Mandalay Mss. in ihe India Office Library
by Prof. V. Fausboll, J. P. T. S., 1896 ) ;
{ ii ) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office ( Phayre collection ) »^like-
wise written in Burmese character '( see Catalogue of the Pali
Mss. in the India Office Library by H. Oldenberg ) ;
( iii ) Paper manuscript ( brought from W. Subhuti by Prof. Rhys Davids)
in Sinhalese character ( Introduction, p. XXXV ). Prof. Hardy has
relied on the palm leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmeto
character in noting readings whenever they are found to contribute
to a better understanding of the text.
Mrs, Rhys Davids translates ' Nettipakaraçia ' as the • Book of
Guidance ' ( SSkya or Buddhist Origins, p. 127 ).

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08 Annals of the Èhandarkar Oriental Research institute
the methodical way of attaining textual knowledge. It contains

much of the materials which are so grouped as to form a book by
itself. The commentary on the Netti pak aran a says that without
an able instructor it is impossible for men to be guided in the
right understanding of the doctrines.
This treatise was translated into Burmese by Thera Mahãslla-

vamsa in the fifteenth century of the Christian era, and again
two centuries later, by a dweller in the Pubbãrãma-Vihãra. It
was composed at the request of Thera Dhammarakkhita and
highly praised by Mahãkaccãna. The Mandalay manuscript
ascribes its authorship to Mahãkaccãna as every section bears a
clear testimony to the authorship of Mahãkaccãna who has been
described here as Jambuvanavãsin, i. e„ dweller in the rose-
apple grove.
The Netti is essentially a Pali treatise on the textual and

exegetical methodology, a Buddhist treatment upon the whole of
the Tantra Yuktis discussed in the Kautlliya Arthaáãstra, the
Suárutasamhitã, the Carakasamhitã and the Astáňga-Hrdaya. It
stands in the same relation to the Pali cannon as Yäska's
Nirukta to the Vedas. The scheme of methodology has been
worked out in a progressive order, the thesis being developed or
elaborated by gradual steps. To begin with we have the opening
section, Sang ah avara, or the conspectus of the whole book which
is á feature also of the Milinda Pañha. Then we have the
Vibhägavära or the section presenting a systematic treatment in
classified tables. This section comprises three tables or sub-
sections : - (1) Uddesavãra, (2) Niddesavãra and (3) Patiniddesa-
vãra. The Uddesavãra merely presents a bare statement of the
theses and as such it serves as a table of contents. It is followed
by the Niddesavãra whioh briefly specifies the import or defini-
tions of the theses awaiting detailed treatment in the section
immediately following, we mean the Patiniddesavãra, which is
but an elucidation and elaboration of the Niddesa scheme. The
theses in the Uddesavãra are introduced in three separate tables
or categories - (1) that of sixteen hãras (connected chains), (2)
that of five nayas ( modes of inspection ), and (3) that of eighteen
mülapadas ( main ethical topics ). The sixteen hãras oonsist of

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Non-Canonical Pedi Literature 99
desanã (the method of instruction), vicaya (the

enquiry ), yutti ( the method of establishing connectio
padatthãna (the method of teaching with reference t
mentals ), lakkhana ( the method of determining i
characteristic marks ), catuvyüha ( the method o
array ), ävatta ( the cyclical method ), vibhatti ( t
classification ), parivattana ( the method of tran
vevacana ( the method of synonyms ), paññatti ( t
determining ( signification ), otarana ( the method
steps), sodhana (the method of rectification ), ad
method of determining positions ), parikkhära ( t
discriminating causal relations ), and samãropana
of attribution ).
The five nayas consist of the following modes

things : - (1) nandiyãvatta, (2) tipukkhala ( by the
(3) slhavikkilita ( the lion-like sport ), (4) disãl
vision ) and (5) aùkusa ( focussing )•
The eighteen mülapadas comprise nine kusa

akusalas- The nine akusalas are tanhä ( thir
( ignorance ), lobha ( covetousness ), dosa ( hatred
sion ), subhasaññS ( false idea of purity ), niccasañ
of permanence ), atfcasaññá ( false idea of personal i
The nine kusalas are samatha ( tranquillity ), vipassan
alobha ( absence of covetousness ), adosa ( absence
amoha ( absence of delusion ), asubhasañña ( idea o
dukkhasaññá ( idea of discordance ), aniccasañña
permanence ) and anattasaññá ( idea of non-identit
In the Niddesavãra, the reader is to expect nothing

a general specification of the meaning of the topi
the Uddesavãra for treatment. From the Niddesav
is led on to the next step, the Patiniddesavãra w
four broad divisions, namely. (1) Hãravibhaóga ( e
the connected chains ), (2) Hãrasampãta ( discussio
projections ), (3) Nayaeamutthäna ( exposition of
inspection and (4) the Sãsanapatthãna ( the clas
interpretation of Buddha's instructions ).

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100 Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
The treatise deals in detail with sixteen hãras in the specified

order as follows :
The Desanãhãra directs the reader to notice six distinctive

features in the Buddha's method of instructions, namely, ass&dam
( bright side ), ãdinavam ( dark side ), nissaranam ( means of
escape ), phalam ( fruition ), upãyam ( means of success ) and
ãnattim ( the moral upshot ). It also points out that Buddha's
instructions are carefully adapted to four classes of hearers,
namely (1) those of right intellect ( understanding things by
mere hints), (2) those needing short explanations, (3) those
to be slowly led by elaborate expositions and (4) those whose
understanding does not go beneath the words. In the same con-
nection it seeks to bring home the distinction between the three
kinds of knowledge, sutamayl, cintâmayï and bhâvanamayï.
In the Vicayahãra the method of ruminating over the subjects

of questions and thoughts and repetitions in thought is laid down,
and this is elaborately illustrated with appropriate quotations
from the canonical texts.
In the Yuttihãra we are introduced to the method of grouping

together connected ideas and the right application of the method
of reasoning or inference in interpreting the dharma.
The Padatthãnahãra explains the doctrinal points by tlêir

fundamental characteristics and exemplifies them. This hãra has
an important bearing on the Milinda expositions.
The Lakkhanahãra points out that when one of a group of

matters characterised by the same mark is mentioned, the others
must be taken as implied. For instance, when the sense of sight
is mentioned in a passage, the implication should be that other
senses received the same treatment.
The Catuvyühahära unfolds the method of understanding the

doctrines by noting the following points
(1) the text, (2) the term, (3) the purport, (4) the introductory
episode and (5) the sequence, illustrating each of them with quo-
tations from the canonical texts.

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Non-Cancnical Pali Literature
The Ãvattahãra aptly illustrates with authoritative quotations

how in the teachings of the Buddha all things turn round to form
cycles of some fundamental ideas such as tanhã, avijjã, the four
Aryan truths and the like.
The Vibhattihãra explains the method of classifying Buddha's

discussions according to their charaoter common or uncommon
or according to their values, inferior, superior or mediocre.
The Parivattanahära contains an exposition of the method by

which the Buddha tried to transform a bad thing into a good thing
thing and transform also the life of a bad man.
The Vevacanahãra calls attention to the dictionary method of

synonyms by which the Buddha tried to impress and clarify
certain notions of the Dhamma. This section forms a landmark
in the development of Indian lexicography.
In the PaññattihSra it is stated that though the Dhamma is

one, the Lord has presented it in various forms. There are four
noble truths beginning with dukkha. When these truths are
realised then knowledge and wisdon come in and then the way to
Bhãvanã is open to the knower. The elements may be compared
but Nibbãna cannot be compared.
In the section on Otarana the Netti illustrates how in the

schemata of Buddha's doctrines diverse notions spontaneously
descend under the burden of certain leading topios such as,
indriyas, paticcasamuppãda, five khandhas and the like.
The Sodhanahãra illustrates the method by which the Buddha

corrected the form of the questions in the replies offered by him.
The Adhitthãnahãra explains in detail the method of determin-

ing the respective positions of different ideas according as they
make for certain common notions. In the Adhitthãnahãra the
basis of all truth is given. The four truths beginning with
dukkham are described and side by side avijjã is shown to be the
cause working in opposite ways. There are also paths bringing
about the extinction of dukkha, etc. The various käyas and
dhätus are -also considered. Samãdhi is the only means of
removing evils,

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102 Annoia of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
In the Parikkhärahära the Netti explains and exemplifies how

one can distinguish between the causal elements, broadly between
hetu and other causal relations. This section has an important
bearing on the Patthäna of the Abhidhammapitaka.
We come at last to the section called the Samäropanahära.

This section explains and illustrates the Buddhas method of four-
fold attribution, (1) by way of fundamental ideas, (2) by way of
synonyms, (3) by way of contemplation and by way of getting
rid of the immoral propensities.
Hära Sampäta is a division which is dependent on the hära as

its purpose is to present the projections or main moral implica-
lions of the hãras or the connected chains previously dealt with.
This division like the preceding one consists of sixteen parts

exaotly under the same headings.
In the Hära Sampäta the commentator Dhammapäla has added

and rearranged many new things. He cites the passages from
the text and then puts a lay dissertation on them by way of ques-
tions and answers. This division stands almost as an independent
treatise by itself.
Desanä hära Sariipäta - In this division it is laid down that

Mära invades only a mind which is quite unprotected ( pamäda-
citta ), which is based on false beliefs, on idleness, &c.
Vicaya hära Sampäta - In this section it is laid down that

desire (tanhã) is of two kinds: kusala and akusala. The one
leads to nibbäna and the other to birth and suffering ( samsãra ).
Mind is both kusala and akusala in nature. The real nature of
things can only be seen in the fourth Jhäna stage. The various
signs and nature of nibbäna and samädhi are described. Samädhi
has five characteristics, namely, joy, happiness, consciousness, en-
lightment and right perception. There are ten objects of meditation
( kasinäyatanäni ) e. g., pathavî, äpo, etc. They are then attached
to three objects, anicca ( non-permanent ), dukkha ( suffering )
and anatta ( non-existence of soul ).
» A differentiation is brought about between an ordinary man
and a man with knowledge. The former can do any kind of

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Non-Gananical Pali Literature 103
offence that may be possible. But the latter cannot, lhe

can even kill his father or mother, can destroy the stupas
latter cannot ; when one practises the four Jhãnas, and at
Samãdhi, his previous life and futurity are known to him.
In the Yutti-hãra-sampãta it is stated that sloth, stup

misery disappear from him who is well protected in mi
in resolution and adheres to right seeing.
In the Padatthãna-hãra and Lakkhana-hära-sampäta, the

padatthãnas ( reasonings ) are described as belonging to one who
is well restrained in mind, words and actions and who by the
proper attainment of padatthãnas realises the highest path.
In the Catuvyühahära-sampäta, Ävattahära-sampäta, Víbhatti-
hãra-sampãta, eta, great stress is laid on right perception, mind-
fulness änd-kusala deeds which lead to the knowledge of paticca-
samuppãda.
The third division called the Nayasamutthãna contains a
detailed treatment of the five specified modes of viewing things.
Under the Nandiyãvatta mode, it is pointed out that the earlier
extremity of the world cannot be known owing- to avijjã
( ignorance ) which has tanhã ( desire ) at the root. Those who
walk iir the field of pleasure are bound down in heretical beliefs
and are unable to realise the truth. There are four noble truths-
Dukkham, dukkhasamudayam, dukkhanirodham and dukkha-
nirodhagãminipatipadã. There is a middle path ( majjhima
patipadã ) which rejects the two extreme views and which is
identified with the eightfold noble path ( ariya atthaňgiko
maggo ). He who has avoided ditthi ( false view ) escapes from
kãma(lust). Hence avoidance of desire ( tanhã ) and ignorance
( avijjã ) leads to'quietitude or calmness. Eamma is recognised
as the cause of the world of sufferings. But consciousness and
all that concerns consciousness may be seen in their increment
in the ten vatthus. The ordinary enjoyment of food and touch,
etc. is the cause of distress of a man with desire.
The various asavas ( sins ) are next described. The Bufferings

of a man with attachments, faults and wrong views are also
narrated. The four paths, the four foundations of recollections,

