Todays Topics

I Modulators
I Typical Radio Receivers
I Commercial AM
I Envelope detection
I AM power
I Single Sideband AM (SSB)
I SSB idea
I SSB generation
I SSD detection
Modulators
I There are lots of ways to make modulators
I Often the problem is how not to make a modulator, say when you are
designing an amplifier.
I We will look at some very common types
I Just about any non-linearity
I Multipliers such as choppers
Modulators Using Nonlinearities
Suppose we have the non-linear input-output characteristic:

y(t) = ax(t) + bx2 (t)

Let

x1 (t) = cos(2πfc t) + m(t)

x2 (t) = cos(2πfc t) − m(t)

Then, it we apply x1 (t) and x2 (t) to the non-linear modulator, and look at
the difference

y1 (t) − y2 (t) = a(cos(2πfc t) + m(t)) + b(cos(2πfc t) + m(t))2

− a(cos(2πfc t) − m(t)) − b(cos(2πfc t) − m(t))2
= 2a m(t) + 4b m(t) cos(2πfc t)

Convince yourself this is true!

From the previous page

y1 (t) − y2 (t) = 2a m(t) + 4b m(t) cos(2πfc t)

This has the term we want at ωc = 2πfc , plus another copy of the message
at baseband.
The unwanted baseband component is blocked by a bandpass filter. This
could be the antenna or the amplifier.
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ax() + bx2 ()
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m(t) +
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4b m(t) cos(2⇡fc t)
+
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cos(2⇡fc t)
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fc fc f
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ax() + bx2 ()
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+
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Or we can just forget about the baseband signal, it won’t propagate!

Switching Modulators
Multiply message by a simple periodic function.
Suppose w(t) is periodic with a fundament frequency fc :
∞
X
w(t) = Dn ej2πfc nt
n=−∞

This weighted sum of complex exponentials that are impulses at all

multiples of fc . Then
∞
X
m(t)w(t) = Dn m(t)ej2πfc nt
n=−∞

By the convolution theorem, the spectrum of m(t)w(t) consists of M (f )

shifted to ±fc , ±2fc , ±3fc , . . .
For example if w(t) is a 50% duty cycle square wave centered at t = 0,
∞
1 1 X 1 j2πfc nt
w(t) = + e ; n odd
2 π n=−∞ n
In general, the spectrum of m(t)w(t) is then

F{m(t)w(t)} = M (f ) ∗ W (f )
∞
X
= Dn M (f − nfc )
n=−∞

There are replicas at multiples of fc .

I can choose any of these provided Dn doesn’t happen to be zero.
The next page illustrates this modulation method
Switching Modulator

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m(t) <latexit sha1_base64="uMGQmAG6i/EC+jDx3h1tFLUtu10=">AAAB63icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBahXkoioh4LXrwIFewHtKFstpt26e4m7G6EEvoXvHhQxKt/yJv/xk2ag7Y+GHi8N8PMvCDmTBvX/XZKa+sbm1vl7crO7t7+QfXwqKOjRBHaJhGPVC/AmnImadsww2kvVhSLgNNuML3N/O4TVZpF8tHMYuoLPJYsZASbTLqvh+fDas1tuDnQKvEKUoMCrWH1azCKSCKoNIRjrfueGxs/xcowwum8Mkg0jTGZ4jHtWyqxoNpP81vn6MwqIxRGypY0KFd/T6RYaD0Tge0U2Ez0speJ/3n9xIQ3fspknBgqyWJRmHBkIpQ9jkZMUWL4zBJMFLO3IjLBChNj46nYELzll1dJ56LhXTW8h8ta0y3iKMMJnEIdPLiGJtxBC9pAYALP8ApvjnBenHfnY9FacoqZY/gD5/MHJ2SNmg==</latexit>

M (f )

t f
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W (f )
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w(t)

t f
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m(t)w(t) M (f ) ⇤ W (f )
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t fc fc f
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Typical Radio Receiver
Assume we want to listen to a radio signal at fc . This is a typical receiver.

