LD2668R4CE1987M54

METHODS FOR DETERMINING SHEAR STRENGTH
OF SOILS AND THE LIMITATIONS AND/OR

ADVANTAGES OF THE VARIOUS TESTS
by
Amit Mukherjee
B.E., Calcutta University, India, 1983
A MASTER'S REPORT
submitted in partial fullfilment of the
requirements for the degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Civil Engineering
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Manhattan, Kansas
1987
Approved by:
jor Professor
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OVERVIEW 1
1.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE 2
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 3
CHAPTER 3. DISCUSSION 7
3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES RELATING TO FRICTION

BETWEEN SOLID BODIES 7
3.2 TOTAL SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOIL 11
3.3 SHEARING RESISTANCE AND STRENGTH 12
3.4 COULOMB'S EQUATION 15
3.5 PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS 18
3.6 MOHR THEORY OF FAILURE 22
3.7 STRESS-STRAIN CHARACTERISTICS DURING

SHEAR 26
3.8 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS DURING SHEAR 27
3.9 PORE PRESSURE PARAMETER A 28
CHAPTER 4. SOIL TESTS 33
4.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING SHEARING

STRENGTH 33
Page
4.2 TESTS FOR MEASURING SHEAR PROPERTIES

OF SOILS 34
4.2.1 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST . 35
4.2.2 VANE SHEAR TEST 37
4.2.3 THE 'DUTCH' CONE PENETROMETER

TEST 40
4.2.4 PRESSUREMETER 41
4.2.5 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 43
4.2.6 THE TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST 46
4.2.6.1 Principle of the Triaxial

Compression Test . 52
4.2.6.2 Methods of Triaxial Testing 56
4.2.6.3 Stress condition in specimen

during Triaxial Compression
Test 58
4.2.6.4 Application of the Triaxial

Test to the principle soil
types 59
4.2.6.4.1 Undrained tests on saturated

cohesive soils . . . 60
4.2.6.4.2 Undrained tests on partly

saturated cohesive
soils 61
4.2.6.4.3 Consolidated-undrained tests

on saturated soils . 62
4.2.6.4.4 Drained tests 63
4.2.7 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST 66
ii
Page
4.2.8 APPLICATION OF THE TRIAXIAL TEST TO

THE SOLUTION OF ENGINEERING
PROBLEMS 69
4.2.8.1 Analysis in which pore pressure is

an independent variable . 69
4.2.8.2 Analysis in which pore pressure

is a function of the stress
change 71
4.2.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE TRIAXIAL

COMPRESSION TEST 74
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY 99
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 101
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
4.1 Relation of Consistency of Clay,

Number of Blows N on sampling
Spoon, and Unconfined Compression
Strength 77
4.2 Sizes of Penetrometer needles 77
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.No. Page
3.1 (a,b,c) Friction on Horizontal Surface 78
3.2 Modes of Failure in Soils

1-brittle failure, 2-deformation, 3-no
proper deformation, 4-maximum failure load
and ultimate values are different . 78
3.3 Shear Pattern

a. Single Slip Line
b. Family of Slip Lines 78
3.4 Graph of Coulomb Formula for shearing

strength of soils 79
3.5 a. Relationship between major and minor

principal stresses in the case of
failure 79
b. Envelope of Mohr's circles: 1-5 =
Mohr's circles 79
3.6 Mohr Diagram for Normal and Shearing

Stresses 80
3.7 Graph of q...(5 vs. axial strain for undrained

test on a compacted fill material . 80
3.8 Graph of volumetric strain vs. axial

strain for undrained test on compacted
fill material 80
3.9 Stresses on a compressible, isotropic

soil element 81
3.10 Stress change stages in the Triaxial

test. 81
4.1 Standard Split Barrel Sampler Assembly 82
4.2 Relation between relative density, and ,
N obtained from the Standard Penetration

Test 82
4.3 Chart for correction of N values in sand for

influence of overburden pressure 83
Fig.No. Page
4.4 Design chart for proportioning shallow

footings on sand 84
4.5 Relationship among Standard Penetration

Resistance, relative density, and effective
overburden pressure for coarse sand 85
4.6 a. Vane Shear Test Apparatus 86

b. Geometry of Field Vane 86
4.7 Assumed distribution of shear stress on

side surface and ends of soil cylinder
in the Vane Shear Test 86
4.8 Soil Penetrometer 87
4.9 The Portotype Fugro Full Displacement

Pressuremeter (FDPM) 87
4.10 Set-up for prototype FDPM testing 88
4.11 Direct Shear Stress Test Apparatus . 89
4.12 Schematic Diagram of the Direct Shear

Test 89
4.13 Failure envelope for clay obtained from

the Direct Shear Test 90
4.14 Direct Shear Test Methods:

a. Stress-control method 90
b. Strain-control method 90
4.15 Schematic illustration of Triaxial

Compression Cell 91
4.16 Shear stress vs. normal compressive stress

relationships for the three types of
soils 91
4.17 Graph of Coulomb Equation for shearing

strength of soil 92
4.18 Principle of the Triaxial Compression

Test 92
vi
Fig.No. Page
4.19 a. Physical representation of stressed
sample 93
b. Mohr's circle representation of the same
stressed sample 93
4.20 Stress representation by p and q 94
4.21 Stress condition and failure envelope

generated from the Triaxial Compression
Test 95
4.22 Total stress Mohr's circles and failure

envelope ( 0 = 0) obtained from
unconsolidated-undrained triaxial
tests 95
4.23 Total stress failure envelope for

undrained test on partly saturated cohesive
soils 96
4.24 Total and effective stress failure

envelope for consolidated-undrained triaxial
tests 96
4.25 Effective stress failure envelope from

drained tests in sand 97
4.26 Failure envelope from Unconfined

Compression Test 97
vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Shear strength, compressibility, shrink-swell beha-
vior, and permeability are among the most important as-
pects of soil behavior in determining the suitability of
soils for engineering purposes. Significant changes occur

in the above-mentioned soil properties over time. This
makes soils all the more difficult and interesting to work
with. The engineer soon learns that soil is not inert but
alive and sensitive to its environment.
In a laboratory test the specimen is intended and
generally assumed to represent an undisturbed portion of

soil at a single point in a soil medium. The validity of
this assumption depends on the uniformity of the soil and
of the stress and strain distributions within the soil
samples. Separate measurements are often made for the soil
phase, the water phase, and sometimes the air phase of the
specimen in order to relate their individual contributions
to the strength of the mass.
Two basic problems exist in present-day soil analysis.
These are:
1
1. The effects of unloading the samples taken from
depths below the surface as the sample is brought to the
surface and removed from the sampler.
2. Changes in the moisture content that may occur in the

soil strata after construction is complete and the effects
these changes will have upon the strength and compressibi-
lity of the soil mass.
Simplistic soil tests such as the Standard Penetration
Test, and the Vane Shear Test can only predict a shear
value for the conditions at which the test is conducted.
1.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
It is the purpose of this report to discuss the
various methods used for the determination of the shear
strength of soil and the limitations and/or advantages of
the various tests.
The scope of the paper is limited to a study of
the existing literature with the author's interpretation
based on experience and classwork at Kansas State Univer-
sity. The interested reader can refer to "The Measurement
of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test" by A.W. Bishop and
D.J. Henkel for more details on the principles and develop-
ment of the triaxial test over the years.
2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Although in-situ conditions are usually anisotropic,

isotropic conditions were generally assumed in routine
triaxial compression testing of naturally sedimented and
compacted soils. The reason generally given for this
testing inconsistency is that anisotropic conditions re-
quires complicated procedures and extra periods of time.
Tests measuring the stress-strain characteristics of ani-
sotropically consolidated soils are very different from
those determined on the same soil using isotropic consoli-
dation.
Early investigations by Rendulic(16) indicated that
the change in water content during consolidation and
stress paths during shear are the same in consolidated
undrained tests (CU) performed on both isotropically con-
solidated (ICU) specimens and anisotropically consolidated
undrained (ACU) specimens, provided that the vertical
consolidation stress 01 is the same in both cases. This
theory was emphasised by Taylor(1) and later confirmed by
Henkel(1).
Based on this, Skempton and Bishop(1) assumed that the
pore pressure parameter A at failure, A , and the effec-
tive angle of internal friction, q) , are constant and are
3
not influenced by the effective consolidation ratio, Kc. ,
where Kc= and 5 is the lateral consolidation stress.

(if
Rutledge(1) stated that the water content after conso-
lidation and the undrained strength Su are independent of K.