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104 Annal» of the Bhandar/tar Crû ni cl Research InttiMe
the four Jhänas, the four essentials ( sammappadhãnas ), the four

meditations, the four pleasure yielding states, etc., are also stated ;
each of these is described as an antidote for the man with attach
ment, delusion and wrong views.
Buddhas, Paooeka-Buddhas, the disciples, and all those who

are devoid of attachment, hatred, delusion, etc., are like lions.
Those who look to the right aspects, the senses, the counter forces
of the views with as strong reasons as Buddhas, Facceka-Buddhas
etc., are said to have seen things just like a lion. Human types
are four in number. Each of these has to undergo some sort of
training. To each of them is offered an advice as to tanhã
( desire ), räga ( attachment ), kusala ( merit ), etc. This is the
way shown to be of the Tlpukkhalo and of the Aňkusa described
in the text.
Now turning to the fourth division, the Sãsanapatthãna, we

get a treatment of the proper method of classification and inter-
pretation of the texts of the Dhamma. It is suggested that the
discourses of the Buddha can be classified according to the
themes into : - (1) Saňkilesabhagiya ( those dealing with saňkilesa
or impurity ), (2) Vãsanãbhãgiya ( those dealing with desire ),
(3) Nibbedhabhãgiya ( those dealing with penetration ), (4) Asekha-
bhãgiya ( those dealing with the subject of a non-learner ),
(5) Saňkilesabhagiya and Vãsanãbhãgiya, (6) Saňkilesa and
Nibbedhabhãgiya, (7) Saňkilesa and Asekhabhãgiya, (8) Saňkilesa
and Nibbedha and Asekhabhãgiya, (9) Saňkilesa and Vãsanã and
Nibbedhabhãgiya, (10) Vãsanã and Nibbedhabhãgiya, (11) Tanhã-
saňkilesabhágiya, (12) Ditthisaňkilesabhágiya, (13) Duccarita-
saňkilesabhagiya, (14) Tanhãvodãnabhãgiya, (15) Ditthivodãna-
bhãgiya, (16) Duccaritavodãnabhãgiya. Of these, saňkilesas are
of three kinds, tanhã ( desire ), ditthi ( false view ), and duccaritas
( wrong actions ).
Various padas, slokas and texts are cited while explaining

each of these textual classifications.
The eighteen main padas are those which are worldly

( iokikam ), unworldly ( lokuttaram ), etc. In fact the chapter is
made highly interesting by its numerous quotations from familiar

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Ñon-Canonical Pali Literature 10Í5
texts and it does not enter deep into philosophical or logical

arguments. But the classification and reclassifications are no
doubt interesting as intellectual gymnastics*
The Petakopadesa is another treatise on the textual and the

exegeti cal methodology ascribed to Mahã-
Petakopadesa kaccãna and it is nothing but a different
manipulation of the subject treated in the Nettipakarana. Interest
of this treatise, if it was at all a work of the same author, lies in
the fact that it throws some new light here and there on the
points somewhat obscure in the Netti. Its importance lies also
in the fact that in places it has quoted the Pali canonical passages
mentioning the sources by such names as Samyuttaka (=Samyutta
Nikãya ) and Ekuttaraka ( = Ekuttara or Aùguttara Nikäya ).
Its importance arises no less from the fact in it the four Ariyan
truths are stated to be the central theme or essence of Buddhism,
the point which gained much ground in the literature of the
Sarvastivãdin school. The importance of the last point will be
realised all the more as we find how the discourses developed in
the Netti in the course of formulating the textual and exegetical
methodology centered round the four Ariyan truths. This work
has not yet been edited. The P. T. S., London has undertaken an
edition of it. A specimen by R. Fuchs Diss. Berlin, 1908 de-
serves mention.
The Milinda Pañha or the questions of Milinda had originally

been written in Northern India in Sanskrit
Întroduction 01 *n some North Indian Prakrit by an author

whose name has not, unfortunately enough,
come down to us. But, the original text is now lost in the land
of its origin as elsewhere ; what now remains is the Pali transla-
tion of the original which was made at a very early date in
Ceylon. From Ceylon, it travelled to other countries, namely,
Burma and Siam, which have derived their Buddhism from
Ceylon, and where at a later date it was translated into respective
local dialects. In China, too, there have been found two separate
works entitled " The Book of the Bhikkhu Nãgasena Sutra but
whether the^ are translations of the older recensions of the work
than the one preserved in Pali or of the Pali recensions is difficult
2 [ Annals, B. O. R. I. ]

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106 Annals of the JBhandarkar Oriental Research institute
to ascertain. However, in the home of Southern Buddhism, .the

book is accepted as a standard authority, second only to the
Pali Pitakas. Prof. Rhys Davids rightly observes, " It is not
merely the only work composed among the Northern Buddhists
which is regarded with reverence by the orthodox Buddhists of
the Southern schools, it is the only one which has survived at all
ariiongst them "
The book purports to discuss a good number of problems

and disputed points of Buddhism ; and this dis-
Charaoterôf the cussion jg treated in the form of conversations
between King Milinda of Sãgala and Thera
Nägasena. Milinda raises the questions and puts the dilemmas,
and thus plays a subordinate part in comparison to that played by
Nägasena who answers the questions and solves the puzzles in
detail. Naturally, therefore, the didactic element predominates
in the otherwise romantic account of the encounter between
the two.
Milinda who has been described as the King of the Yonas

with his capital at Sãgala (Säkala=Sialkot),
The two heroes identified with Menander,
the Bactrian Greek King who had his sway in the Punjab. He
was born, as our author makes him say, at Kalasi in Alasanda,
i. e., Alexandria ; and if we are to believe our author, he, resolved
of all doubts as a result of his long conversations with Nägasena,
eame to be converted to Buddhism. Nägasena, however, oannot
be identified with any amount of certainty.
The name of the author, as we have already said, has not come
down to us. A close analysis of the book
Author shows that a considerable number of place
names refer to the Punjab and adjacent countries, and a few to
the sea-coast, e. g., Surat, Bharukaccha, etc. Most of the rivers
named refer again to the Punjab. It is, therefore, natural for us
to conjecture that the author of the book resided in the far north-
west of India or in Punjab. Mrs. Rhys Davids has a theory of
her own regarding the author of the Milinda Pañho. She thinks
1 S. B. E., Vol. XXXV, Intro., p. XII.

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Nòn-Canonical Pali Literature 107
that the recorded conversations of Milinda and N

edited in the new book form after Milinda's dea
commission by a Brãhmana of Buddhist Collegiate training,
named Manava. There is, however, neither any positive or even
negative evidence for such a theory.
It is somewhat difficult to ascertain exactly the date of the

Book. Milinda or Menander is, however,
Dftte ascribed to the last quarter of the 2nd
century B. C. The book must, therefore, have been written after
that date. On the other hand, it must have long been an im-
portant book of authority when Buddhaghosa, the celebrated
Buddhist commentator, flourished in the 5th century A. D. For,
he quoted from the book often in his commentaries, and that in
such a manner that it follows that he regarded the book as a work
of great authority. From a close analysis of the books referred
to as quoted by the author of the Milinda Pañha, Prof. T. W.
Rhys Davids, the learned editor and translator of Milinda Pañha,
came to the conclusion that " the book is later than the canonical
books of the Pali Pitakas (the author of the Milinda- pañha
quotes a large number of passages from the Pitaka texts ), and on
the other hand, not only older than the great commentaries, but
the only book outside the canon, regarded in them as an autho-
rity which may be implicitly followed1."
The Milinda-pañha has a marked style of its own. Its language

is most elegant, and studied against the
Style and language background of ancient Indian prose, it is
simply a masterpiece of writing. The formal exactness of the
early Pitakas as well as the studied ornamentation of later-day
Pali or Sanskrit-Buddhist treatises are alike absent from its
pages. The charm of the style is captivating and there
are passages that are eloquent in their meaning and
gesture. The prerorations with which the long discussions
are often closed are supreme inventions by our author of
the art of conversation as well as of writing. Its style and
diction bear a close resemblance to and are somewhat maturer
I S. B. E., Vol. XXXV, Intro., p. XXXVIII.

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108 Annals ôf the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
than those of the famous Hastigumpha inscription of Ehãravela

which is assigned by Dr. B. M. Barua to the second quarter of
the 1st century A. D.*
At Sãgala, a city of wealth and affluence, rilled King Milinda

versed in arts and sciences and skilled
Te,t in casuistry. He had his doubts and
puzzles with regard to Buddha's doctrines and utterances and
other knotty problems of Buddhism. To resolve these doubts he
went to Nãgasena, the famous arahat ; and then began a wonder-
ful conversational discourse between the two. But before the
discourse really begins, we are introduced by our author to the
previous birth history ( Pubba-yoga ) of these two personages and
then to the contents of various sorts of puzzles.
We are told that Nãgasena in a previous birth of his was one

of the members of the religious brotherhood
( a ) Book I near Qangeg> where Milinda, in his turn,
in a previous birth of his, was a novice. In accordance with his
acts of merit in that birth and his aspirations, this novice after
wandering from existence to existence came to be born at last as
King of the city of Sãgala, a very learned, eloquent and wise man.
Now he had doubts and problems in his mind, and in vain did he
seek the venerable Kassapa and Makkhali Gosãla to have them
solved while all these were happening. The brother of the religi-
ous brother-hood came to be born in a Brahman family as Nãga-
sena. When he was seven years old he learnt the three Vedas
and all else that could be learnt in a Brahmanical house. Then
he left the house, meditated in solitude for sometime and he was
afterwards admitted into the order as a novice by a venerable
Buddhist priest, Rohana and was eventually converted into
Buddhism. He was then sent to Pãtaliputra to the venerable
Buddhist sage Dhammarakkhita where he became an arahat.
Now while he was living there he was invited at the Guarded
Slope in the Himalayas by an innumerable company of arahats
who were being harassed by King Milinda who delighted in
putting knotty questions and arguments this way and that.
Nãgasena readily accepted the challenge of Milinda and went to
X Barua - Old Bramhi Inscriptions, p. 172.

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Non- Canonical Pali Literature 109
Sãgala attended by a band of samanas. Just at that

had met Ãyupãla, an Arahat of the Saňkheyya monast
too he confronted with his casuistry. Nãgasena who was then
living at the same hermitage came now to the rescue of the
Order. Milinda with five hundred Yonakas then repaired to
Nãgasena, and after mutual exchanges of courtesy and compli-
ments the conversational discourse began.
The first discourse turned on the distinguishing charaoteristios
of moral qualities. Milinda enquired how
(b) Bbok II Reverend Nãgasena was known and what
what was his name. Upon it Nãgasena initiated a discussion on
the relation between name and individuality, and explained it
thoroughly with the help of an instructive simile. The king
then, obviously to test his knowledge, put to him a riddle and
questioned him as to his seniority of years. Nãgasena 1 fully
vindicated himself, and the king then satisfied sought the
permission of the Reverend Arahat to discuss with him. The
Arahat in his turn told that he was agreeable to a discusston if
he would only discuss as a scholar and not as a king. Then one
by one Milinda put questions and Nãgasena solved them with
his wonderful power of argumentation, simile, and illustration.
He contended that there was no soul in the breath ; he explained
one by one the aim of Buddhist renunciation, the Buddhist idea
of reincarnation, the distinction between wisdom and reasoning,
and wisdom and intelligence. He further contended that virtue
was the basis of the five moral powers requisite for the attainment
of nirvana and that other moral powers were faith, perseverence,
mindfulness and meditation which a recluse should develop in
himself. The characteristic marks of each of these qualities
were expounded in detail, and their power to put an end to evil
dispositions. A very important metaphysical question is next
discussed wherein Nãgasena wants to establish}, with the help
mainly of illuminating illustrations that when a man is born
he remains neither the same nor the another ; like a child and a
growing man through different stages of life. ' One comes into
being' another passes away ;jjand the: rebirth is, as it were
simultaneous. In this connectiçn it is discussed if a man who
will not be reborn feel any painful sensation ; and th'en what is