RF Filter ⇥ IF Filter ⇥ Detector

fc fI fI

The input RF at fc is mixed down to a fixed intermediate frequency fI

I RF filter is not very selective
I First modulation frequency is adjustable
I The IF filter is selective
I Everything from the IF filter onward doesn’t change with tuning
Typical Radio Receiver Spectrum
The spectrum of the signals in the receiver look like this:

RF Filter

fc fc f
IF Filter

fI fI f

Baseband

The RF filter selects some part of the band of interest, while the IF filter
selects the signal you are interested in.
For your SDR, you can sample directly instead of the IF filter, and do the
rest in software.
Frequency Translation
The key to this receiver is being able to translate signals in frequency.
Sub-Heterodyne Super-Heterodyne

fc ⇤ fc f fc ⇤ fc f

(fc fI ) = fc fI f (fc + fI ) = fc + fI f

f
(2fc fI ) fI fI 2fc fI f (2fc + fI ) fI fI 2fc + fI

I To help keep track of what is happening, one of the bands has been
shaded gray. In fact, both are the same.
I Both produce the same IF signals.
AM Modulation
AM modulation is a form of amplitude modulation. For µ > 0,
s(t) = (Ac + m(t)) cos(2πfc t) = Ac (1 + µm(t)) cos(2πfc t)
We need bandwidth of m(t)  fc and modulation index µ < 1.
Spectrum of modulated signal:
Ac Ac µ
S(f ) = (δ(f + fc ) + δ(f − fc )) + (M (f + fc ) + M (f − fc ))
2 2
Ac ( (f ) + µM (f ))

fc fc f
Ac Ac
( (f + fc ) + µM (f + fc )) ( (f fc ) + µM (f fc ))
2 2

fc fc f
DSB-SC vs. AM
DSB-SC modulated signals undergo phase reversal when m(t) changes sign.
It is difficult to extract carrier from received signal.

0.5

−0.5

−1

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0.5

−0.5

−1

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

DSB-SC vs. AM (cont.)
In AM, the carrier signal is modulated by Ac + m(t) = Ac (1 + µm(t)).
Examples: µ = 1 and µ = 0.5.
k =1
a
2

−1

−2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

ka = 0.5
1.5

0.5

−0.5

−1

−1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Envelope Detection of AM Signals
The term detection means extracting signal from received data. In some
cases it means demodulation.
Suppose that a signal x(t) can be written as
x(t) = E(t) cos(2πfc t)
where E(t) varies slowly compared to the carrier cos(2πfc t).
Then |E(t)| is called the envelope of x(t).
For envelope detection to work, we need
I fc  bandwidth of m(t)
Otherwise positive and negative spectral components overlap.
I A + m(t) ≥ 0
Otherwise phase reversals occur when A + m(t) < 0.
Modulation index
The maximum deviation of m(t) from zero is
mp = max(|m(t)|)

The modulation index of the modulated signal is defined by

mp
µ=
A
Larger modulation index reduces power but makes demodulation harder.
Broadcast AM stations use modulation index close to 1. Input signals are
controlled using automatic gain control (AGC).
Envelope Detector for AM
Rectify the RF signal, then lowpass filter:

+
+ [A + m(t)]
[A + m(t)] cos(ω0t) C R

Full Wave Rectifier Lowpass

Filter

[A + m(t)] [A + m(t)] cos(ω0t) [A + m(t)] [A + m(t)] |cos(ωct)|

t t

[A + m(t)]
AM Demodulation Experiment
1 −t/RC
m(t) = cos 2πt , fc = 10 , h(t) = e u(t)
RC
2 2

1 1.5

0 1

−1 0.5

−2 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0.7 0.3

0.6 0.2

0.5 0.1

0.4 0

0.3 −0.1

0.2 −0.2

0.1 −0.3

0 −0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Cat’s Whiskers (Crystal) Radio
This radio was powered only by received radio energy.

The point-contact semiconductor detector was subsequently resurrected around World War II
because of the military requirement for microwave radar detectors.
Power of AM Signals
The power of an AM signal is the sum of the power of two components.
ϕAM (t) = (A + m(t)) cos(2πfc t) = A cos(2πfc t) + m(t) cos(2πfc t)
| {z } | {z }
carrier sidebands

The carrier and sideband signals are orthogonal, so powers add. Carrier
power is Z T
2 1
Pc = A cos2 (2πfc t) dt = A2
0 2
Signal power after modulation is 1/2 the original message power
Ps = 12 Pm ,
where message power is average power as T gets large,
1 t0 +T 2
Z
2
Pm = m (t) = m (t) dt
T t0

E.g., the power of a tone cos(2πfm t) is 12 .