Broms and Ratnam(1) verified the Rutledge hypothesis, but
they based their conclusions on tests of compacted soils
having liquid limit, LL = 55% (prepared for testing by
passing premoistened soil through a sample extruder).
These tests showed that, apart from its dependence on gc,,
the Subi- ratio for ACU specimens was also a function of
the rate of strain during shear and also that If and the
axial strain values at failure were lower for ACU than for
ICU specimens. Whitman et al(1), testing a reconsolidated

clay of LL = 63% (prepared by consolidating a slurry in a
large consolidometer), reported that the ratio 5u/L.. may be

(it
independent of Kc, when the specimen has been brought close
to failure during consolidation. They also noted that for
a given value ofai , water contents were higher in ACU than
in ICU tests.
Donaghe and Townsend(1) conducted CU triaxial tests on
clay specimens to test the Rutledge hypothesis. In order
to simulate the response of naturally sedimented and con-
solidated materials, they trimmed the specimens from sam-
4
pies prepared by consolidating slurries of the material in
large diameter consolidometers.
These experiments yielded the following results:
1. The ACU specimens had higher water contents (lower

volume changes) than did ICU specimens for the same o-f .
2. For any given Q value, (ri-s),, generally decreased

with decreasing values of Kc. Conversely, for any
given water content, (p7-0]Ome04. is greater for ACU
than for ICU specimens.
3. Stress-strain characteristics were significantly

affected by IQ The axial strain values at (17-Ti),,,
.
generally decreased with decreasing values of Kc .
4. Induced pore pressures at Cc/7-490,4x decreased substan-

tially with decreasing values of Kc. ratios for a givenoi
value. Likewise, Af values were considerably lower
for ACU specimens.
5. Values of 0' taken at (5-) exhibit no effect of Kc .
3 )Tax.
6. However, values of O' taken at (c7-(5),,,,,Gdecrease when Kc

is decreased from 1.0 to 0.67 and increase when Kc is
decreased from 0.67 to 0.50.
Much work has been done on the development of true
triaxial testing facilities of geologic type materials.
This work has recently been given significant emphasis,
not only because processes in nature are inherently three
dimensional and should modelled as such, but also because
the wide use of powerful numerical methods has enabled
engineers and scientists to analyse structural and soil
structure systems with complex three-dimensional
5
geometries. The solutions obtained through these methods
are only as good as the description of the material
properties, usually given in the form of strength, stress-
strain relationships, time, and temperature-dependent
behavior.
It has been recognised for a long time that the inter-
mediate principal stress q(7 0iO3) has a pronounced
influence on the strength and deformability of soils.
However, the classical methods of analysis employing con-
stitutive relations have been restricted to the two-dimen-
sions containing the major and minor principal stresses
only. The solutions have traditionally been conservative.
6
CHAPTER 3: DISCUSSION
3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES RELATING TO FRICTION BETWEEN SOLID

BODIES (3)
Shear in soils is similar in many respects to the
widely observed phenomenon of friction between solid
bodies, although there are important differences between
the two subjects. Imagine a brick resting on a horizontal
table top, as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). The brick is in equi-
librium under its own weight W and the equal and opposite
reaction N provided by the table. Now, suppose that, as
indicated in Fig. 3.1(b), a horizontal Force Sa is applied
to the brick near the plane of contact between the brick
and the table. If this force is relatively small, the
brick will remain at rest and the applied horizontal force
will be balanced by an equal and opposite force Sr in the
plane of contact. This resisting force is developed as a
result of roughness characteristics of the bottom of the
brick and the table surface.
If the applied horizontal force is gradually increas-
ed, the resisting force will likewise increase, always
being equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
applied force. There is a limit, however, to the amount
of resistance which can be developed at the plane of
7
contact; and, when the applied force equals or exceeds the
maximum possible resistance, equilibrium will be destroyed

and the brick will move along the table top. This move-
ment or slippage is a shear failure. The applied horizon-
tal force is a shearing force and the developed force is
the friction or shearing resistance. The maximum shearing
resistance which the materials are capable of developing
is called the shearing strength.
When the shearing force is applied to the brick as in

Fig. 3.1, the resultant R of the shearing force and the
weight acts at an angle with the line of action of the

force representing the weight, which in this case is
normal to the shear plane. This angle, designated as ciC
in Fig. 3.1(b) is called the obliquity of the resultant or
simply the obliquity angle. When the shearing force is
increased to a value just equal to the shearing strength,
that is, when sliding or failure is impeding, the obliqui-
ty angle reaches its maximum value and is designated as4m

as in Fig. 3.1(c). The forces that are applied normal and
tangential to the shear plane are related to each other in
accordance with the following equations:
-tcic:C = NNI (3.1)
5a. = W tanoC (3.2)
8
In a similar manner, the reaction N to the weight of
the brick, which also acts nornal to the shear plane, may
be combined with the shearing resistance to obtain a
resultant Fe which makes an angle Od with the normal.
This angle is called the developed friction angle;

oc,
and it is equal to the obliquity angle 4 , since the
reaction is equal to the weight and the shearing resistan-
ce is equal to the applied shearing force. The angle 4,4
depends on the magnitude of the applied shearing force, as
long as this force is not sufficient to cause shear fai-
lure. However, when the applied shearing force is large
enough to cause failure, the shearing resistance has
reached its maximum possible value for the particular

materials involved. The angle 0,4 reaches its maximum value
at failure and this maximum value is designated as 0 , as
shown in Fig. 3.1(c). This limiting angle is called the
friction angle and constitutes a physical property of the
materials, which in this case are the brick and the table
top.
Likewise, if shear on an interior plane in a mass of
soil is considered, the angle 0 is a property of the soil
and the value of tom 4 is called the coefficient of
friction of the soil. This coefficient is here denoted by)U.
9
The value of ianci) is equal to the shearing strength of
the soil divided by the reaction normal to the shear plane.
Also it is equal to the shearing stress at failure divided
by the applied weight force per unit area normal to the
shear plane.
Thus:
40.'14 =AL = -5)141 = = tan QC," (3.3)
For example, if the friction angle # of a cohesion-
less soil is given as 200, it means that the soil is
capable of providing sufficient shearing resistance to
maintain equilibrium as long as the applied shearing force

produces an angle Oa less than 20°. When the applied
shearing force causes Oa to become equal to or greater
than 20°, shear failure will result.
The preceding discussion indicates that shearing
stress and strength attributable to friction can exist
only under the following conditions. First, there must be
a force normal to the plane on which shear is being consi-
dered; second, the material must exhibit friction charac-
teristics, that is, it must have a finite coefficient or
angle of friction. For example, if a quantity of clean,
dry, cohesionless sand is poured out on a level surface,
it will come to rest in a cone-shaped heap. The reason
10
sand can be piled up in this manner is because it has the
property of internal friction. It has a definite value of
the angle cp and is in equilibrium at a definite angle of
repose. In contrast to the sand, water has no shearing
strength, and its angle CP is zero. It flows freely
downhill under the influence of gravity because of this
fact. Furthermore, if a quantity of water is poured out
on a level surface, it will spread out in a very thin
layer and cannot be heaped up. Its angle of repose is
zero.
3.2 TOTAL SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOIL (3)
Some soils have a finite shearing strength even when
they are not subjected to external forces normal to a
shear plane. Furthermore, when soils of this kind are
subjected to normal forces, the shearing strength is not
increased. These are called cohesive soils; and their
shearing strength, which is independent of the normal
pressure, is called cohesion or no-load shearing strength.
Cohesion may be illustrated by considering two sheets of
fly-paper with their sticky sides in contact. Consider-
able force is required to slide one sheet over the
other, even though no normal pressure is applied. The
11
shearing resistance in this case is due to the cohesion
between the sticky surfaces. In contrast to this, shearing
resistance due to friction may be illustrated by conside-
ring two sheets of sand paper with their sanded surfaces in
contact. These may be very easily caused to slide over
each other when no normal force is applied. When a normal
force is applied, the resistance to sliding or the shearing
strength increases in direct proportion to the normal
force.
3.3 SHEARING RESISTANCE AND STRENGTH (3)
One of the most important tasks in the application of
soil mechanics to engineering problems is the study of
soil behavior under load. In the design of structures the
engineer relies upon the laws of applied mechanics and he
determines the stresses and strains in the structural
elements on the basis of a few physical characteristics of
the construction materials used. Steel is unique in this
respect in that it exhibits, within a well defined stress
regime, such simple mechanical properties that permit a
straightforward application of the theoritical analysis to
practical problems. The same applies to soils. As far as
soils are concerned, the theory of elasticity has a rather
12
limited scope. Therefore, problems of stability and
strength such as bearing capacity, earth pressure on re-
taining walls, safe angle of slope, etc., are usually
solved by limit-state stability analysis. This means that
in the study of load-bearing capacity, we determine,
regardless of the soil deformation, the ultimate pressure
that causes a slip failure beneath the foundation, and the
allowable soil pressure is then obtained by safety consi-
derations. There is hardly a problem in the field of soil
engineering which does not involve the shear properties of
soil in the same manner.
The term shearing strength means the maximum resis-
tance of soil to shearing stress. If external forces
surpass this internal resistance, a failure occurs.
The strength of a material is rather difficult to
define exactly, especially for soils. This difficulty
arises from the many ways in which soils may fail.
Failure may take the form of an abrupt brittle rupture or
of a plastic flow with large and continuous deformations.
Such differences in soil behavior are illustrated by
typical stress-strain curves as in Fig. 3.2. Curve 1
represents a brittle failure with a definite ultimate
strength value. In contrast to this, curve 2 exhibits no
marked rupture value but it approaches a rather vaguely
13
defined vertical asymptote. Curve 3 does not even have a
vertical asymptote, and failure cannot be defined at all.
Curve 4 shows the case where the peak and ultimate strength
values are different.
Failure itself may take place in two different ways.
In the first instance failure conditions are satisfied
only on a single surface known as surface of sliding or
surface of rupture whereas the rest of the soil mass
remains in the elastic state. In the second case an
entire mass of soil, or a part of it bounded by a surface
of sliding is in a state of rupture. Failure conditions
prevail at every point within the mass, and at least two
intersecting surfaces of sliding pass through every point.
Refer Fig. 3.3.
The deformations of large soil masses are mainly due
to the relative displacements between the particles. By
strength of earth masses is, therefore, primarily meant
the shearing strength. If only a single surface of sli-
ding exists(a, Fig. 3.3), shear deformations are confined
to that surface. In the second case(b, Fig.3.3) deforma-
tions develop within the entire mass in the state of
rupture. Shearing strength was previously defined as the
ultimate shearing stress on the surface of sliding. For
the second case of failure, however, this surface is
14
difficult to exactly define, and failure criteria must
therefore be given in terms of the principal stresses that
can yet be mobilized.
3.4 COULOMB'S EQUATION (3)
Most natural soils exhibit shearing resistance due to
both cohesion and friction. These components of strength
are found to exist in widely varying relationships,
ranging from zero cohesion in the case of clean, dry sand
to practically zero friction in the case of fine grained,
highly plastic clay. The cohesion and friction components
are added together to give the total shearing strength
properties of the soil. The shearing strength is expres-
sed by an emperical formula proposed by Coulomb. This
formula is:
S = c + Ntan (3.4)
in which,
S shearing strength
=
c cohesion
=
N pressure normal to shear plane
=
0 friction angle of soil
=
tanck =1/ = coefficient of friction
The Coulomb formula is an equation for a straight line
having an intercept on one coordinate axis. A typical
graph of the equation is shown in Fig. 3.4. in which unit
15
pressures normal to a shear plane are plotted as abcissas
and unit shearing stresses are plotted as ordinates. The
intercept at zero pressure represents the cohesion of the
soil, and the angle which the graph makes with the horizo-
ntal is the friction angle 4, . A graph of this kind is
called a shear diagram. If the graph is extended to the
left of the origin and the graph is prolonged to intersect
the horizontal axis, the distance from this point of
intersection to the origin may be thought of as an