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110 Annals õf the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
after all reborn. A discourse is next initiated as to what is
meant by 4 time ' the root and the ultimate point of it. This
leads to another discussion as to the origin and developments of
qualities, as to other existence or non-existence of anything as
soul, which in its turn most naturally leads to a further discus-
sion as regards thought-perception and sight-perception, and
lastly to the distinguishing characteristics of contact or phassa,
sensation or vedanä, idea of sañña, purpose or cetanä, perception
or viññana, reflection or vitakka, and investigation or vicära. In
all these discourses and solutions, Milinda is fully convinced and
is full of admiration for Nãgasena.
The second discourse turns on the question of removal of

difficulties and dispelling of doubts in the
(c) Book III way staining a life of renunciation.
The various questions as to these doubts are not always related
to one another, but all of them are instructive and helpful to
solve doubts in the mind of Milinda, the King. He wants to
know why really there is so much distinction between man and
man, how renunciation is brought about, what is the character
of the influence of Karma, and what is after all nirvana and
whether all men attain it or not. The interesting point raised
next is whether rebirth and transmigration are one and the same
thing, and if there is a soul or any being that transmigrates from
this body to another. Among other doubts that conflicted
Milinda were if the body were very dear to the Buddhist recluse,
if the Buddha had really thirty-two bodily marks of a great man,
if the Buddha was pure in conduct, if ordination was a good
thing. Milinda further enquired of Nãgasena what had been the
real distinction between one full of passion, and one without
passion, and lastly what was meant by an arahat who recollected
what was past and done long ago. Then there were also other
difficulties of various kinds which were all solved by the
venerable Nägasena. Milinda was satisfied that he had pro-
pounded his questions rightly, and the replies had been made
rightly. Nägasena thought that the questions had been well-put
and right replies had been given.

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Non-Canonical Pali Literature 111
This book deals with solutions of puzzles» arising ou

tradictory statements made by*the Bud
(d) Book IV These puzzles were many and
were distributed in eighty-two dilemmas which were put by
Milinda to Nägasena, who, in his turn, gave satisfactory expla-
nations to each of them. The contradictions in the Buddha's
utterances were more apparent than real. About them strife was
likely thereafter to arise, and it was difficult to find a teacher
like Nägasena. So an early solution of these dilemmas was
imperative for the guidance of intending disciples of the Order.
These dilemmas are particularly interesting as well as instructive
and it is profitable to be acquainted here with a few examples.
Milinda was puzzled by a dilemma - If the Buddha has really
quite passed away, what is the good of paying honour to his
relics ? Nägasena said to him, " Blessed One, O King, is entirely
set free from life and he accepts no gifts. If gods or men put
up a building to contain the jewel treasure of the relics of a
Tathãgata who does not accept their gift, still by that homage
paid to the attainment of the supreme good under the form of
the jewel treasure of his wisdom do they themselves attain to
one or other of the three glorious states ( Tisso Sampattiyo ).
There are other reasons too. For, gods and men by offering
reverence to the relics, and the jewel treasure of the wisdom of
a Tathãgata, though he has died away, and accepts it not, can
cause goodness to arise in them, and by that goodness can
assuage and can alias the fever and the torment of the three-
fold fire. And even if the Buddha has passed away, the possibi-
lity of receiving the three attainments is not; removed. Beings,
oppressed by the sorrow of becoming, can, when they desire the
attainments, still receive them by means of the jewel treasure of
his relics and of his doctrines, discipline, and teaching. Like
the seeds which through the earth attain to higher developments
are the gods and men who, through the jewel treasure of the
relics and the wisdom of the Tathãgata - though he has passed
away and consent not to it - being firmly rooted by the roots of
merit, become like unto trees casting a goodly shade by means of
the trunk of contemplation, the sap of true doctrine, the branches
of righteousness, the flowers of emancipation, and the fruition of

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11Ž Annals of the Ěhanáarkar Griental Research institute
monkhood. It is for all these reasons that even when the Buddha
has passed Jaway, an act done to him notwithstanding his not
consenting thereto, is still of value and bears fruit.
A second dilemma that conflicted Milinda was, how can the

Buddha be omniscient, when it is said that he reflects or thinks ?
To solve this dilemma, Nägasena analysed the thinking powers
of men from the lowest individual' full of lust, ill-will and
^delusion to the highest Buddha having all knowledge and bearing
about in themselves the ten-fold power and whose thinking
powers are on every point brought quickly into play, and act
with ease. He then classified these different kinds of thinking
powers into seven classes. The thinking power of the Supreme
Buddhas is of the last or seventh class, and its stuff is very fine,
the dart is highly tempered and its discharge is highly powerful.
It altogether outclasses the other six and is clear and active in
its high quality that is beyond an ordinary man's comprehension.
It is because the mind of the Blessed One is so clear and active
that the Blessed One has worked so many wonders and miracles.
For his knowledge is dependent on reflection, and it is on reflec-
tion that he knows whatever he wishes to know. It is more rapid
than that, and more easy in action in the all embracing know-
ledge of the Blessed One, more rapid than his reflection. His all-
embracing knowledge is like the" store-house of a great king who
has stores of gold, silver and valuables, and all 'sorts* of eatables ;
it is with the help of reflection that the Blessed One grasps
easily and at once whatever he wants from the big store-house
of his kno wledge,
A third dilemma was, why did the Blessed One admit Deva-
datta to the Order, if he knew of his machinations? In giving
a solution out of this dilemma Nãgaseaa told Milinda fchať?the
Blessed One was both full of mercy and wisdom. It was^when
he in his mercy and wisdom considered the life history of Deva-
datta that he perceived how having heaped up karma on karma,
he would pass for an endless series of kalpas from torment to
torment, and from perdition to perdition. And the Blessed One
knew also that the'infinite Karma- of that man would, because^ he
had entered the Order, become finite, and the sorrow caused by

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Non- Canonical Fali Literature 113
the previous karma would also therefore become l

that foolish person were not to enter the Order,
continue to heap up karma which would endur
And it was because he knew that that, in his mercy,
him to the Order. And by doing so, the Blessed O
a clever physician, and made light the heavy sor
datta who would have to suffer many hundreds of
kalpas. For having caused schism in the Order, he
would no doubt suffer pain and misery in the pur
that was not the fault of the Blessed One, but was
his own kaTma. The Blessed One did in his oase act like a
surgeon who with all kind intent and for man's good smears
a wound with burning ointment, cuts it with lancet, cauterises
with caustic, and administers to it a salty wash. So did the
Blessed One cause Devadatta to suffer such pain and misery that
at the end he might be relieved of all pains and miseries. If he
had not done so, Devadatta would have suffered torment in
purgatory through a succession of existences, through hundreds
of thousands of kalpas.
Of other puzzles that arose in Milinda's mind, mention may
be made of three out of many. These were, for example, how
was it that an Arahat could do no wrong ; why did not the
Buddha promulgate all the rules of the Order at once and how
could Vessantara's giving away of his children be approved.
Speaking as to the faults of the Arahat, Nägasena told Milinda
that the Arahats, like lay men, could be guilty of an offence, but
their guilt was neither due to carelessness or thoughtlessness.
Sins are of two kinds - those which are a breach of the ordinary
moral law, and those which are a breaoh of the Bules of the
Order. How, an Arahat, in the true sense of the term, cannot be
guilty of a moral offence ; but it is possible for him to be guilty
of any breaoh of the Bules of the Order of which he might have
been ignorant. Next, speaking as to the method of promulgating
the Bules from time to time and not all at once, Nägasena quoted
the authority of the Tathägata ; for the Tathägata thought thus,
" If I were to lay down the whole of the hundred and fifty rules
at once the people would be filled with fear, those of them who
were willing to enter the Order would refrain from doing so,
S [Annals, B. O, R. 1. 1

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114 Annate of the Èhanrìarkar Oriental Research institute
they would not trust my words, and through their want of faith
they would be liable to rebirth in states of woe. An occasion
arises, therefore, illustrating it with a religious discourse, will I
lay down, when the evil has become manifest, each Rule." As
to the justification of King Vessantara's giving away his beloved
sons in slavery to a Brãhmana, and his dear wife to another man
as wife. Nägasena told Milinda that he who gave gifts in such
a way as to bring even sorrow upon others, that giving of his
brought forth fruit in happiness and it would leadto rebirths in
states of bliss. Even if that be an excessive gift it was not
harmful, rather it was praised, applauded and approved by the
wise in the world.
The last four dilemmas of Milinda are concerned with the

difficult problem of Nirvana. Is Nirvana all bliss or partly pain ;
the form, the figure, duration, etc., of Nirvana, the realisation of
Nirvana, and the place of. Nirvana, these are the puzzles that
inflicted the mind of the King. Nägasena solved them all one
by one to the satisfaction of Milinda. According to him Nirvana
is bliss unalloyed, there is no pain in it. It is true that those
who are in quest of Nirvana afflict their minds and bodies,
restrain themselves in standing, walking and sitting, lying, and
in food, suppress their sleep, keep their senses in subjection,
abandon their very body and their life. But it is after they have
thus, in pain, sought after Nirvana, that they enjoy Nirvana
which is all bliss. By no metaphor, or explanation, or reason, or
argument can its form or figure, or duration, or measure be made
clear, even if it be a condition that exists. But there is some-
thing as to its qualities which can be explained. Nirvana is
untarnished by any evil dispositions. It allays the thirst of the
craving after lusts, desire for future life, and the craving after
worldly prosperity. It puts an end to grief, it is an ambrosia.
Nirvana is free from the dead bodies of evil dispositions, it is
mighty and boundless, it is the abode of great men, and Nirvana
is all in blossom of purity, of knowledge and emancipation.
Nirvana is the support of life, for it puts an end to old age and
death ; it increases the power of Iddhi ( miracle ) of all beings, it
is the source to all beings of the beauty of holiness, it puts a
stop to suffering in all beings, to the suffering arising from evil

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dispositions, and it overcomes in all beings the we

arises from hunger and all sorts of pain. Nirvana
neither does it grow old, it dies not, it passes not aw
rebirth, it is unconquerable, thieves carry it not
attached to anything, it is the sphere in which Â
nothing can obstruct it, and it is infinite. Nirvan
desires, it oauses delight and it is full of lustre. It
attain to, it is unequalled in the beauty of its perfume, it is
praised by all the Noble Ones. Nirvana is beautiful in Righte-
ousness, it has a pleasant taste. It is very exalted, it is immova-
ble, it is accessible to all evil dispositions, it is a place where no
evil dispositions can grow, it is free from desire to please and
from resentment.
As to the time of Nirvana, it is not past, nor future, nor

present, nor produced, nor not produced, nor producible. Peace-
ful, blissful and delioate, Nirvana always exists. And it is that
which he who orders his life aright, grasping the idea of all
things according to the teaching of the conquerors realises by his
wisdom. It is known by freedom from distress and danger, by
confidence, by peace, by calm, by bliss, by happiness, by delicaoy,
by purity and by freshness. Lastly as to the place of Nirvana,
there is no spot either in the East, or the South, or the West or
the North, either above or below where Nirvana is. Yet it exists
just as fire exists even if there is no place where it is stored up.
If a man rubs two sticks together, the fire comes out, so Nirvána
exits for a man who orders his life well. But there is such a
place on which a man may stand, and ordering his life aright,
he can realise Nirvana, -and such a plaoe is virtue.
This book deals with solutions of problems of inference.
Milinda asked Nãgasena how they could
(e) Book V know that Buddha had ever lived. Nãga-
sena told him that as the existence of ancient kings was known
by their royal insignia, their crown, their slippers and their fans,
so was the existence of Buddha known by the royal insignia
used by the Blessed One and by the thirty-five constituent quali-
ties that make up Arahatship which formed the subject of dis-
course delivered by Gotama before his death to his disciples.
By these can the whole world of gods and men know and believe