Power of AM Signals (cont.)
The carrier tone simplifies demodulation but carries no information.
The power efficiency is defined by
useful power Ps m2 (t)
η= = =
total power Pc + Ps A2 + m2 (t)
Examples: tone modulation m(t) = µA cos(2πfc t) where 0 < µ ≤ 1.
1 2
2 (µA) /2 µ2
η= =
A2 /2 + 12 (µA)2 /2 2 + µ2
The efficiency increases with µ; the maximum value is 1/3.
Efficiency falls off rapidly as µ decreases. For µ = 0.5,
(0.5)2 1
η= 2
=
2 + (0.5) 9
AM is inefficient in both power and bandwidth.
Single Sideband (SSB)
DSB-SC is spectrally inefficient. It uses twice the bandwidth of the
message.
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M (f ) M (f + fc ) M (f fc )

f fc fc f
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The signal can be reconstructed from either the upper sideband (USB) or
lower sideband.
SSB transmits a bandpass filtered version of the modulated signal.
Single Sideband (cont.)

Double Sideband
fc fc f
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Upper Sideband
fc fc f
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Lower Sideband
fc fc f
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Single Sideband Modulation and Demodulation
I SSB can be transmitted using a DSB-SC modulator with a narrower
bandpass filter. For USB, center frequency is
f˜c = fc + 12 B
and cutoff frequency is B/2.
The bandfilter must roll off quickly to eliminate unwanted contributions
from the other sideband.
Message frequencies near 0 will be affected by the nonideal filter.

I SSB demodulation can use a DSB-SC demodulator with no change.

The input to the lowpass filter is different from that of DSB-SC.

Which SSB Sideband?
I Transmitter and receiver must agree on use of LSB vs. USB.
I SSB is common for amateur radio
I Below 10 MHz : LSB
I Above 10 MHz : USB
I Exception for 5 MHz :USB
I Exception for digital modes : USB
I SSB also common for shortwave
I 120m (2300-2495 kHz): LSB
I 90m (3200-3400 kHz): LSB
I 75m (3900-4000 kHz): USB
I 60m (4750-5060 kHz): LSB
I 49m (5900-6200 kHz): USB
I 41m (7200-7450 kHz): USB
Your radio knows!
SSB Modulation

M (f ) HSSB (f ) Single Sideband

Filter

fc fc f

MSSB (f ) Single Sideband

Signal
fc fc f
MSSB (f fc ) Modulate to
Carrier
fc fc f
1 ⇤ 1
M ( (f fc )) MSSB (f fc )
2 SSB 2 Take Real
Part
fc fc f
SSB Demodulation
To decode the SSB signal, we just reverse the operations

S(f ) Received
Spectrum
fc fc f
1
S(f + fc ) Demodulate to
2
Baseband
fc fc f
1 ⇤ 1
S ( (f + fc )) S(f + fc ) Take real
2 2
part
fc fc f

I Ideally we want a synchronous demodulator

I In practice, fc is estimated by the sound of the signal
I An error of 50 Hz is quite noticeable
SSB in Time Domain
The upper sideband is the output of filtering a modulated
signal m(t) cos ωc t with an ideal bandpass filter:
(
2 f >0
HSSB (f ) =
0 f <0

This is
HSSB (f ) = 2u(f )
This looks like
2 HSSB (f )
M (f )

fc fc f

The impulse response of this filter is

hSSB (t) = F −1 {2u(f )}

Hilbert Transform
We know
1 1
u(t) δ(f ) +
2 j2πf
so by duality, and multiplying by 2
j
δ(t) + 2u(f )
πt
The impulse response of the filter is
j
hSSB (t) = δ(t) +
πt
If m(t) is the input signal, the single sideband signal is
   
j 1
m(t) ∗ hSSB (t) = m(t) ∗ δ(t) + = m(t) + j m(t) ∗
πt πt
The last term is the Hilbert transform of m(t)
1
mh (t) = m(t) ∗
πt
Hilbert Transform
The transfer function of the Hilbert transform is
(
−j = f > 0
HHT (f ) = −j sgn(f ) =
j= f <0

which looks like

j HHT (f )

fc fc f
j

What happens if m(t) = cos(2πf t), or m(t) = sin(2πf t)?

The block diagram is

m(t) 1 m
SSB (t)
+
j
⇤hHT (t)