internal initial stress which is inherent in the material
and is associated with the cohesion property. It is
analogous to molecular attraction in solid particles.
The correct definition of shearing strength of soil is
one of the most difficult problems in soil mechanics.
A part of this difficulty arises from the fact that
shearing strength is not an intrinsic property of a given
soil, but varies over a considerable range with varying
conditions, such as density, moisture content, and degree
of consolidation. This fact dictates the necessity of
testing the soil in the worst probable condition in which
it will exist in the prptotype soil mass that the test
sample represents. It is sometimes difficult to predict
this worst probable condition, and it is also difficult to
duplicate the condition in the test. Further difficulties
16
arise from the usual non-homogeneity of the soil masses
and the consequent uncertainty of obtaining representative
samples for testing. Moreover, the available methods of
shear testing require rigorous techniques. Nevertheless,
it is incumbent upon a soil engineer to make every
possible effort to obtain adequate and precise information
concerning the shearing strength of the soil, commensurate
with the nature and importance of the problem with which
he is associated.
17
3.5 PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS (1)
Triaxial tests can be run with or without the
measurement of pore water pressures. If pore water pres-
sures are not measured, the evaluation of shear strength
properties is on a total stress basis. With the measure-
ment of pore water pressures, the data can be evaluated on
an effective stress basis. It is always preferable to
evaluate shear strength characteristics on an effective
stress basis since this provides a better understanding of
the processes taking place within the soil specimen. If
for some reason it is not possible to measure pore water
pressures, a total stress analysis can be used; but the
laboratory testing should be such as to simulate the

loading conditions in the field. Volume change measure-
ments are very helpful with regard to the evaluation of
the triaxial test data. Such measurements can easily be
made on fully saturated samples of soil but are difficult
on partially saturated and dry samples. However, for the
optimum solution, triaxial tests should be conducted in
such a manner that measurements of pore pressure and
volume change are made in addition to the normal additions
of loads and deformations to which the samples are subjec-
ted.
The strength and deformation characteristics of soil
18
are best understood by visualising it as a compressible
skeleton of solid particles including voids which, in
saturated soil, are filled with water, or, in partly
saturated soil, with both air and water. Shear stresses
can of course be carried only by the skeleton of solid
particles. On the other hand, the normal stress on any
plane is, in general, the sum of two components - the
stress carried by the solid particles and the pressure in
the fluid in the void space.
This, from the practical point of view, has two impor-
tant consequences:
1. In the relationship between normal stress and volume

change, the controlling factor is not the total normal
stress, but the difference between the total normal
stress and the pressure of the fluid in the void
space, termed the pore pressure Gt. For an equal all-
.
round change in stress, this is expressed quantita-

tively by the relationship:
Ay
where
Ayv = change in volume per unit volume of soil,
dr = change in total normal stress,

4U.= change in pore pressure, and
Cc = compressibility of the soil skeleton
The difference Ot-U is termed the effective stress

and denoted by the symbol arl This relationship may
.
be illustrated as follows: a volume change will occur,

without any change in the applied or total stress, if
the pore pressure undergoes a change. This is the
primary cause of the long-term settlements of buil-
dings founded on clay, in which the excess pore pres-
sure set up during construction dissipates only at a
19
slow rate. It also explains the additional settlement
caused by ground water lowering, either for construc-
tion work or for water supply.
2. The shear strength of soil is largely determined by

the frictional forces arising during slip at the con-
tacts between the soil particles. These are clearly a
function of the component of normal stress carried by
the soil skeleton rather than of the total normal
stress.
For practical purposes, therefore, the Coulomb equa-
tion may be modified into:
S = c + (r- u) tan (3.6)
where
el = apparent cohesion,
= angle of shearing resistance,
(the above two parameters are in terms of effective stress.)
= total pressure normal to the plane considered, and

u = pore pressure
In most engineering problems relating to stability,
the magnitude of the total normal stress on a potential
slip surface may be reasonably estimated from statics
considerations. On the other hand, the magnitude of the
pore pressure is influenced by several factors. These
include the following:
1. In the case of stationary ground water, the magnitude

of the pore pressure is determined by the position of
the element of soil under consideration, relative to
the ground water level. Where approximately steady
seepage exists( for example, in natural slopes; and
in cuts and earth dams after the influence of the
pore-pressure changes has died out the pore pressure
)
20
is obtained from the flow net corresponding to the
known boundary conditions.
The pore pressure is thus an independant variable

and its magnitude is not related to that of the total
normal stress. The function of the triaxial test is
simply to obtain the relationship between shear
strength and effective normal stress.
2. A change either in the normal stress or in the shear

stress carried by the solid skeleton of the soil
results in a tendency for volume change to occur
within the soil mass. Unless the conditions for drai-
nage are such that the fluid in the pore space can be
freely expelled, an excess pore pressure will tempora-
rily result from the stress change. The rate at which
this excess pore pressure will dissipate depends prin-
cipally on the permeability of the soil. During this
period the pore pressure is a function of:
i. the initial stress change,
ii. the coefficient of consolidation, and
iii. the distance of the soil element from a surface

at which drainage can occur.
In such cases the laboratory test may be called on to
provide data not only on the relationship between shear
strength and effective stress, but also on the initial pore
pressure set up by a change in stress.
The use of the principle of effective stress in stabi-
ty analysis thus involves two steps; first, the determina-
tion of shear strength parameters CI and #' and, second,
the prediction of pore pressure at the most critical stage
either of construction, operation, or long-term stability.
21
3.6 MOHR THEORY OF FAILURE (5)
External loads in a solid body induce induce internal
stresses. When these stresses are increased to a
sufficient extent, they overcome the internal resistance
of the material thereby inducing failure, i.e., the body
actually ruptures or else it undergoes very large perma-
nent deformations. The stress at which failure occurs is
referred to as limiting stress. It is, of course, the
combined effect of all stress components acting at a given
point that produces failure conditions. However, one is
often faced with almost insurmountable difficulties to
exactly simulate actual and often very complex stress
conditions experimentally. It has therefore become neces-
sary to determine strength conditions by relatively simple
tests and, using the results obtained, predict the beha-
vior of materials subject to composite states of stress by
theoritical means.
Various theories have been developed relative to the
stress condition in engineering materials at the time of
failure. Each explains satisfactorily the actions of
certain kinds of material at the time they fail but no one

of them is applicable to all materials. The failure of a
soil mass is more nearly in accordance with the tenets of
the Mohr Theory of failure than with those of any other
22
theory, and the interpretation of the data of the triaxial
compression test depends to a large extent on this fact.
Failure conditions may be expressed, in a general way,
as a functional relationship between the three principal
stresses:
./(a-1,Cr2 ' Cri) ° (3.7)
Mohr's condition (5) defines the limiting condition as
follows. If the Mohr circles are plotted to represent
states of stress at failure, a common envelope can be
drawn to these circles. Its shape depends upon the mate-
rial. Supposing a Mohr circle intersects the Mohr enve-
lope, it would mean that the corresponding state of stress
is beyond the limiting state, but this is impossible. A
Mohr circle, in turn, that lies entirely below the enve-
lope indicates that failure condition has not yet been
reached. An essential assumption in the Mohr failure
theory is that the failure condition is independent of the
intermediate principal stress. Hence Eqn. 3.7 reduces to:
J('0-) =0 (3.8)
If we adopt the Mohr representation of state of
stress, then Eqn. 3.8 gives the equation of the Mohr
envelope.
It may be written in the form:
r f (r)
= (3.9)
23
The two expressions for failure condition (Eqns. 3.8 &
3.8) are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.5. In soil mec-
hanics a simplified form of the Mohr failure theory is
used, which assumes, after Coulomb, that the failure rela-
tionship r=f6dis linear.
According to the Mohr Theory, as in Fig. 3.6, a mate-
rial fails along the plane and at the time at which a
certain optimum combination of normal stress and shearing
stress occurs within a stressed body. This optimum combi-
nation of stresses is that which produces the maximum
obliquity0Cm of the resultant of the normal and shearing

stresses. In the Mohr diagram, the normal stresses are
drawn as abcissas and the shearing stresses as ordinates.