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116 Annais of the Bhandarkar Oriental Eeeearch Institute
that the Blessed One existed once. By this reason, by this argu-
ment, through this inference, can it be known that the Blessed
One lived. Just at the sight of a beautiful and well-planned city,
one can know the ability of the architect, so can one, on examin-
ing the City of Righteousness which the Buddha built up, come
to know of his ability and existenoe.
The sixth book opens with an interesting discussion. Can lay

men attain Nirvana ' ? Nägasena told that
(f) Book VI , ' ,,
even , lay men and w
face the condition of pea
what purpose then do ex
To this Nägasena replied
mode of livelihood without evil, it has blissful calm as its
fruit, it avoided blame and it had such twenty-eight good qualities
on account of which all the Buddhas alike longed for them and
held them dear. And whosoever thoroughly carried out the vows,
they became completely endowed with eighteen good qualities
without a previous keeping of the vows by those who became
endowed with these good qualities, there was no realisation of
Arahatship ; and there was no perception of the truth to those who
were not purified by the virtues that depended on the keeping of
the vows. Nägasena next explained in detail with the help of a
good number of similies the character that came as a result of
keeping the vows for the good growth of the seed of renunciation
and for the attainment of Nirvana. But those who being un-
worthy take the vows incur a two-fold punishment and suffer
the loss of the good that may be in him. He shall receive dis-
grace and scorn and suffer torment in the purgatory. On the
contrary, those who being worthy take the vows with the idea of
upholding the truth deserve a two-fold honour. For he comes
near and dear to gods and men, and the whole religion of the
recluses becomes his very own. Nägasena then gave Milinda
the details of the thirteen extra vows by which a man should
bathe in the mighty waters of Nirvana. Upasena the elder,
practised all these purifying merits of the vows and Blessed One
was delighted at his conduct. The thirty graces of the true
recluse are detailed next and whosoever is endowed with these
graces is said to have abounded in the peace and bliss of Nirväna.

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Non- Canonical Pali Idtêrature 117
Sãriputta, according to Nãgasena, was one like this wh

in this life of such exalted virtue that he was the one wh
the Master, set rolling the rojal chariot-wheel of the K
of Righteousness in the religion of Gotama, the Blessed O
The seventh or the last book is concerned with a detailed list

of the similes or qualities of Arahatship;
( g ) Book vil 0f fljese similes thirty-eight have been lost
and sixty-seven are still preserved. Any member of thé Order
who wishes to realise Árahatship must be endowed with these
one hundred and five qualities. Milinda silently and reverently
heard detailed descriptions of these qualities ; and at the end he
was full of admiration for the venerable Thera Nãgasena for his
wonderful solution of the three hundred and four puzzles. He
was filled with joy of heart ; and all pride was suppressed within
him. He ceased to have any more doubts and became aware of
the virtue of the religion of the Buddhas. He then entreated
Nãgasena to be accepted as a supporter of the Faith and as a
true convert from that day onward as long as life should last.
Milinda did homage to Nãgasena and had a vihãra built called
the ' Milinda- Vihãra ' which he handed over to Nãgasena.
The Milinda-Pañha like the Bhagavat Gltã is the most in-

teresting and instructive literary production of an âge which is
heroic. Its long narrative is composed of a long series of philo-
sophical contest between two great heroes, King Milinda on the
one hand and the Thera Nãgasena on the other. A pubba-yoga
or prelude is skilfully devised to arouse a curiosity in the reader
to witness the contest înd watch the final result with a great
eagerness. On the whole, the Milinda successfully employs a
novel literary device to put together the isolated and disconnected
controversies in the Kathãvatthu as representing different stages
in the progress of the philosophical battle, and in doing so it has
been in one place guilty of the literary plagiarism in respect of
introducing King Milinda as a contemporary of the six heretical
teachers on the model of the SãmaSfíaphala Sutta.
Alasando ( dipo ) - the island town of Alexandria on the

'twSSpï' ïnd»8' 'o™1«1 Alexander.

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118 Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Resiearch Institut ft
Yavana ( Bactria) - That province watered by the Oxus or

the Amu Daria and the premier satrapy of the Achaemenian kings ;
later on came to be conquered by Alexander and in 321 B. C. fell
to the share of Seleukos Nikator. Hundred years later the Bactrian
Greeks threw off their allegionce to their Seleukidan lord, asserted
independence, and gradually moved towards India to establish
there an independent principality. Milinda or Menander was
one of the kings of this line of Bactrian Greeks who came to
establish their power in India.
Bharukaccha - an ancient seaport equivalent to modern

Broach in the Kaira district in Guzrat. Barygaza of the Greek
geographers.
Cina ( country ) - China.

Gandhãra ( rattham ) - an important ancient kingdom that had
its capita] at Purusapura or Peshwar in the North-western Fron-
tier Province.
Kalinga - an ancient kingdom on the Orissan coast, identical

with the modern Ganjam region. All older works, such as the
Jãtaka, Mahãvastu and Dïgha Nikãya, mention a kingdom
named Kaliñga'with its capital Dantapura ages before Buddha's
time.
Kalasa ( gama ) - a village situated in the Alasanda island on

the Indus. The birth place of Milinda.
Kajañgala - mentioned in very early Buddhist Pali texts as a
locality somewhere near Rajmahal.
Kasmlr ( rattham ) - a famous kingdom in the North of India.
Kosala - an ancient province identical with South Bihar,

capital Srävastl.
Kolopattauam - an ancient seaport probably on the Coro-

mandel coast.
Magadha ( rattham ) - an ancient kingdom identical with

East Bihar ; capital Pätaliputra.
Madhurä ( nigamo ) - an ancient city identical with modero

Mathurã. Coins of Menander have been found here.

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Non- Canonical Pali Literature Í19
Nikumba ( ratthamì - somewhere in the north-west of
Sägala ( nagaram ) - identical with Sãkala, modem Si

capital city of the King Milinda.
Sãketa - identical with ancient Ayodhyã country.
Saka country ^-,the kingdom of the Sakas or Scythians

time of Menander was confined to the Bactrian lands south of the
Oseus and to Sogdiana to the north.
Sovlra - ancient Sauvlra, the country of the Sauvlra tribe

adjacent to the Sindhu country.
Surattho ( nigamo ) - an ancient seaport identical with mo-

dern Surat.
BarãnasI - modern Benares.
Suvannabhüml - identical probably with Lower Burma and

Malay Peninsula.
Pãtaliputra ( nagaram) - an ancient city, capital of Magadha

near modern Patna.
Udicca - a country in the north-west of India.
Vanga - identical with East Bengal.

Vilãta - an ancient kingdom somewhere in the north-west of
India.
Takkola* - an ancient seaport near Thaton in Lower Burma.

Ujjenï - identical with ancient UjjayinI, capital of the ancient
Malwa country.
Greek ( country ) - ancient Greece in Eastern Europe.

1. Ganga - The Ganges.
Names of rivers in tbe 2. AcïravatI - an ancient river in Eastern
Milinda-Panha T n . ,1 -r^
India T flowing n . through ,1 the -
past Srâvastï.
3. Yamunã - a tributary of the Gange
Greeks.
4. Sarabhü - identical with Sarayü, a tri

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Hé Armais of the Bhandarfcar Oiiental Research Institute
5. Mahl - a river south, ot the Vindhyas flowing into the Bay

of Bengal. These five rivers are often mentioned together in the
Pitakas.
6. SarassatI - an ancient tributary of the Indus.
7. Vitamsa - identical probably with ViÇastã, a tributary of

the Indus, the Hydaspes of the Greeks.
8. Candrabhägä - identical with modern Ohenab, a tributary

of the Indus.
A. Books silently referred to : -
BOmentfonerddin0 *he L DIgha Nikâya> 2- Kathâvatthu, 3. Aňgut-

Milinda-Paõho tara Nikãya, 4. Mahãvagga, 5. Cullavagga,
6. Vessantara Jãtaka, 7. Sivi Jãtaka, £(! Maj-
jhima Nikãya, 9. Sutta Vibhaňga, 10. Cãtuma Sutta, 11. Dhamma-
oakka-pavattanajSutta, 12. Amba Jãtaka, 13. Dummedha Jãtaka,
14. Tittira Jãtaka, 16. Khantivãda Jãtaka, 16. Oüla-nandiya
Jãtaka, 17. Taocha-Sükara Jãtaka, 18. Cariyã-pitaka, 19. Silava-
nãga Jãtaka, 20. Sabbadãtha Jãtaka, 21. Apannaka Jãtaka, 22.
Nigrodha-miga Jãtaka, 23. Mabãpaduma Jãtaka, 24. Ummagga
Jãtaka, 25. Sutta Nipãta, 26. Thera Gãthã, 27. Samyutta Nikãya,
28. Dhammapada and 29. Nigr od h a Jãtaka.
1. Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma, 2. The Suttantas, 3. Dhamma-

SamganI, 4. Vibhaňga, 5. Dhãtu-Kathã, 6.
BObooksrPment1oned Puggala Paññatti, 7. Kathã-Vatthu, 8. Ya-
by name maka, 9. Patthãna, 10. The Abbidhamma
Pitaka, 11. The Vinaya Pitaka, 12. The
Sutta Pitaka, 13. Mahã-Samaya Suttanta - ( DIgha Nikãya ),
14. Mahã-mangala Suttanta- ( Sutta Nipãta ), 15. Sama-citta-
pariyãya Suttanta - ( unknown ), 16. Rãhulvãda Suttanta ( Maj-
jhima ), 17. Parãbhava Suttanta - ( Sutta Nipãta ), 18. Samyutta
Nikãya, 19. The Sutta Nipãta, 20. Ratana Sutta - ( Sutta Nipãta ),
21. Khandha Parittä - (not traced), 22. Mora Parittä, 231 Dhajagga
Parittã - (Jãtaka Book ), 24, Ãtãnãtiya Parittä - ( DIgha Nikãya ),
25. Angulimãl a Parittä -( Majjhima Nikãya ), 26. The Pãtimo-
kkha, 27. Dhamma-dãyãda Sutta ( Majjhima Nikãya), 28. Dak-
khina Vibhaňga of the Majjhima Nikãya, 29. Cariyã Pitaka, 30,

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Navangam Buddha Vacanam, 31. Dïgtaa Nikãya, 3

Nikãya, 33. Khuddaka Nikãya, 34. Mahã Rãhulovãda
Nikãya), 35. Purã-bheda Suttanta ( Sutta Nipãta),
Vivada Suttanta ( Sutta Nipãta), 37. Cüla-Vyüha Sut
Nipãta), 38. Mahä-Vyülia Suttanta (Sutta Nipãta), 39
Suttanta ( Sutta Nipãta ), 40. Sãriputta Suttanta ( Sut
41. Mahãsamaya Suttanta ( Digha Nikãya ), 42. Sa
Suttanta (Digha Nikãya), 43/Tirokudda Suttanta
Pãtha), 44, Ekuttara Nikãya ( Aňguttara Nikãya ), 4
Su tfca ( Sutta Nipãta ), 46. Kummüpama Suttanta ( Sam
kãya), 47. Sacca Samyutta ( Samy ut ta Nikãya),
Punnaka Jãtaka, 49. Dhammapada, 50. Sutasom* Jãtaka, 51.
Kanha Jãtaka, 52. Lomahamsana Pariyãya, 53. Cakkavãka
Jãtaka, 54. Calla Nãrada Jãtaka, 55. Lakkhana Suttanta ( Digha
Nikãya ), 56. Bhallãtiya Jãtaka, 57. Parinibbãna Suttanta
( Digha Nikãya ).
V. Trenckner has edited the book with a general index by 0.
J. Rylands and an index of gãthãs by Mr. Rhys Davids. It has
been translated into English by T. W. Rhys Davids and included
in the Sacred Books of the East Series as Vols- XXXV-XXXVI.
There is a Sinhalese translation of the Milinda Pañho by Hînati
Kumbure under the title " Milinda prashnaya," Colombo, 1900.
The following books may be consulted • -
1. Le Bonheur du Nirvãna extrait du Milindapprashnaya ; ou

Miroir des doctrines sacrees traduit du Pali par Lewis da Sylva
Pandit. ( Revue de l'histoire des religions, Paris, 1885 ).
2. Deux Traductions chinoises du MilindapañhoPar E. Specht
arec introduction par S. Levi.
3. Chinese translations of the Milindapaôho by Takakusu,

J. R. A. S. 1896. This paper contains a number of Chinese trans-
lations in existenoe, the date of the two translations and the
story of the discussions of King Milinda and Bhikkhu Nãgasena
found in the Buddhist sùtra called Samyutta-Ratnapitaka.
4. Historical basis for the questions of King Menander from
the Tibetan by L. A. Waddel, J. R. A. S., 1897. This paper points
out that the Milindapañha is known to the Tibetans,
4 [Annals, B. O. R. I.J

15.206.221.204 on Sun, 11 Aug 2024 09:42:13 UTC
122 Annals of the Bhandarkar Orientai Research Institute
5. Nãgasena by Mrs. Rhys Davids, J. R. A. S., 1891.

6. Milinda Questions by Mrs. Rhys Davids, 1930.
7. Critical and philological notes to the first chapter of the
Milindapañha by V. Trenckner revised and edited by Dr. Ander-
son, J. P. T. S., 1908.
8. Paul Pelliot - Les noms propres dans les traductions chi-
noises du Milindapañho. ( Journal Asiatic, Paris, 1914 ).
9. There is a Bengali edition of this work published by the
Bangiya Sãhitya Parishat, Calcutta, which can vie, if it can vie
at all, in its uncritical method and blunders.
10. F. Otto Sohrader, Die Fragen des Konig Menandros

( Berlin 1903 ).
11. G. Cagnola, Dialoghi del Re Milinda ( Italian translation

of the Milinda Pañha ).
The Abhidhammãvatãra was written by Buddhadatta ; and it

has been in continuous use amongst the
AbBüphärn^yIbhägaand students of the Buddhist scriptures. Bud-
dhadatta was held as a personage of excep-
tionally high scholarly attainments by Buddhaghosa and others.
It is interesting to note the incidents which led to the writing of
this work. Buddhadatta was going from Ceylon to India when
he was met by Buddhaghosa who was then proceeding to Ceylon
for the purpose of rendering the Sinhalese commentaries into
Pali. Knowing the mission of Buddhaghosi, Buddhadatta was
highly pleased and spoke thus ; " When you finish the commenta-
ries, please send them up to me that I may summarise your
labours," Buddhaghosa consented to comply with his request
and the Pali commentaries were accordingly placed in the hand
of Buddhadatta who summed up the commentaries on the Abhi-
dhamma in the Abhidhammãvatãra and that on the Vinaya in
the Yinayavinicchaya l. He was the author of the Rûpârûpa-
▼ibhäga and of the commentary of the Buddhavamsa. The
Abhidhammãvatãra is written partly in prose and partly in
verse. It discusses the following points : -
1 Vide Buddhadatta' 8 Manual , p, xix.

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Non*Canonical Pali Literature 123
1 citta, 2. nibbãna, 3. cetasika ( that which relat

mind ), 4. ärammana ( object ideation ), 5. vipãka cit
quence of mindfulness), 6. rüpa ( form ), 7. Paããatti
tion), etc.
Rüpärüpavibhäga deals with rüpa, arüpa, citta, oetas

It is written in prose. Readers are referred to my w
Life and Work of Buddhaghosa ' (Oh. IV ) for a furthe
Buddhadatta and hi« works.
A. P. Buddhadatta, a Bhikkhu of Ceylon, has edited Buddha-

datta'6 Manuals or summaries of Abhidhamma ( Abhidhammãva-
tãra and Rüpärüpavibhäga ) for the first time for the P. T. S.,
London.
The Saccasamkhepa is a religious work on truth written by

Dhammapãla Thera. Malalasekera points
Saccasarhkhepa out that there seems to be some uncertainty,
as to the authorship and date of the Saccasamkhepa. The Sad-
dhammasamgaha assigns it to Ãnanda1. The Saccasamkhepa
has been edited by Dhammãrãma Bhikkhu. There are five
chapters in it dealing with rüpa ( form ), vedanä ( sensation ),
cittapavatti ( mind), and pakinnakasamgaha and Nibbãna. It is
known as the summary of the truth published by the P. T. S. in
J. P. T. S., 1917-1919. It consists of 387 stanzas.
The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha has served for probably eight

centuries as a primer of psychology and
Abhidhammattha- philosophy in Burma and Ceylon, and a
Sangaha .
whole litera
around it, the l
manual is ascri
is known abou
other treatises
the author was
asserts that he
at the Sinhales
VattagâmanI, w
" 1 The Pali Liter

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1 y early for the book. In fact, Anuruddha iß believed to have

lived earlier than 12th but later than the 8th century A. D.
Sãriputta compiled a paraphrase to this book. The Abhidhamma-
ttha-Sangaha has been edited and published in J. P. T. S., 1883 end
translated with notes by Shwe Zan Aung and revised by Mrs.
Rhys Davids under the name of the compendium of Philosophy
included in the P. T. S. translation series.
The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha is classed in Burmese biblio-

Other contemporary phi- graphy under a classified list of philosophi-
losophical manuals cal manuals, nine in number. They are : -
1. AbbidhammatthaSaňgaha, by Anuruddha, Paramattha

Vinicchaya, by Anurudha, 3. Abhidhammãvatãra, by Buddha-
datta, 4. Rõpãrôpavibhãga, by Buddhadatta, 5. Sacca Sankhepa,
by Dhammapäla, 6. Mohavicchedanï, by Kessapa, 7. Khema-
pakarana, by Khema, 8. Nãmãcãra-dlpaka, by Saddhamma Joti-
pãla, and 9. Nämarüpapariccheda, by Anuruddha.
The Abhidhammattha-Saůgaha, because of its exclusively con-

densed treatment, stimulated a large growth
E"n the abook6ratUre 0* ancillary works, of which the following
have up-till-now been known,
A. Four Tlkãs or Commentaries J J. Porãna Tlkã by Nava-

vimala Buddhi of Ceylon, 2. Abhidhammattha Vibhâvanï by
Sumangala of Ceylon, 3. Sankhepa- Vann anã by Saddhamma
Jyotipãla of Burma, and 4. Paramattha-dïpanï Tïkâ, by Ledi
Sadaw of Burma.
B. A 'Key' to the Tikã-gyaw, entitled Manisaramañju by

Ariyavamsa of Saggaing, Burma.
C. A commentary entitled Madhu-Särattha-dlpan!, by Mahä-

nanda of Hanthawaddy, Burma.
D. A number of works, not in Pali, but in Burmese :
1. Abhidhammattha-sangaha-madhu, a modern work by

Mogaung Sadaw, 2. Abhidhammattha-safigaha-gandhi, a modern
work, by Payagi Sadaw, 3. Paramattha Sarüpa-bhedaní, by
Yisuddhãrãma Sadaw, 4. Abhidhammattha-Sarüpa-dlpaka, by

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Non- Canonical Pali Literature 1Î5
the late Myobyingyi, and 5. a number of analyt

entitled Akauk.
The Abhidhammafctha-saxigaha covers very largely the same

range of subject matter as that of the Visud-
Tâňgahaha t?âttthë dhimagga, though the amplitude of treatment
Visudáhimagga. and the order and emphasis of treatment in
eaoh are different. But they are to some
extent complimentary, and as such still hold the field as modern
text books for students of Buddhism in Buddhist countries.
The Abhidhammattha-Saňgaha is so highly condensed that ft

consists, for the most part, of terse, jejure sentences, which are
not easily intelligible to lay readers. It is, therefore, profitable to
have a resume of the main topics and problems of the whole work
as a Manual of Buddhist Psychology and Philosophy.
Mind is ordinarily defined as that which is conscious of an

object ; and the Buddhists have tried to
M,nd frame their definition with the help of
fifty-two mental attributes or properties enumerated in Part II of
the Abhidhammattha-Saňgaha. But the definition of mind is
also a division of mind, and our author's division into vedanS,
Sana, and saňkhSra corresponds to Bain's division of the mind
into Feeling, Thought or intellect, and will or volition.
Consciousness ( viññana ) has, therefore, been defined as the

relation between ãrammanika( subject) and ãrammana ( object X
In this relation the object presented is termed paocaya ( the
relating thing ) and the subject, pacc&yuppanna ( the thing
related ). The two terms are thus relative.
The object of Consciousness is either object of Sense or Object

of thought. Object of sense sub-divides itself into five classes -
sight, sound, smell, taste and touch, which are collectively
termed pañoáram mana (five-fold object). The object of thought
also consists of five sub-clauses : citta ( mind ), cetasika ( mental
properties ), pasada, râpa and sukhumarûpa ( sensitive and
subtle qualities of body ), paññati ( name, idea, notion, ooncept ),
and nibbäna. These are collectively termed

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Iti Annal* òf thè Bhandarkar Oriental Resêarch Institut*
The Paññattí object is of several sub-clauses. Paññatti is either

(1) that which makes known ( paññapetlti ) •,
Paññatti ^ ^ which is made known ( paññapi-
yattti ), corresponding to our author's terminology -Saddapaññatti
and Atthapaññatti which are undoubtedly relative terms. Sadda-
paâôatti iš a name ( of á thing ) which, when expressed in words,
or represented by a sign is called a 4 term It is synonymous
with nãma-pagõatti. Atthapaññatti is the idea or notion of the
attributes of a thing made known or represented by a name. In
other words, it is equivalent to ť concept 9 and is sub-divided into
various classes. Paññatti has been distinguished from Para
mattha in the sense that the former is Nominal and conceptual-
whereas the latter is Beai.
The object comprehending as it does, the subject, is wider,

more extensive than the latter. This is probably one reason why
greater prominence is given to the object patthãna. In Buddhism
there is no actor apart from the action, no percipient apart from
perception. In other words, there is no conscious subject behind
consciousness.
4 Like the current of the river ' ( nadi soto viya ) is the Bud-
dhist idea of existence. For no two conse-
Life and Anoient view oujj|V0 moments is the fabric of the body
the same, and this theory of the ceaseless change or flux is called
anicca-dhamma which is applied alike to the body and the mind,
ör the Being and thought respectively. The dividing line between
thase two is termed mano-dvãra, the Threshold of Consciousness.
Life, then, in the Buddhist view of things, is like an ever-
changing river, having its source in birth, its goal in death,
receiving from the tributary streams of sense constant accretions
to its flood, and ever dispensing to the world around it the
thought-stuff it has gathered by the way.
Subliminal Consciousness is either kãma, rõpa, or arùpa.