According to the Mohr Theory, the maximum obliquityo4nis
equal to the friction angled . The value of the obliqui-
ty angle oC can never exceed cergr.# without the occurance of
failure.
Normal and shearing stresses which yield plotted
points below the envelope represent stress situations
which do not produce failure. Points above the envelope
do not exist, since the material will fail before such
combinations of stresses can develop. In the case of
cohesionless soils, the envelope passes through the origin
representing applied stresses. For cohesive soils, the
24
envelope passes through the origin of total stress( ini-
tial plus applied ), and the ordinate for an applied
stress equal to zero represents the value of shearing
strength which is the cohesion of the soil. The principal
objective, therefore, of a triaxial compression test is to
establish the Mohr Envelope for the soil being tested.
It is interesting to note that the chord of a Mohr
circle representing the stress situation at failure, which
extends from the abcissa 05 on the horizontal diameter to
the point of tangency of the Mohr Envelope, is oriented so
as to be parallel to the failure plane in the material
The angle between this chord and the horizontal axis
represents the angle between the failure plane and the
maximum principal plane, which is a horizontal plane in
the triaxial test specimen. Therefore, when a specimen
fails in such a manner that the shear-failure plane can be
identified, the angle which it makes with the horizontal
should be measured and compared with the angle between the
chord and the horizontal on the Mohr diagram as a check on
the results.
The Mohr failure theory represents only one of the
general methods of defining the state of failure. It is
based on the assumption that failure occurs solely due to
slip. Failure is assumed to be independent of the defor-
25
mation charactersitics and the Poisson number of the
material. These are the essential features that make the
Mohr theory particularly suited to the study of soil
strength.
In the light of recent research, Mohr's concept does
certainly not mean the last word in strength theory, and
in many problems, it has proved inadequate in describing
the true behavior of materials. Yet, for engineering
purposes, it has become a very useful and dependable tool
in judging, by strength computations, the danger of fai-
lure in solid bodies under general stress conditions.
3.7 STRESS-STRAIN CHARACTERISTICS DURING SHEAR (1)
The stress-strain plots obtained from the triaxial
compression tests reveal the influence of relative density
and strain conditions on the stress-strain characteristics
of the soil tested. An increase in the initial relative
density increased the initial slope of the stress
difference 5.-ai versus the axial strain El , and also
increased the strength of the material, as in Fig. 3.7.
However, the axial strain at failure was found to decrease
with increasing relative density.

The effect of the initial relative density on the
volumetric behavior of the soil indicates that the
26
triaxial compression specimens exhibited compressional
volumetric strain at the early stages of shear, as in
Fig. 3.8.
However, specimens with low relative densities
continued to compress, while those with high relative
densities expanded with increasing axial strain.
Specimens with intermediate relative density indicated
intermediate volumetric strain during shear.
3.8 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS DURING SHEAR (1)
The Mohr-Coulomb Theory is used in evaluating the
strength parameter 0' on the assumption that the failure
envelope is a straight line passing through the origin and
that the theory is applicable to soil under plane strain
shear deformation. Thus, the effective angle of internal
friction may be defined as:
01= Sol
07'1-03.
(3.10)
-1(6.1"(5)
1
A correlation between 0 and the initial relative
density showed that the angle 0' increased almost linearly
with increasing relative density. Taylor, while conduc-
ting direct shear tests, suggested that an amount of
energy may be absorbed or generated during volume change
which should be taken into account. Skempton and
27
Bishop(1) adopted this concept and derived an expression
for correcting observed triaxial compression test data.
The energy correction may be stated quantitatively as
follows:
d(iv)
(3.11)
/ Vc id. el
where
4(C/; -0'3? = amount of deviation in the observed stress

difference
= initial volume
AV= change in volume, and
6i= axial strain.
3.9 PORE PRESSURE PARAMETER A (1)
The change in the pore pressure due to a change in the
applied stress, during an undrained shear, may be
explained in terms of emperical coefficients called the
pore pressure parameters. A pore pressure parameter may
be defined as a dimensionless number that indicates the
fraction of the total stress increment that shows up an
excess pore pressure for the condition of no drainage.
Consider the case in which the compressible skeleton
of soil particle, as shown in Fig. 3.9, behaves as an
elastic isotropic material and the fluid in the pore space
shows a linear relationship between volume change and
28
stress. An increase in the three principal stresses will
result in a decrease in volume of -AV (where V is the
initial volume) and a consequent increase in pore pressure
of AU.. The increase in effective stress will thus be:
ACT'=.1q7-du, aoi -11u, 451.40i_ au, (3.12)
If 6, , 62 , and 63 denote the strains in the three
directions, we have:
E6f ace-iti.(acril÷bo-39
E62 = 4ri- "7)
E63 = deri' vu,(arii+ 4vii) and,
E(6/1-62 1-63) = E61, = E (1-2,u)(4071-1-ao-21+acr3)
:.-
Decrease in volume of the soil skeleton is then:
-4y - v. 1-211,10711-4021+60-3) (3.13)
E = Young's Modulus
11= Poisson's ratio with respect to change in

effective stress.
Decrease in volume of the soil skeleton is almost
entirely due to a decrease in the volume of voids. If n
is the initial porosity, Cu the compressibility of the
fluid in the pore space, the volume change is as a result
related to the pore pressure change, if no drainage
occurs. Hence:
-41/ = n V. Cu, (3.14)

-4y (3.15)
-
V
29
In the common type of triaxial test, the stress
changes are made in two stages:
1. an increase in cell pressure resulting in an equal

allround change in stress, and
2. an increase in axial load resulting in a change in the

deviator stress.
If 4U1is the change in the pore pressure during the
first stage of the test when the cell pressure is applied,
and AU3is the change in the pore pressure when the
deviator stress is applied, then AU. = Lai -1-ALL3
Under these conditions, changes in minor and
intermediate principal stresses (6(3 and diTi respectively)
are both equal to the cell pressure, the increase in
deviator stress being equal to AT,--4r3. Putting AGS = 602
in the above equations leads to the expression for AU.
which may be arranged into terms representing change in
cell pressure 45 and a subsequent change in the deviator
stress 467-40i. Hence:

I
AU, = Lao-3 1- +(Lai -40-3)] 3.16)

nCCiak) (
where
3(1-2p)
q:- , the compressibility of the soil skeleton.
E
This equation for soil under undrained conditions can
be simplified into:
ii U. = 8[Mri -t A (411-45)] (3.17)
where 8- /
I t n (Cwic,)
30
This is the general equation for a single fluid for
the change in pore pressure when a change in allround
pressure is accompanied by a change in the deviator
stress.
For a partially saturated soil with two fluids, we
have:
ALL,, = 5,4643 tAw(Acrinci00.1 (3.18)
duo, = 801,803 + A, (a07 -4(5)1 (3.19)
For fully saturated soils, the value of C(.0 - that of
water alone - is so small that B=.1. The value of A
depends very largely on whether the soil is normally or
overconsolidated, and on the proportion of the failure
stress applied.
In the case of partly saturated soils, the value of
is much higher due to the presence of air in the pore
space. The value of B is less than 1 but varies with the
stress change. As a result, the value of B, which applies
during the application of the deviator stress da7-40-3 is
different from the value applied during increase in

allround stress doy .
Therefore it is convenient to express the Skempton
equation as:
u. = 8.46 + (AG -4(r3) (3.20)
where
A = A.S - 4U- (3.21)
4C, -A5
31
For a fully saturated soil, B = 1, hence:
4U. = 403 + A(Acri-acti) ( 3.22 )
whence
A11.-413
A -
( 3.23 )
407 - dai
For the usual undrained triaxial test where 46 =o
A = 4tVd0. (3.24)
32
CHAPTER 4: SOIL TESTS
4.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING SHEARING STRENGTH
When soil is loaded, shearing stresses are induced in
it. When the shearing stresses reach a limiting value,
shear deformation takes place, leading to the failure of
the soil mass. The failure may be in the form of sinking
of a footing, or movement of a wedge of soil behind a
retaining wall forcing it to move out, etc. The stability
of structures built on soil depend upon the shearing
resistance offered by the soil along the probable surfaces
of slippage. All stability analysis in soil mechanics
involve a basic knowledge of the shearing properties and
shearing resistance of the soil.
The shearing resistance of a soil is constituted basi-
cally of the following components:
1. the structural resistance or displacement of the soil

because of the interlocking of the particles,
2. the frictional resistance to translocation between the

individual soil particles at their contact points, and
3. cohesion or adhesion between the surface of the soil

particles.
33
4.2 TESTS FOR MEASURING SHEAR PROPERTIES OF SOILS (1)
The measurement of shear strength of soil involves
certain test observations at failure with the help of
which the failure envelope can be plotted corresponding to

a given set of conditions. Shearing resistance can be
determined by the following methods:

1. Direct Shear Test
2. The Triaxial Compression Test
3. Unconfined Compression Test
It is almost impossible to obtain satisfactory undis-
turbed samples of soft sensitive clays or of coarse gran-
ular soils, since even the most sophisticated sampling
techniques cause excessive disturbance of these soils.
Methods have therefore been devised for estimating the
soil properties from the results of these tests carried
out in-situ. A considerable number of such tests have
been developed, of which the most important are:
1. The Standard Penetration Test
2. The Vane Shear Test
3. The 'Dutch' Static Cone Penetrometer
4. The Pressuremeter
Again, depending upon the drainage conditions, three
types of shear tests have been developed:
34
1. undrained or quick test
2. consolidated-undrained test
3. drained test
The parameters c and # are not fundamental proper-

ties of the soil; they may simply be considered coeffi-
cients derived from the geometry of the graph obtained by
plotting shear stress at failure against normal stress.
They vary with drainage conditions of the test.
4.2.1 THE STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (10, 24)

(ASTM Standard D 1586-67(1974))
The usage of this test method for soil analysis was
formalized and given credibility to by Terzaghi and Peck

(24) in 1947. In this method the blow count or N value
was related to the bearing capacity of soils in several
ways. This test has been used extensively in the US
and in Britain for estimating the relative density
and angle of shearing resistance of coarse grannular
soils. A standard split spoon sampler, about 50 mm. in
diameter (Fig. 4.1), is driven into the ground by blows
from a drop hammer weighing 64 kg.(140 lb.) and falling
0.76 m.(30 in.). The sampler is driven 0.15 m.(6 in.)
into the soil at the bottom of the borehole and the number
of blows (N) required to drive it a further 0.3 m.(12 in.)
35
is then recorded.
Although this test is entirely emperical, considerable
experience with its use has enabled a reasonably reliable
correlation to be established between the N value and
certain soil properties. Fig. 4.2 shows Peck, Hanson and
Thornburn's relationship between N and the relative densi-
ty and the angle of shearing resistance 0 .
Table 4.1 shows what Terzaghi and Peck perceived the
approximate relationship between blow count N and the
unconfined compressive strength of the clay stratum to be.
The usage of the N value for evaluating soil bearing
capacity was changed by Peck, Hansen and Thornburn in 1953
with the introduction of a correcting factor for the N

value with regard to the amount of the overburden effec-
tive stress. See Fig. 4.3.
The basic correction formula is
CN = 047 1.0g 2° (4.1)
where
CN= corrected N value to use for design but never grea-

ter than 2.0
qi= effective overburden pressure at depth of sampling

(in tons per sq.ft.)
Peck, Hansen and Thornburn (10) presented the general
chart for blow count N and bearing capacity in a different
36
form as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Hough (24) related the blow count N to the relative
density of grannular soils as shown in Fig. 4.5. Gibbs
and Holz and Bazaraa (24) showed this same relationship
with regard to overburden pressure as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Teng (24) gave a formula for the allowable bearing
pressure based upon the Terzaghi and Peck work of 1948.
This formula is:

8+1.)(14, = 120(t1/41-;)(--2-&-. ko., Os (4.2)
where:
$0,= net allowable bearing pressure (in psf) for a maxi-

mum settlement of 1 inch.
ga= correction for water table
= 1.0 for water table below bottom of footing

= 0.5 for water table above bottom of footing
N = penetration blows (in pcf-ft.)

8 = width of footing (in ft.)
Ds= depth factor = I +
4.2.2 VANE SHEAR TEST (10, 13)

The Vane Shear Test is a quick test, used either in
the laboratory or in the field, to determine the undrained
shear strength of cohesive soil Cu( 55 = zero concept).
37
From experience it has been found that the Vane Test can
be used for a reliable in-situ test for the shear strength
of soft-sensitive clays occuring at depths beyond 10
meters. The Vane Test should be regarded as a method to
be used under the following conditions:
1. where the clay is deep, normally consolidated and

sensitive,
2. where only the undrained shear strength is required,
It is necessary that the soil mass should be in a
saturated condition if the Vane Test is to be applied.
The Vane Test cannot be applied for partially saturated
soils for which the angle of shearing resistance is not
zero.
Fig. 4.6 shows the Vane Shear tester (13). It con-
sists of four thin equal sized steel plates, called vanes,
welded orthogonally to a steel torque rod. The vanes are
inserted into an undisturbed soil in-situ and gradually
rotated at a uniform speed of 6.0 degrees per minute about
the axis of the shaft called the vane axis thus creating a
torque. The surface resisting the turning is the cylin-
drical surface of the soil and the two end faces of the
cylinder. At failure the resisting moment of the cylinder
of soil of height h and diameter d is equal to the turning
moment applied at the torsion head.
38
The undrained cohesion of the soil can be calculated
as follows:
The maximum torque T applied at the head of the torque
rod to cause failure should be the sum of the resisting
moment of the shear force along the side surface of the
soil cylinder, Ms, and the resisting moment of the shear
force at the ends, Me, or
T = Ms + Me (4.3)
The assumed distribution of shear stress on the side
surface of the soil cylinder and on the two ends (zero at
the center and at the periphery) is shown in Fig. 4.7.
Thus,
Nis . (A dh)( 644) Cu. (4.4)
Me =
/ oi.)/2
2(x4-/(3.
2
2
CIL)
(4.5)
where d = diameter and h = height of the shear vane.
Substituting Eqs. (4.4) and (4.5) into Eq. 4.3, we get
T=
7c -+
(ca
2
'7.
x
0
-)L-0..
12
r
; Cu. -
da21,.
T
43)
(4.6)
12)
However, if only one end of the vane, i.e., the bot-
tom, is involved in shearing the clay,

r d3
Me = and
24
39
Gu -
dakx+-
Vane shear tests can be conducted in the laboratory
and in the field during soil explorations. The laboratory
shear vane has dimensions of about 0.5 in. in diameter and
1.0 in. in height. Field shear vanes with the following
dimensions are used by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation:
d = 2.0 in. (50.8 mm.), h = 4 in. (101.6 mm.),
h/d = 2.
The vane may be pushed down from the surface,
measurements being made at regular intervals. The shaft
on which the vane is mounted is enclosed within a sleeve,
to prevent adhesion to the soil. In suitable soils, tests
have been made in this way at depths exceeding 60 m.
4.2.3 THE 'DUTCH' CONE PENETROMETER (14)

The estimation of the static shear strength of the
soil by means of a dynamic test is inherently unsatisfac-
tory, largely because the pore stresses differ in the two
conditions, and the standard penetration test results
cannot provide more than a rough guide to the soil proper-
ties. More reliable results are obtained from static
penetration tests, of which the most commonly ised is the
'Dutch' cone penetrometer (14). This device has been used
40
extensively in Holland and Belgium, mainly in fine sands
and silts.
The penetrometer (14) is cone shaped, with a maximum

area of 1000 sq. mm. The cone is attached to a rod, which
is protected by an outer sleeve. The thrust needed to
drive the cone and the sleeve into the ground may be
measured independently, so that the end bearing resistance
and the side friction may be separately determined.
The penetrometer, as shown in Fig. 4.8, eas developed
for the design of piles, but it has also been used
successfully to estimate the bearing capacity and settle-
ment of foundations on non-cohesive soils.
The soil specimen is penetrated at the rate of 0.5 in.
per second for a distance of not less than 3 in. The
penetrometer has interchangeable needles whose sizes are
shown in Table 4.2 (14).
The penetration resistance of the soil is the product
of the penetrometer reading and the reciprocal of the end
area of the needle and is expressed in pounds-force per
sq. in..
4.2.4 PRESSUREMETER (15)
The Fugro Full Displacement Pressuremeter (FDPM) (15)
41
has been developed to make it easier to obtain off-shore
in-situ measurements of stress-strain properties. The
prototype FDPM (Fig. 4.9) can cover a reasonably wide
range of strain and the equipment is in principle easier
to deploy and operate by remote control in conventional
off-shore drilling operations.
The FDPM test is performed as part of the cone penet-
ration test. When the center of the pressuremeter

membrane reaches the test depth, the cone penetration is
halted and then resumed when the pressuremeter membrane is
deflated. Fig. 4.10 (15) shows the ste up for prototype
FDPM testing.
Advantages of the FDPM are:

1. the ease of operation
2. measurement of stress-strain properties at a depth

known precisely in relation to the cone resistance
profile. It reduces scatter and improves correlation
of soil strength and stiffness with cone resistance.
The overall length of the membrane is 450 mm. The
outer diameter is 43.7 mm. (the same as that of the 15 sq.
cm. cone). Length to diameter ratio is 10.3. Above the
pressuremeter is a module which amplifies the pressureme-
ter signals. It measures inflation pressure and, at three
locations 120 degrees apart, the circumferential strain.
Inflation is achieved with nitrogen gas.
42
There are three other types of pressuremeters.
The first was developed by L. Menard. The pressureme-
ter lowered into a predrilled hole, measurements of pres-
sure and volumetric strain are made. Results are highly
sensitive to soil disturbance from drilling and stress

relief at the bore hole wall, neither of which can be
measured.
The second type, the Self Boring Pressuremeter was
developed to minimise soil disturbance. Measurements are
made of total pressure, pore pressure, and circumferential
strain at three positions at the midheight of the expan-
ding length.
The third type, the Push In Penetrometer (PIP) was
developed for off-shore use. Inflation of the membrane is
by oil and the pressure and volumetric strain are mea-
sured.
4.2.5 DIRECT SHEAR TEST (1, 13, 14)

The Direct Shear Test is the oldest and simplest shear
test arrangement (Fig. 4.11). A schematic diagram of the
apparatus is shown in Fig. 4.12. The relatively thin
thickness of sample permits quick drainage and quick dis-
sipation of pore pressure developed during the test.
43
The shear box containing the soil sample is generally
kept inside a container that can be filled with water to

saturate the sample. A shearing force is applied to the
sample such that the sample shears at a constant rate of
strain. The shearing resistance is measured on a proving
ring and the maximum value is the shear strength of the
soil. This shear strength may be found with the sample
subjected to varying compressive loads and a graph of
shear stress against compressive stress is plotted as in
Fig. 4.13.
Controlled-stress and Controlled-strain Tests (6, 14)
Fig. 4.14 (6) illustrates the difference between these

two types of tests, as applied to direct box shear tests.
In the first type(a, Fig. 4.14) the load Pt which induces
shear is gradually increased until complete failure oc-
curs. The shearing displacements are measured by means of
the dial gage a as a function of the increasing load Pt.
In the second type(b, Fig. 4.14), the shearing displace-
ments are induced and controlled in such a manner that
they occur at a constant fixed rate. The dial gage a
registers the desired constant rate of displacement. The
shearing resistance offered to this displacement by the
soil specimen is measured by the proving ring f.
However, the test has the following inherent
44
disadvantages:
1. the stress conditions across the soil sample are very

complex. The distribution of normal stresses over the
potential surface of sliding is not uniform. The
stress is more at the center than at the edges. Due to
this there is progressive failure of the specimen, i.e.
the entire strength of the soil is not mobilized simu-
ltaneously.
2. as the test progresses, the area under shear gradually

decreases. The corrected area at failure should be
used in determining the value of G and et..
3. unlike the triaxial test, there is no control on the

drainage of the soil.
4. the plane of shear failure is predetermined, which may

not be the weakest one.
5. there is effect of lateral restraint by the side walls

of the shear box.
45
4.2.6 THE TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST (1, 16, 25)
(ASTM Standard D 2850-82)
A soil sample may be tested in the general stress
state (01 >ai75) , while at the same time, the
deformations and volume changes are also measured.
In order to evaluate a subgrade soil by means of
this strength test, it is necessary to simulate, in a
laboratory specimen, stress conditions existing in the
loaded soil mass. This test is the most common test for
the evaluation of the stress-strain characteristics of the
soil.
A schematic illustration of the Triaxial Compression
Cell is shown in Fig. 4.15 (6).
In this stress test, a cylindrical specimen about 1.5
in. in diameter and 3 in. in length is first encased in a
thin rubber membrane and subjected to fluid pressure
around the cylindrical surface which equally stresses all
surfaces of the specimen, usually by water, sometimes by
air. Then an axial load is applied and its magnitude is
increased. Although only compressive stresses are ap-
plied, the specimen generally fails by shearing, hence the
test is generally referred to as the Triaxial Shear Test.
In some cases, failure occurs by bulging. In the typical
triaxial test, usually the cylindrical soil samples are
46
examined in an axially symmetrically stressed state(iTai.05)
The soil is failed by increasing the axial stress while
holding the confining stress constant. Axial force is
applied to the loaded piston either by means of dead
weights(controlled stress test) or by a geared or hydrau-

lic loading press(controlled strain test). Selection of
the rate of loading of the specimen depends upon design
conditions, i.e. whether the field loading conditions will
be static, dynamic, or some combination.
The applied axial load produces normal vertical stres-
ses on each horizontal face of the specimen, while the
lateral pressure produces normal horizontal stress on any
two vertical planes at right angles to each other. These
vertical and horizontal stresses fulfill the requirements
of principal stresses, since there are no components of
applied loads to produce shearing stresses in the horizon-
tal plane or either of the vertical planes. The vertical
stress is the maximum principal stress. The horizontal
stress on the vertical plane is the minimum principal
stress, and that on the vertical plane normal to the
minimum principal plane is the intermediate principal

stress. The minimum and intermediate principal stresses
are equal in this case. However, since the intermediate
principal stress does not influence the failure of the

47
material, according to the Mohr Theory, it need not be
considered further.
The inherent stability of a soil is represented by the
general Coulomb equation (2):
S = c + o-tc.n 0 (4.8)
The use of the Coulomb equation to represent internal
stability is predicted on the assumption that the internal
resistance of materials is a function of the shearing
resistance due to internal friction. The subject of shea-
ring resistance of soils is extremely complex, particular-
ly from the standpoint of design of pavements. If full
drainage of the sample is permitted during the test, the
water can move into and out of the pores. Soft and satu-
rated clays can behave as if they possess no internal
friction (0 =0) .
Therefore, the Coulomb equation becomes:
5 =c (4.9)
The shearing resistance of cohesionless materials can
be written as:
5 = a- tom 0 (4.10)
Fig. 4.16 shows the shear stress vs. normal compres-
sive stress relationships for the three types of soils;
c = 0 soils, 4) = 0 soils, and c-4 soils.

There are a number of ways in which the triaxial test
48
can be performed. For example, triaxial extension tests
can be run by maintainingn constant and increasing the
confining pressure W, . Also, triaxial tests can be run
under at rest earth pressure conditions by increasing (or),
and simultaneously such that no lateral deformation of
the sample takes place.
When one cylindrical sample has been loaded to fai-
lure, a Mohr Circle may be drawn having a diameter equal
ton-W, , or the difference between the vertical and
horizontal failure stresses. There is one point on this
circle which represents the combination of normal and
shearing stress at which the soil failed. This point lies
on the Mohr Envelope. However, unless it is definitely
known that the soil is completely cohesionless, in which
case the Mohr Envelope passes through the origin of the
applied stresses, there is no clue as to the location of
the failure point. Therefore it is necessary to conduct
another test on a duplicate(or the same) sample, a diffe-
rent lateral pressure being applied in this test. The
applied stresses at failure in this second test may be
designated(qand , and a second Mohr Circle may be
drawn with the diameter (07)247-4. Since (03)2

is different
from WI, then 670, and (0;)2 will also be different and
the second circle will not coincide with the first. Again
49
there is one point on the second circle which represents
the failure stresses and lies on the Mohr Envelope. Like-
wise, a third test can be conducted with another confining
pressure to arrive at another Mohr circle with stresses(C')3
and (cs-43 , with a point on it that represents the stresses
at which the soil failed. These failure points can be
located by drawing a common tangent to the circles. This
tangent is the Mohr Envelope of the soil. It is also the
graph of the Coulomb equation for shearing strength of the
soil as shown in Fig. 4.17.
The intercept of the tangent line on the vertical axis
through the origin of applied stresses is the cohesion
of the soil, and the angle that the tangent makes with the
horizontal is the friction angle of the soil. Also,
the intercept of the tangent line on the horizontal axis
is the origin of total stresses, and the distance between
the two origins represents the initial stress in the
material.
The purpose of the Triaxial Compression Test of soils
is to provide basic data on the following (1):
1. The ultimate laterally confined compressive strength of

the soil,
2. The angle of internal friction,
3. The cohesion,
50
4. The shear strength of the soil,
5. The Modulus of Elasticity, and
6. The pore water pressure.
The data obtained from the Triaxial Test are used for:
1. making estimates of the probable bearing capacity of