Supraliminal consciousness is normal,
Primary classification _ . J . , , __
of Consciousness supernormal, _ and . transcenden
consciousness is termed kämacitta,
because desire or kãma prevails on this plan
normal consofousness iß termed M ahag-gal

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Non-Canonical Pali LiUrature 127
reaohed the sublime state, and is further distinguish

cr arüpacitta.
Consciousness in this four-fold classification is pr
composed of seven mental properties ( cet
UpeVrties1andncfassre¡ sikas ) " »»mely, contact ( phassa
of consciousness ( yedanà ), perception ( saññá
volition ( cetanä ), oneness of object ( ek
gatä ), psychic life ( jlvitlndriya ) and attention ( man
These seven mental properties are termed sabba-citta
or universais, because they are common to every clas
of jsonsciousness, or every separate act of mind or thoug
are forty-five different properties distinguishing one cl
another. And those, in varying combinations, give rise to
the eighty-nine classes of consciousness enumerated in
Part I of the Abhidhammattha-saňgaha, or according to a broader
classification, one hundred and twenty-one. The seven mental
properties have been enumerated above ; there are, besides these,
six particular specific or accidental properties. These are vitakka,
vicãra, adhimokkha, ?iriya, plti and chanda. The four universal
bad cetasikas or properties are moha, ahirika, anottappa and
uddhacca. Besides these, there are also two specific cetasikas or
properties, lobha and dittbi. All these properties are disoussed
and explained in the body of the book.
Of these and other classes of consciousness making up a total
of eighty-nine, some function as causes or
Consciousness1* grouped karma, some as resultants or vipãka, and
some are non-casual or kriyä. Besides
these three classes, there are two elements in every consciousness,
the Constant and the Variable. The form of consciousness is the
constant element, and is opposed to the matter of consciousness
which constitutes the variable element. But in Buddhism, both
subject and object are variable at every moment ; and there are
several forms of consciousness each of which may be designated
a ' process of thought ' whenever it takes place as a fact. To
every separate state of consciousness which takes part in a
process of thought as a functional state, either in the subjective
form of the stream of being, or in the objective form of a consci-
ous act of mind or thought, there are three phases - genesis

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22 8 Arrais of tle Èhotidorlcar Orùtital Resimeli Institute
(uppâda), development ( thiti ), and dissolution ( bhanga )- each

of which is explained and discussed by the author in his Manual
in all their processes and stages.
The possibility of the 'înternal ' presentation of all the six

classes of objects mentioned above is that
%eÄiöÄopDernd a sensation can be experienced, the Bud-
( Suddha-manodvSra- dhists believe, without the corresponding
vithi )
objective stimulus. The possibility of
Beflection proper is attributed to the relation termed ' proximate
sufficient cause ' by virtue of which ( a ) a sense impression once
experienced in a sense cognition by way of the five doors, or ( b )
a previous experience of all internal intuition or cognition by
way of the mind-door or ( c ) the idea once formed in the
sequels of either, can never be lost. There are different processes
of reflection in connection with Things Seen ( dittha ). But when
an objeot that has not been actually sensed is constructed out of,
and connected with these seen objects, it is termed ' object asso*
oiated with things seen ' ( ditthi-sambandha ). And the process
of thought connected therewith is classed in the category of
objects associated with things seen. The objeot constructed out
of and connected with Things Heard ( suta object ) is termed
' objeot associated with things heard ' ( suta-sambandha ). Any
objeot constructed out of Things Cogitated ( viññata ) and con-
nected therewith is termed 1 associated with things cogitated '
( viññata-sambandha ). AnT objeot in the category of Things
Seen, Heard or Cogitated may either be past, present or future.
When it is present, it is intuited as a vivid reality. The same
forms hold good for all kinds of thought or reflection.
How is memory possible, if the object be not the same for any
two consecutive moments in life. The
Mp™rsonaïuy!h8n8ing answer is given in detail by the author.

Eaoh mental state is related to the next in
at least four different modes of relation ( paocaya ) : - Proximity
( anantara ), Contiguity ( samanantara ), Absence ( natthi ), and
Abeyance '( avigata ). This four-fold relation is understood to
mean that eaoh expired state renders service to the next In
other words, eaoh, on passing away, gives up the whole of its .

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Non-Canonical Pali ÍÀteraturê 1¿9
energy to its successor : and this is how the memory iß helped

and retained.
The stage of apperception pertains to that active side of an

existence ( kamma-bhSva ), which deter-
ThperoepTiÄejtvina" mines the passive side ( upapatti-bhãva )
of the next existence. The apperoeptional
act is thus a free, determining, casual act of thought, as dis-
tinguished from the mental states, whioh are fixed, determined
and resultant acts ( vipãka ) of kamma. Volition, under favourable
oircumstanoes, is transformed into kamma. But volition (cetanã )
in apperception on occasion of sense ( paüca-dvärika-javana )
cannot possibly become kamma. Hence we must look to the
volition involved in reflective or representative apperception
( manodvärika-javana ) for kamma, which according to the
different characters of volition is classed in different types or
varieties with distinct characteristics.
Interesting though is the phenomenon of dream, it is conspi-

cuous in the Ábhidhammattha-saňgaha by
Dream Consciousness a^sence> Scattered references and some-
times systematic explanations have here and there been made in
Buddhist works regarding forms of dream-thought, dreams-classi-
fied, theories of dreams, relation of dreams, relation of dream to
sleep, etc.
The first essential qualification of the process of thought

transition from the normal to the super-
Higher conscioasness normal is ' purity of virtue or morals'.
or rupacitta
The next is meditation and concentration
of thought. There are four momente of apperception during
transitional stage from normal to super-normal conscious
The first is termed 1 preparation ' the second ' success ' whi
followed by the third called ' adaptation ' After the last mome
of 4 adoption ' normal consciousness is cut off by the super-nor
and the transitional stage is superseded by the latter, know
the first Jhäna, and for one thought-moment, the person attain
it experiences ecstacy. Attainment in Jhãna is thus a v
important psychological moment, marking an epoch in
mental experience for the person who succeeds in comman
5 [ Annals, B. O. R. I. ]

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Í30 Annoia of th « Bhandorhar Oriental Research Institute
it. Jhäna is usually classified in five stages, and in the Fifth

stage ecstatic concentration reaches its full development with the
help of the continued voluntary exercise of the mind on an after-
image to which it has been direoted.
To attain super-intellectual powers ( abhiññá ) for an adept in

the Fifth Jhäna, it will be necessary for
Mental training and u . . ,, , , . ,
iddhi-psda him u . to . go through
training in fourteen processes. Super-
normal powers of will or Iddhi-vidhs may then be developed by
means of the so-called four bases of Iddhi which involve respec-
tively the development of Four dominant or predominant princi-
ples of purpose, effort, knowledge and wisdom. There are ten
classes of Iddhi known to Buddhism, the last three of which
constitute the Iddhi-vidhä, and are used as a basis for the
willing process.
With a slight difference in procedure in mental attitudes and

mood of thought, the same forms of the
ArupaJhsnas transitional, inductive, or sustained and
retrospective processes of Fifth-rüpa Jhäna obtain in the case of
the Four Arüpa Jhänas. When an adept in the Fifth Bõpa-
Jhäna, who has repeatedly induced the same through any one of
the ten circles, with the exception of space, erroneously believes
that all physical pain and misery are due to the existence of the
body, and reflects on the relative grossness of this jhäna, he
wishes to attain the first arüpa- jhäna, which he considers to be
very calm and serene.
A person who wishes to transcend the experience of this oon-

dioned world must first of all cultivate
Way to emancipation « pUry.y 0f vjewg • or ditthi- visuddi. Next
he must cultivate in succession, ' purity of transoending doubt '
or Kankhä-vitarana-visuddhi, 'Ten modes of Insight' or Vipa-
ssanâ-ããnas or in other words the contemplative insight, enu-
merated and explained in the Text. All these ten kinds of
insight are oollectively termed ' purity of intellectual culture '.
The matured insight of equanimity reoeives the speoial designa-
tion of ' insight of discernment leading to uprising', because it
invariably leads to the Path, conoeived as a 'Rising out of It

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Non-Canomcaì Pali Literatur» 131
is also styled as the ' mouth or gate of Emancipation ' ( V

mukha ).
Emancipation has a triple designation, namely the ' Signless '

or animitta, the ' Undesired ' or appanihita,
Emancipation and the ' void ' or suññatá. Emancipation
itself, whether of the Path, the Fruit, or Nibbäna, also receives
the same triad of names, according as it is preceded by the con-
templation of things by 'ûprising discernment ' as either im-
permanent, or evil, or substantial.
The purity of insight whioh is the gateway of Emancipation

is also called Path-insight. One who has
Path Consciousness attained perfect purity of insight cuts off
the heritage of the average man and evolves the lineage of the
Transcendental. It is followed by a single moment of Path-
Consciousness by which the first of the Four Noble Truths is
clearly discerned. Error and doubt are got rid of, Nibbãna is
intuited, and the eightfold Path-constituents are cultivated.
These four simultaneous functions correspond to the Four Noble
Truths. Just like the Four Noble Truths, there are four stages
of the Path, which are called Four Paths. The attainer of the
first is7termed Sotäpanna who will have as yet to undergo seven
more rebirths in the Kãmaloka 5 the attainer of the second is
termed SakadãgamI who will have one more such rebirth. But
the complete destruction of these two does not permit of another
rebirth in the case of the Anãgãmí or Never returner of the Third
Path. The wisdom pf the Highest or Supreme Path is the same
mental order of intelligence developed into the Perfected view of
the highest order and is the last stage of ' purity of insight '
Death is assigned to one of four causes : ( 1 ) the exhaustion

of the force of the reproductive ( janaka )
Death kamma that has given rise to the existence
in question, ( 2 ) the expiry of the maximum life-term possible
for this particular generation, ( 3 ) the combination of bofch these
causes, ( 4 ) the action of a stronger arresting Kamma that
suddenly cuts off the reproductive kamma before the latter 's
force is spent or before the expiry of the life-term.

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132 Annoia of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
The decease of the Arhant is acoording to Buddhist philosophy,

the Final Death. If the Arhant be of the
Final Death class known aB ' dryvisioned ' ( sukkha-
vipassaka ) who does not practise JhSna, his final death, which
takes place on the kãma plane, occurs after apperception or
retention of impressions. If he be proficient in Jhäna, final death
may ocour ( a ) after sustained Jhãna ; or ( b ) after apperception
in subsequent retrospect ; or ( c ) after the moment of ' super-
intellectual ' knowledge ( abhiññá ) ; or finally, (d) after retros-
pection following the attainment of the Topmost Fruit.
The Nämarüpapariccheda is another Abhidhamma manual

written by A nuruddha Mahäthera. It con-
Nsmarupapancoheda g|Bj.8.0f ^885 stanzas dealing with name
and form.
The Nämarüpasamäsa was written by

NimarnpasamSsa Thera Khemãcariya mostly in prose. It
deals with citta and cetasikakathä.
The Sutta Samgaha is a later manual or compendium of select
suttas and is primarily intended for those
Sutta Sarfcgaha beginners who desire to have a knowledge
of the Fali scriptural texts in a nutshell.
The Paritta or Mahäparitta, a small collection of texts
gathered from the Suttapitaka, is more
Paritta
widely known by the Burmese laity of all
classes than any other Pali book. The Paritta, learned by heart
and reoited on appropriate occasions, is to conjure various evils,
physioal and moral. Some of the miscellaneous extracts that
make up the collection are of purely religious and ethical
character. The use of the Paritta is said to have had the
Buddha's sanction. The victory of the holymen was accomplished
by the Paritta ( Mabel Bode. The Pali Literature of Burma,
PP. 3-4 ).
The Eatnmavãoã 1 ( words of the act ) is an important Pali
text of which two manuscripts are avai-
ammavSoB lable. The first manuscript is a very
> 1 There is a collection of KammavScSs made by Herbert Baynes ( vide
J. R. A. S.t 1892i Art. III ). Headers' attention is also invited to

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handsome copy of the Kammavãcã in Burmese ritual or

seed letters printed with a thick blaok resinous gum on
leaves of royal discorded pasohs each leaf containing s
each side. It begins with upasampadä ( ordination
seoond manuscript consists of fifty-eight Talipat leave
lines in character which are midway between Burmese and
Kambodian. Like the first it begins with upasampadä. Kamma-
vãcãs are the set forms of proceedings followed or to be followed
by the members of the Buddhist Samgha convening a meeting or
a synod, in moving resolutions, in making proposals or amend-
ments or in accepting or rejecting them.
The Slmã-vivãda-vinicchaya-kathã which has been edited by

J. P. Minayeff for the P. T. S., London,
kath!aada V nlCOhaya" fr°m a Sinhalese manuscript, contains
some facts in the modern history of the
Buddhist Church which will be of interest to the students of
Pali literature. The language is not very easy and elegant.
There are prose and poetry portions in it.
The Ánãgatavamsa has been edited by Minayeff. The edition

is based on a Burmese manuscript, It
AnSgatavaifasa contains an account of the previous exis-
tence of Metteyyo with the three Buddhas, Sumitta, Metteyyo
and Mahutta. The poem is written in about 150 stanzas.
According to the Gandhavamsa, the original Anägata-vamsa was
the work of an elder named Kassapa.
"A New Kammavãcã " by T. W. Rhys Davids and G. L. M. Clauson,

and also to F. Speigel's Kammaväkya, Palice et Latine ed. vgl. ferner
Dickson, J. R. A. S., Vol. VU, New Series. Read Upasampadã-Kam-
mavScã, a Pali text with a translation and notes by J. F. Dickson,
J. R. A. S„ 1875. It is a Buddhist manual of the form and manner of
ordering of priests and deacons. In Burmese Pali collections we
find no less frequently than the Paritta of the laity, the; KammavãcS
of the mendicant order. These texts have a purely ecclesiastical use.
The Kammavãcã can of course be called literature but it must be
noticed as a text representing the immovable tradition of old days in
Burma. In the Kammavâcãs we find monotonous repetitions. The
language is rigid. ( Mabel Bode, The Pali Literature of Burma^
PP. 6-7),

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1S4 Annals of the Bhanáarhar Orientai Research Inetitute
The Jinaoarita is a Pali Kãvya consisting of 472 stanzas

setting forth in delightful verse the life
T^tsJaut1iarrita"" an(* career of the Conqueror or the Buddha
composed by -the Medhankara of Ceylon
while residing in a monastery built by King Vijayabahu. There
are at least four Medhankaras famous in the literary history of
Ceylon ; and historical evidence tends to show that the youngest
or the fourth in succession' was the author of the Jinaoarita. He
was called Vanaratana'Medhaùkarat and was also the author of
another Pali book ' Payoyasiddhi ' and flourished under
Bhuvaneka Bähu 1st ( 1277-1288 A. D.1 ). The mention of
Medhankara as the author of the Jinacarita is made in the
1 Saddhamma-sangaha ' and in the 4 Gandha-vamsa '
The style of the poem is a queer admixture of the weak and
prosy verses in some places, and of high
StpoetryngUage ^ poetic effusions in others. But the charm
of the poem lies in its higher style, in the
author's choice of graoeful, though sometimes forcible images,
and finally in the art of his descriptions and delicacy of his
expressions* The Jinacarita betrays at almost every page, the
intimate acquaintance of the author with classical Sanskrit
literature, so much so, that the principal interest with regard to
its style, lies in its sanskritisation.
The Jinacarita, however, throws no new light on the life of

the Master ; and we can hardly expect
Its importance such a thing from a purely devotional
work such ás this. It is primarily based on the N idãnakathã,
and it holds among the Buddhists of Ceylon, the same place that
the Buddhacarita and the Lalitavistara hold among the Northern
Buddhists. But what is strikingly -surprising is that the Jina-
carita is unknown both in Burma and Siam.
1 Jour. P T. S., 1904-5, p. IV, Note on Medhankara by T. W. Rhys

Davids. But Mon. Charles Duroiselle thinks that "the poem was
written in the monastery built by Vijayabâhu II, who ascended the
throne, in A. D. 1186 and was the immediate successor of the famous
King Parãkramabãhu, Jinacarita, p. iii ( Edited and translated by
C- Duroiselle, Rangoon, 1906 ). Read also " Jinacarita edited and
translated by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse in the J. P. T. S„ 1904-1905.

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Non- Canonical Pali Literature ÎS5
In the beautiful city of Amara, there] was a Brahman

wise and compassionate, handsome an
The Poem pleasant, by name Sumedha. Hank
after wealth and treasures he had none, for this bodily
frame he had no attachment. He, therefore, left his
pleasant house, went -to the Himalayas, and there dis-
covered the «ight implements necessary for an ascetic. He put
on the ascetic garb and within a week obtained the five High
Powers and the eight Attainments, enjoying the bliss of myfctic
meditation. One day he came down from the sky, and lay him-
self down in a muddy portion of a road through which the
Dlpaňkara Buddha with his disciples was to pass. He, the
Dlpatikara Buddha, was delighted at it, and foretold that the
ascetic Sumedha, in times to oome, should beoome a fully
enlightened Buddha, by name Gotama. Sumedha did him
homage, and then seated in meditation, he investigated those
conditions that go to make a Buddha. Sumedha, searching for
Nirvana, endured many hardships while going through the
oontinued succession of existences, fulfilling the virtue of charity.
He fulfilled, moreover, the Perfections of Morality, of Self-
abnegation, of wisdom, and all others, and oame to the existence
of Vessantara. Passing away thenoe, he was reborn in the oity
of Tusita, and afterwards had another rebirth in the city of
Eapila through the noble King Suddhodana, and his Queen Mäyä.
He approached the bosom of Mäyä, and at the time of his con-
ception, various wonders took place all over the world. In her
tenth month, while she was proceeding to the house of her
relative, she brought forth the sage in the Lumbini garden while
she kept standing under a Sàia tree catching hold of a branch.
The god Brahmä approached and received the child in a golden
net, the child that was born unsullied as a priceless gem. From
the hands of Brahma and the angels, he stepped on to the ground,
and gods and men approached and made offerings to him.
Accompanied by a concourse of gods and men, he went to
Kapilavastu and there a rejoicing of nature and men ensued for
days and nights. In the Tavatimsa heaven the hosts of angels
rejoiced and sported and predicted that he, the child would sit
upon the Throne of Wisdom and become a Buddha. The ascetic

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Kal&deva, the spiritual adviser of King Suddhodana, went to

the Tävatimsa heaven, heard the cause of their rejoicings, came
dorm to Suddhodana's palace and wanted to see the child. The
child was brought and instantly, the lotus-feet of the prince were
fixed on the asoetic's head. Upon this, both Kalâdeva and
Suddhodana reverenced the soft lotus-feet. A second act
reverence was done by Suddhodana and other men and women of
the royal house during the sowing festival when the child, the
Wise One, had performed a miracle. The prince then began to
grow day by day living as he did in three magnificent mansions
provided for him. One day as he came out on chariot on the
royal road, he saw in succession the representation of an old
man, of a diseased man and of a dead man. He then became free
from attachment to the three forms of existence and on the fourth
oocasion, delighted in seeing pleasant representation of a monk.
He then came back home and laid himself down on a costly
couch, and nymph- like women surrounded him and performed
various kinds of dances and songs. The sage, however, did not
relish them ; and while the dancers fell asleep he bent upon
retirement into solitude and free from attachment to the five
worldly pleasures, called his minister and friend Channa to
harness his horse. He then went to his wife's apartment and
saw the sleeping son and mother and silently took leave of them.
Descending from the palace he mounted his horse and silently
came out of the gate which was opened up by the gods inhabiting
it. Mãra then came to thwart him from going by saying that on
the seventh day hence, the divine wheel of a universal monarch
should appear unto him. But, he, the Wise of the World, did not
desire any sovereignty, but wanted to beoome a Buddha. Upon
this Mãra disappeared, and he proceeded towards the bank of the
river Anomã where he dismounted himself and asked Channa to
go back home with the horse and his ornaments. He then out off
his knot of hair with a sword ; the hair rose up into the air and
Sakra received it with bent head and placed it in a gold casket to
worship it. Next he put up the eight requisites of a monk and
having spent seven days in the Anupiya mango grove in the joy .
of having left the world, went to Räjagaha and made his round
for alms just enough for his sustenanoe. Leaving the town he

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Non-Canonical Pali Literature 137
went to the Pãndava mountain and took the food. He was

repeatedly approached by King Bimbisãra and offered the king-
dom, but he declined it; and retiring to a cloister practised un-
matched hardships, All this was of no avail ; he, therefore,
partook of material food and regaining bodily perfection, went
to the foot of the Ajapãla banyan tree where he sat facing the
east. Sujätä, a beautiful wöman, mistook him for a sylvan deity
and offered him a gold vessel of milk rice. The sage took it, and
having gone to the bank of the ÍTerañjara river he ate the food,
took his rest, and then in the evening went to the Bo-tree which
he circumambulated keeping the tree to his right- To his astonish-
ment, a throne appeared, on which he took hi6 seat facing the
east, and promised that he would give up his efforts to attain
Supreme Enlightenment even if his flesh, blood, bones, sinews
and skin dried up. On his head the Mahä-Brahmä held an
umbrella. Suyäma, the king of gods, fanned a splendid yaVs
tail, and god Pañcasikha, the snake king Kála and thirty-two
nymphs all kept standing and serving the Sage. Mära, then,
creating unto himself a thousand dreadful arms, and surrounding
himself by a manifold faced army, approached the Bo-tree- And
at his approach the gods made good their escape. Mara oreated
a terrific wind with a fierce roar, then the terrible torrent of large
rocks, and brought on a most dreadful darkness, but each in
suooession was of little avail. All these turned to good account
and the Blessed One did not even show any sign of consternation.
The Evil One then threw his disc, hurled rocky peaks, yet the
Unconquerable sat motionless as before. Baffled in his attempts
he approached the All- Merciful and asked him to rise from his
seat. The Blessed One enquired of the witness for his seat and
Mara, showing his army, told that they were his witnesses and
asked in his turn who had been the witness of Sidâhãrtha.
Siddhärtba then stretched his hands towards the earth and called
the earth goddess to witness. She gave forth thousands of roars
and Mara caught by the fear fled with his army. Having dis-
persed Mâra's hosts, he remained seated still on the immoveable
seat, and in his first watoh of the night obtained the exoellent
knowledge of the past, and in the middle watch the Eye Divine.
In the last watoh, he gained thorough knowledge of the conoate-
6 [ Annals, B. 0. B. I. [

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138 Aimais tf the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
nation of causes and effects, and at dawn he became perfectly

Enlightened Buddha- Yet he did not rise up from his seat, but
to remove the doubts of the gods remained" seated there for seven
days and performed a double miracle. Then after the investi-
gation of the Pure Law, he at the foot of the goat-herďs banyan
tree, caused to wither the face of Mara's daughter, and, at the
foot of the Mucalinda tree, caused to blossom the mind of the
snake-king. And, at last, at the foot of the Rãjãvatana tree, he
enjoyed the bliss of meditation. Then the king of the Law,
entreated by Brahma Sahampati, wanted to fill the world with
the free gift of the nectar of the Good Law. With this object,
he travelled to the splendid Deer Park where the sages and
mendicants built him a saint, and came to acknowledge him as
the Sanctified, the Perfectly Enlightened, the Tathägata. To the
Elders of the Park, he delivered a discourse on the establishment
of the kingdom of Truth, and dispelled their ignorance. He thus
set the Wheel of the Law in motion for the good of the world by
delivering the people from the mighty bond of transmigration.
On his way next to Uruvela, he gave to some thirty Bhadda-
vaggiya princes the immortal draught of the Three Paths; and
conferred on them the gift of ordination. He then went to
Latthivana Park and there presented King Bimbisära with the
immortal draught of true doctrine. Thence he proceeded to the
Velu vana Park and" dwelt there in a hermitage. Then King
Suddhodana, having heard that his own son had attained to
Supreme Knowledge, sent his minister Udäyi to bring his son
back to him. Udäyi came with a thousand followers and hearing
the Master preach renounced the world and entered upon the
path to sainthood. He then made known to the Master the desire
of Suddhodana to see him, and requested to preach the Law to his
kith and kin. The Buddha agreed to it and went to Kapilavastu
where he was worshipped by Suddhodana and his relatives. But
seeing that the young ones did not greet him, he performed a
miraole at the sight of which Suddhodana was filled with joy.
Then he went to the royal palace and preached the sweet
doctrines to the king and hundreds of fair royal women. Next
he extinguished the great grief in the heart of Bimba or Yaso-
dharã, his wife ; and ordained prinoe Nanda even before the three

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festivals, marriage, ceremonial sprinkling and enteri

house, had taken place. When his own son Rãhula
next for the sake of an inheritance, the Wise One ord
too.
After this he went to Sltävana at Räjagaha where he preached

to a merchant of Sävatthl, named Sudatta, who attained the fruit
of the First Path. Sudatta then went back to Sävatthl, and there
seleoted a park of Prince Jeta for the residence of the Blessed
One. He ( better known as Anäthapindika ) brought this for a
orore of gold pieces for the Teacher's sake alone, and built there
a chamber and a noble monastery for the abode of the Master
and his followers. He also beautified it with tanks and gardens,
etc., and then inviting the Teacher to the spot dedicated to him
the park and the monastery. The Buddha accepted the gift and
thanked Sudatta for it, preaching to him the great benefit which
lies in the giving of monasteries.
Residing there, he spent his days going here and there and
beating the great drum of the Law. In the first season, he dwelt
in the Deer Park in the Benares city. In the second, third and
fourth seasons he dwelt in the lovely Yeluvana at Räjagaha. In
the fifth season, he made his abode in the great wood near Vesãll.
In the sixth, he dwelt on the great mountain Mamkala, and in
the seventh in the cool and spacious rocky seat of Indra. In the
eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth seasons, he dwelt res-
pectively in the delightful wood of Bhesakalä, in the Kosombl
silk cotton wood, in goodly Pãraleyya and in the Brahman villages
of Naia and Verañja. In the thirteenth season he lived on the
beautiful Cãliya mountain, and in the fourteenth, in fair and
lovely Jetavana. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteen-
th and nineteenth seasons, the Wise One made his abode respec-
tively in the great Nigrodha monastery on a large hill at Kapila-
vatthu in the city of Ãlavaka, in Räjagaha and twice on the
great mount Cãliya. In the twentieth season, he took up his
abode in Räjagaha ; and for the rest twenty-five years of his life,
he made his abode in Sävatthl and Jetavana. Thus for forty-
five years, the Blessed One preached his sweet doctrine, bringing
happiness to men, and freeing all the world and the gods from
the great bond of transmigration.