the soil,
2. performing stability calculations of earthworks, earth

retaining structures, and foundations,
3. analysing stress-strain relationships of loaded soils.
The advantage of the triaxial compression test is that
this test makes it possible to investigate the change in
the shear strength of a soil for different ratios of major
(axial) and minor (lateral) principal stresses, similar to
conditions as they exist in the field. However, the
outstanding advantages of the triaxial test are the
control of drainage conditions and the possibility of the
measurement of pore pressure. No other strength test
combining these two features have been developed to a
stage of practical utility. As a result, the triaxial
apparatus has been used in most basic research work on
shear strength and pore pressure characteristics i.e. the
basic understanding of the soil properties.
It has been experimentally observed that the values of
c and 4 remain almost constant over a considerable
51
range of strain. This fact is used to advantage when a
limited amount of soil is available for testing or where
the samples are variable. The MULTISTAGE TRIAXIAL (MST)
tests have been developed to reduce the number of samples,
and hence the time and effort required in conventional
triaxial methods.
4.2.6.1 Principle Of The Triaxial Compression Test (2)
An analysis of the triaxial stresses is best made by
the use of Mohr's circle of stresses.
The principle of the triaxial test is illustrated in
Fig. 4.18 (25). A cylindrical specimen of soil which is
enclosed in a thin rubber membrane is placed in the cell.
The specimen is first subjected to a constant all-round
hydrostatic pressure pc(::cr4i) . Water is allowed to escape
through a porous disk inserted into the base of the cell,
thus permitting the dissipation of the neutral stresses.
In this initial state of stress, called isotropic compres-
sion, the Mohr circle reduces to a point. The axial
stress is then increased by some value K=0:0 . In the
conventional test, it is necessary to add the confining
pressure pc to the deviator pressure p to determine the
total unit load at failure.
Thus:
- A (4.11)
52
where
= Croi, = deviator stress = applied stress
P = applied deviator load
A = original cross-sectional area
= unit strain
The altered state of stress is defined as:
= + = 0d + cj i ";:t
The deviator stress, h. , is then gradually increased,
while the confining lateral stress, p, , is held constant,
until the specimen fails in shear. At the ultimate stage
the corresponding Mohr circle just touches the Coulomb
line. By performing several tests at different initial
confining pressures, a series of Mohr circles is obtained.
Fig. 4.19a is the physical representation of the
stressed sample, and Fig. 4.19b is the corresponding
Mohr's circle representation. The normal stresses at
a point is a function of the orientation of the plane
chosen to define the stress. Also, when using Mohr's
circles to analyse stresses in soils, normal stress is
considered positive when compressive.

Any point A on the circle of Fig. 4.19b represents the
stress on a plane whose normal is oriented at an angle 6
with the direction of the major principal stresses. Thus
the normal stress on the plane is:
= c45219 +035inze = (a7.112 -qc-r--(5)40$219
53
The shear stress on the plane located by the angle
is: r9 . (cr, -0-3) sine cos& . (07 -4s)/2 . sin29
When many Mohr's circles are plotted to represent many
states of stress for a given soil specimen on a single
diagram, it becomes difficult to follow the diagram. An
alternative method for plotting the state of stress is to
plot p and q. p is the stress represented by the distance
to the center of the Mohr's circle from the origin and q
is the stress represented by the radius of the Mohr
circle. Thus, p and q are computed as follows:
q is +ve if 07 is inclined at an angle -1-45° to the vertical ..
q is -ve if o is inclined at an angle < ±45° to the horz.
For the stress point representation, the principal
stresses act on vertical and horizontal planes. The
equations simplify to:

in= (5 tai)/2
I, = (";-(6.)/z
A series of values of p and q is plotted representing
the successive states of stress that exist in a specimen
as the specimen is loaded. Then, a series of stress
points are plotted. A line is drawn connecting these
points using p and q. Refer Fig. 4.20. K1 line drawn on
Fig. 4.20 is defined as ag/a. at failure and is called the

v
coefficient of lateral stress at failure.
54
The failure of a soil specimen used in the triaxial
compression test may occur in a number of different ways.
The stresses in the specimen are distributed quite unifor-
mly around the cylindrical axis. If the specimen is
uniform in strength throughout, failure will occur on a
very large number of closely spaced planes making an angle e'
with the horizontal. A failure of this kind is evidenced
by a uniform bulging of the sample. Another type of
failure is when the failure occurs along a single plane.
Many specimens fail by a combination of the above two
failure modes.
4.2.6.2 Methods Of Triaxial Testing (1)
Triaxial tests can be made on either remolded or
undisturbed samples. If remolded samples are to be
tested, a series of compaction tests should first be
made to determine the optimum moisture content and
maximum density of the soil. Samples can then be
molded to the required density and moisture conditions
and saturated either by soaking or by vacumn saturation
techniques.
Care should be exercised during the compaction proce-
dure to make certain that the sample is uniform throughout
its height, with little or no variation in its density.
56
This is best accomplished by a combination of impact and
static compaction procedure.
Triaxial tests can be performed in any number of ways,
depending upon the data desired. Quick tests are ones in
which the vertical load is applied rapidly with no drai-

nage of the sample permitted during the test. For this
test, the load is applied at the rate of about 0.05 inch
per minute. Quick drained tests are ones in which the
samples are permitted to drain during the application of
the confining pressure, but no drainage is permitted du-
ring the axial loading which is applied in a rapid manner.
Slow drained tests are ones in which the sample is permit-
ted to drain during the testing period, but, in addition,
the load is applied in a slow manner permitting the sam-
ples to consolidate under each increment of load.
For the design of pavements, the quick undrained test
is recommended. This is because loads applied to a pave-
ment in service are transient, and it is doubtful whether
any drainage takes place during the loading cycle. In
some instances, it may be desirable to consolidate the
sample before application of the load to simulate consoli-
dation of the subgrade under the pavement. To accomplish
this, the specimen is encased in a rubber membrane, and
care is taken to make certain that the membrane is in
57
intimate contact around the testing heads. All drainage
valves should be closed.
4.2.6.3 Stress Condition in Specimen During Triaxial Test
Fig. 4.21 (25) shows the effective stresses acting on
the soil specimen during the triaxial testing. The minor
principal stress and the intermediate principal stress are
equal. The effective minor principal stress is equal to
the cell pressure minus the pore pressure.
The stress components on the failure plane MN are ri
and 7 and the failure plane is inclined at an
angle 9' to the major principal plane. JF is the failure
envelope to the Mohr circle corresponding to any failure
point F. Since LTR:=9eand the failure envelope cuts the
abcissa at an angle 0' , the angle 9' of the failure plane
is given by: 0' = -i-LFCA = -2 -(90°-/- cfr) -.2 45 °#

2
The principal stress relationship at failure can be
deduced as follows:
FC = f (c1;-651) ; oc .f (cr,-4- (5) ; OK= Cs cote
FC FC 112071-03') Ki--659
Sin _
KC 1401-0C ecot#'-i- 1/2(07+03) 2c1cots6'+ (071-1-0')
% (cr; ' -r3 ) :: 2c1 cos.:Pr + (7'1-0-3'95incp'
:. 07'0- Sin#9 = 5'(!+ Sing') -I- 2csco50i
a..i.1 r3i cos#' )
+ 2c
I- sP70. 1 -5610'
58
4'
or e=Tilfan2(4564)*2c'iain(dle+4-) (4.12)
or 07' 03ici219'1.2c'tanel 05'1,0'1- 2Cirl#1 (4.13)
where N+' = tan2(45°+-t-)
Eqs. 4.12 and 4.13 give the principal stress
relationship. When the soil is in the state defined
by the eqs. 4.12 or 4.13, it is said to be in plastic
equilibrium. In terms of total stress, eqn. 4.13 is
written as:
07 = rilet2ciane
5
tan
N# 2cFN;
= 45°+ 4_
= ignae = t472.(45°-1-
In eqn. 4.12, O' and 5 are known, and the two un-
knowns are 0' and c . Hence two sets of observations are
required to determine these two unknown parameters. In
practice, a number of sets of( a7I ,5) at failure are obser-

ved, and the Mohr circles are plotted for each set of
values. A curve drawn tangential to these circles gives
the failure envelope.
4.2.6.4 Application of the Triaxial test to the principal

soil types (1)
The application of the triaxial test to the principal
soil types may be considered under the following
classifications:
59
1. undrained test on saturated cohesive soils,
2. undrained test on partly saturated cohesive soils,
3. consolidated-undrained test on saturated soils,
4. drained test.
4.2.6.4.1. Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soils
This test is carried out on undisturbed samples of
clay, silt or peat to determine the strength of natural
ground. It is also carried out on remolded samples of
clay to measure its sensitivity (1).
The results of this test are illustrated in
Fig. 4.22. (13).
For a fully saturated soil, the pore pressure parame-
ter B equals unity. In an undrained test (Aq equals
zero), on saturated clays, both the major principal effec-
tive stress 47°(=C7-10 and the minor principal effective
stressoq.45-(9are independant of the magnitude of the

cell pressure applied. Thus, only one effective stress
circle can be obtained from these tests and the shape of
the failure envelope in terms of effective stress cannot
be determined. Pore pressure measurements are not usually
made during undrained tests on saturated samples.
The shear strength of the soil is used in stability
analysis in terms of total stress, which, for this type of