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140 Annals of the Ehandarkar Oriental Research Institute
The book ends with a prayer of the author in which he gives

out his pious wishes to be born in the Tusita heaven, to be born
contemporaneously with the Great Being, the future Buddha, to
be able to give food, drink, alms and monasteries to the Wise
One and so forth, and to become at last a Buddha himself.
The Telakatãhagãthã is a small poem in 98 stanzas on the

vanity of human life. It contains some of
Telakatãhagãthã fundamental doctrines of Buddhism.
The verses are written in chaste language. They represent the
religious meditations and exhortations of a great thera named
Kalyãniya who was condemned to be cast into a cauldron of
boiling oil on suspicion of his having been accessory to an intri-
gue with the Queen-consort of King Kalani Tissa who reigned at
Kelaniya in 306-207 B. C.1 The author of this work is un-
known. A careful study of the poem shows that the author was
well acquainted with the texts and commentaries of the Buddhist
scriptures. It is the only example of Sataka in Pali.
The Pajjamadhu is a poem composed of 104 stanzas in praise

of Buddha. Buddhappiya, a pupil of
Pajjamadhu Ananda, is the author of this work. He
is also the author of the Pali grammar knçwn as the Rüpasiddhi.
He is silent about the date of its composition. The author has
given us his name and pupilage in verse 103 of this poem. The
language is sanskritised Pali and some of the verses are puzzling.
There is a gloss in Sinhalese on the entire poem but it is verbose
and rather diffuse in its explanations. The first 69 verses de-
scribe the beauty of Buddha's person and the rest are in praise
of his wisdom, concluded with a panegyric on the Order and
Nirvana.
The Rasavâhinï is a collection of 103 tales written in easy Pali,

the first forty relating to the incidents
Rasavahmi which happened to Jambudlpa and the
rest in Ceylon. A Sinhalese edition of this work has been brought
out by M. S. Unnanse. The P. T. S. London, has undertaken to
bring out an edition of this work in Roman character. Its date
1 G. P. Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 162.

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NonC-anonical Pali Literature 141
is unknown but at the conclusion the author give

which helps us in determining it to be in all prob
first half of the 14th century A. Ď. It is considered t
sion of an old Pali translation made from an orig
tion by Ratthapäla Thera of the Mahävihära in Cey
the author of the Rasavãhinl gives us an account o
school to which he belonged ( Malalasekera, The Pali Literature
of Ceylon, p. 210). The late H. Nevili suggests that the
Sahassavatthu-ppakarana, still extant in Burma, formed the
basis for the Pali Rasavãhinl ( Ibid, p. 129 ). This work
throws much light on the manners, customs and social con-
ditions of ancient India and Ceylon. It contains materials of
historical importance and as such is widely read in Ceylon.
This work has been edited and translated by P. E. Pavolini
( Société Asiatica Italiana, 1897 ). There is a glossary on the
Rasavãhinl called the Rasavâhinïganthï.
Buddhist legends of Asoka and his times translated from the
Pali of the Rasavãhinl by Laksamana SästrI with a prefatory
note by H. C. Norman ( J, R. A. S., L910). Zwei Erzählungen
aus der Rasavãhinl, Von. Sten Konow ( Deutsche morgenlandis-
che Gesellschaft, Zeitschrift, Leipzig ). II settimo capitolo della
Rasavãhinl by P. E. Pavolini ( Société Asiatica Italiana, Giornale.
Firanze, 1895 ), should be consulted. Die Zweite dekade der Rasa-
vãhinl ( M & W Geiger ), München 1918, with translation
deserves mention.
The Saddhammopãyana has been edited by Richard Morris

for the P. T. S. London. It is a piece of
Saadhammopäyana poetry consisting of 621 stanzas and it
deals with the disadvantages of the ten akusalas ( demerits ), sins
( pãpa ), fruition of merit, advantages of charity, precept*, medi-
tation, approval, instructions, worship, refuges, exertions, etc.
The language is easy and intelligible.
The Pañcagatidlpana has been edited by M. Leon Feer ( J, P.

... T. S., 1884, pp. 152-161 ). It is written in
Pancagatidipana ... in l mi_ • i *
114 in stanzas. l This mi_ • work i furnishes *
an interesting piece of information regarding d
bañjiva, Kälasutta, Sanghäta, Roruva, Mah&roruva

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142 Annals of the Bhandarhar Oriental Resmrh Institute
tapa and Avici are the eight great hells. Those who kill and
cause living beings to be killed out of avarice, delusion, fear and
anger must go to the Sañjíva hell. For one thousand years they
suffer in this hell being subjected to continual torments without
losing life and consciousness. Those who cause injury or do
harmful deeds to friends and parents, speak falsehood and back-
bite others must go to the Kãlasutta hell. In this hell they are
cut to pieces with burning saws. Those who kill goats, sheep,
jackals, hares, deer, pigs, etc,, are consigned to the Sanghãta hell,
where they are huddled up in one place and then beaten to death.
Those who cause mental and bodily pain to others or cheat others
or again are misers have to go to the Roruva hell, where they
make terrible noise while being burnt in the tprrific fire of hell.
Those who steal things belonging to gods, Brahmans and pre-
ceptors, those who misappropriate the property of others kept in
trust with them and those who destroy things entrusted to their
care are cast into the Mahäroruva hell, where they make a more
terrible noise while being consumed by a fire fiercer than that
in the Roruva. Those who cause the death of living beings by
throwing them into the Davadaha fire, etc., have to go to the
Tapa hell, where they have to suffer being burnt in a dreadful
fire. Those who cause the death of beings by throwing them
into greater Davadaha fire must go io the Mahãtapa hell, where
they have to suffer still more by being burnt in a greater fire.
Those who injure men of great virtue and those who kill parents,
arahats, or preceptor must sink into the Avici hell, where they
suffer being burnt in such a terrible fire that would consume
even the hardest things. In this hell there is not a least wave of
happiness, it is therefore called the Avici or waveless. Besides
these hells, mention is made of a hell called the Patäpana, where
people suffer by being burnt in fires that are much more terrific
than those of the Tapa and Mahãtapa hells. Each hell has four
Ussadanirayas, viz., Milhaküpa, Kukkula, Asipattavana and
Nadi. Those who are in the Mahãniraya have to proceed to
Milhaküpa when released. In this terrible hell they are beaten
by a host of worms. Thence they go to Kukkula where they
are fried like mustard seeds on a burning pan. Coming out of
Kukkula they find before them a beautiful tree of fruits and
flowers where they shelter for relief from torments. As sooj* as

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they reach the tree they are attacked by birds of prey s

rultures, owls, etc. They are killed by these animals whic
make a repast on their flesh. Those who are traitors mus
the Asipattavana where they are torn and eaten up by bi
vultures, owls, etc. Those who steal money will also suf
this hell by being compelled to swallow iron balls and m
brass. Those who kill cows and oxen suffer in this hell by be
eaten up by dogs haying large teeth. Those who kill acq
animals will have to go to the fearful Vaitarani river wh
water is as hot as a molten brass. Those who prostitute ju
by accepting bribes will be cut to pieces in an iron wheel
who destroy paddy have to suffer in the Kukkula hell.
who cherish anger in their heart are reborn as swans and pi
Those who are haughty and angry are reborn as snakes.
who are jealous and miserly are reborn as monkeys. Those who
are miserly, irritable and fond of backbiting are reborn as tigers,
bears, cats, etc. Those who are charitable, but angry at the same
time are reborn as big Garudas. Those who are deceitful and
charitable are rebornas great Asuras. Those who neglect their
friends on account of their pride are reborn as dogs and asses
Those who are envious, cherish anger, or become happy at sight
of sufferings of others are reborn in Yamaloka and the demon
world. ( Cf. the description of hells in the Mãrkandeya Purãna ).

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Law NONCANONICALPALILITERATURE 1931

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NON-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE

Author(s): Bimala Churn Law

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41688230

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Research Institute, Poona

Vol. xttt ] January 1932 [ Part II

NON-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE

DR. Bimala Churn Law, m. a., Ph. d.. b. l.

The title Nëtlipakarana 1 as explained by Dhammapäla, means

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the methodical way of attaining textual knowledge. It contains

This treatise was translated into Burmese by Thera Mahãslla-

The Netti is essentially a Pali treatise on the textual and

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desanã (the method of instruction), vicaya (the

The five nayas consist of the following modes

The eighteen mülapadas comprise nine kusa

In the Niddesavãra, the reader is to expect nothing

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The treatise deals in detail with sixteen hãras in the specified

The Desanãhãra directs the reader to notice six distinctive

In the Vicayahãra the method of ruminating over the subjects

In the Yuttihãra we are introduced to the method of grouping

The Padatthãnahãra explains the doctrinal points by tl^eir

The Lakkhanahãra points out that when one of a group of

The Catuvyühahära unfolds the method of understanding the

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The Ãvattahãra aptly illustrates with authoritative quotations

The Vibhattihãra explains the method of classifying Buddha's

The Parivattanahära contains an exposition of the method by

The Vevacanahãra calls attention to the dictionary method of

In the PaññattihSra it is stated that though the Dhamma is

In the section on Otarana the Netti illustrates how in the

The Sodhanahãra illustrates the method by which the Buddha

The Adhitthãnahãra explains in detail the method of determin-

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In the Parikkhärahära the Netti explains and exemplifies how

We come at last to the section called the Samäropanahära.

Hära Sampäta is a division which is dependent on the hära as

This division like the preceding one consists of sixteen parts

In the Hära Sampäta the commentator Dhammapäla has added

Desanä hära Sariipäta - In this division it is laid down that

Vicaya hära Sampäta - In this section it is laid down that

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offence that may be possible. But the latter cannot, lhe

In the Yutti-hãra-sampãta it is stated that sloth, stup

In the Padatthãna-hãra and Lakkhana-hära-sampäta, the

The various asavas ( sins ) are next described. The Bufferings

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the four Jhänas, the four essentials ( sammappadhãnas ), the four

Buddhas, Paooeka-Buddhas, the disciples, and all those who

Now turning to the fourth division, the Sãsanapatthãna, we

Various padas, slokas and texts are cited while explaining

The eighteen main padas are those which are worldly

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texts and it does not enter deep into philosophical or logical

The Petakopadesa is another treatise on the textual and the