60
soil, is known as the #=c) analysis. The failure stress is
taken to be the maximum deviator stress which the sample
can withstand.
4.2.6.4.2. Undrained Test on partly saturated cohesive

soils (1, 13)
The most common application of this test is to samples
of earth-fill material which are compacted in the labora-
tory under specified conditions of water content and den-
sity. It is also applied to undisturbed samples of strata
which are not fully saturated (residual soils), and sam-
ples cut from existing rolled fills.
As the cell pressure is increased, the deviator stress
at failure also increases, though this increase in devia-
tor stress becomes progressively smaller as the air in the
soil voids is compressed and dissolved. The increase in
the deviator stress later ceases when the large stresses
cause full saturation. Due to this reason, the failure
envelope in terms of total stresses is non-linear, as
shown in Fig. 4.23. The values of c and # can, there-
fore, be quoted only for a certain pressure range. Howe-
ver, if the pore pressure is measured during the test, the
failure envelope can be expressed in terms of effective
stress, and is found to approximate very closely to a
straight line over a wide range of stress. Apparent
61
departures from linearity are usually found to be due to
small differences in water contents between the different
samples used to define the envelope.
4.2.6.4.3. Consolidated-Undrained test on saturated soils
The consolidated-undrained test is carried out on
undisturbed samples of clay, silt and peat, on remolded
samples of clay and silt, and on redeposited samples of
cohesionless soil such as sand and gravel (1, 13).
In the standard test, the results of which are depic-
ted in Fig. 4.24 (13), the sample is allowed to consoli-
date under a pressure of known magnitude, the three

principal stresses thus being equal. Then the sample is
sheared under undrained conditions with different cell
pressure by increasing the axial load, the deviator stress
being independent of the cell pressure. It is observed
that the apparent cohesion increases linearly with the
increasing effective consolidation pressure; for normally

consolidated soil, the graph of undrained strength (Gw)
and consolidation pressure (1b ) passes through the origin.
If the clay is preconsolidated (over consolidated), the
curve is non-linear upto the preconsolidation pressure;
however, at higher consolidation pressure, the soil be-
haves as a normally consolidated soil and a linear rela-
62
tionship is obtained.
However, if the pore pressure is measured during the
undrained stage of the test, the results can be expressed
in terms of effective parameters c' and # . For normally
consolidated samples, the effective stress envelope is a
straight line with c' equal to zero.
Reconsolidation in the laboratory after the disturban-
ce which is associated even with the most careful sampling
leads to a slightly higher void ratio than would occur in
nature. The most marked effect of over-consolidation is,
however, on the value of pore pressure parameter A, which,
with increasing over-consolidation ratio, drops from a
value typically about 1 at failure to values in the nega-
tive range. These low A-values are, in turn, largely
responsible for the high undrained strength values resul-
ting from over-consolidation.
For these reasons, the results of consolidated-un-
drained tests, expressed in terms of total stress, can be
applied in practice only to a very limited extent.
4.2.6.4.4 Drained Test (1, 13)
Drained tests are carried out on soil samples of all
types either undisturbed, remolded, compacted, or redepo-
sited. The samples may be either fully or partly satu-
63
rated. These tests are carried out to obtain directly the
shear strength parameters relevant to the conditions of
long-term stability, when the pore pressure have decreased
(or increased) to their equilibrium values. Cohesionless
materials such as sand, gravel, and rock-fill are often
tested dry as it simplifies laboratory procedure. This
may, however, lead to a slight over-estimate of the value
of # in some cases.
Fig. 4.25 (13) documents the effective stress failure
envelope obtained from drained tests in sand.
In the standard test (1), the specimen is first conso-
lidated under an equal all-round cell pressure, and the

sample is then sheared by increasing the axial load at a
sufficiently slow rate to prevent any buildup of excess

pore presure. The minor principal stress at failure 5' is
thus equal to the consolidation pressure; the major prin-
cipal stress e is the axial stress. Since the pore
pressure is zero, the effective stresses are equal to the
applied stresses, and the strength envelope in terms of
effective stresses is obtained directly from the stress
circle at failure. The values of the effective parameters
ci and 4' obtained from drained tests are often denoted Cd,
and t respectively.
The drained test also provides information on the
64
volume changes which accompany the application of the all-
round pressure and the deviator stress, and on the stress-
strain characteristics of the soil.
65
4.2.7 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST (13, 25)
A special form of the triaxial test often used in soil
engineering is the unconfined compression test- a triaxial
compression test in which the lateral stresses are zero.
Such a test can be easily and rapidly performed and can
provide valuable information in the comparison of one soil
with another. The unconfined compression test is only
possible where the soil possesses significant amounts of
cohesion so that a sample can stand unsupported.
Coulomb's equation of shear strength (25) is:
S = c+0-tan (4.14)
where
5= shear stress
C= cohesion
e= normal stress
0 = angle of shearing resistance
For undrained tests of saturated clayey soils ( 0 = 0
condition), = cu, (4.15)
where C. = undrained cohesion
In this test, the parameter of principal concern is
the maximum stress to which the sample can be subjected
without failure or, in other words, the stress at which
failure in the soil specimen occurs is referred to as the
66
unconfined compression strength.
For saturated clay specimens, the unconfined compres-
sion strength decreases with the increase of moisture
content of the soil. For unsaturated soils, with the dry
unit weight remaining constant, the unconfined compression
strength decreases with the increase of the degree of
saturation.
Some fine grained clay soils are highly plastic, and
practically all their shearing strength are attributable
to cohesion. In other words, the Mohr Envelope is appro-
ximately a horizontal line, the angle # = 0. All Mohr
circles of a series representing failure of such a mate-
rial will have the same diameter. In other words, the
value of q-03 is a constant regardless of the magnitude
of the minimum principal stress. Also, the Mohr Envelope
is tangent to the circles at their highest points; and the
cohesion is equal to the radius of the circle, or 077-41
as in Fig. 4.26 (25).
When a cylindrical sample of clayey soil is tested in
unconfined compression, Oi=0 and O equals the vertical

stress at which the sample fails. Therefore, the shearing
strength of a cohesive soil without friction is equal to
one-half of the unconfined compression strength of the soil.
Essentially, the test consists of gradually loading a
67
cylindrical soil sample at its two ends until it is des-
troyed by brittle or plastic failure. The vertical com-
pression of the sample is measured throughout the loading
process while the sample may deform laterally without
confinement. The test is suitable for obtaining an idea
of the "in-situ" strength of the individual soil strata.
In addition, it is regarded as characteristic of the soil
consistency. Table 4.1 shows the general relation of the
consistency and the unconfined compression strength of

clays.
If a clay specimen is first subjected to unconfined
compression in its undisturbed, natural state, then remol-

ded and tested again with its water content held constant,
it usually exhibits much lower strength in the remolded
state. This loss in strength is associated with changes
in the clay structure. Remolding has a two-fold effect:
it temporarily disturbes the oriented arrangement of the
molecules in the adsorbed layers and destroys the stable
flocculated structure of the clay formed during sedimenta-
tion. The soil will later regain a portion of the
strength lost through the reorientation of the molecules
(thixotropy), but the remaining loss in strength due to
structural destruction is irreversible (13).
The compressive strength obtained by the unconfined
68
compression test is not truely representative of the in-
situ strength of the soil. First of all, the unconfined
compressive strength as measured in this test is greatly

affected by the size of the specimen and by the test
conditions, especially the rate of loading. In addition,
there are always inevitable disturbances during the sam-
pling operation. Hence, the unconfined compressive
strength should primarily be regarded as an index property

suitable to characterize soil consistency only.
4.2.8 APPLICATION OF THE TRIAXIAL TEST TO THE SOLUTION OF

ENGINEERING PROBLEMS (1)
The problems may be divided into two main classes in
which:
1. the pore pressure is independent of the magnitude of

the total stresses acting in the soil, and
2. the pore pressure depends on the magnitude of the

stresses acting in the soil and on the time which has
elapsed since their application.
4.2.8.1. Analysis in which pore pressure is an independent

variable (1)
a). Long-term stability of slopes, earth fills and earth

retaining structures.
The analysis is carried out in terms of effective
stress using the values of c' and et' obtained from the
69
drained tests. The values of c' and c/' may alternatively
be taken from consolidated-undrained tests in which pore-
pressure measurements are made. The values of the pore
pressure w is obtained from a flow-net or from field
measurement. The highest wet season values represent the
most critical condition.
Total stress methods are sometimes applied to the
analysis of existing slopes in which the pore pressure has
reached its long-term equilibrium value. The undrained
strength of undisturbed samples from the slope is used
in the analysis.
b). Stability of slopes of sand or gravel subject to the

drawdown of impounded water.
In relatively pervious soils of low compressibility
the distribution of pore pressure on drawdown is control-
led by the rate of drainage of pore water from the soil.
This case is of practical importance where the operation
of hydro-electric schemes subjects fill, normally consi-
dered as free draining, to very high rates of drawdown.

/
The values of c and #' used in the analysis are taken
from drained tests or consolidated-undrained tests with
the measurement of pore pressure.
70
4.2.8.2. Analysis in which pore pressure is a function of
the stress change (1).
a). Initial stability of the foundation of a structure or

embankment on saturared clay; the initial stability of
an open cut or sheet piled excavation made in clay;
the initial stability against bottom-heave of a
deep excavation in clay.
The analysis is carried out in terms of total stress
using the value of T obtained from the undrained tests on
undrained samples because the stress change likely to lead

to failure occurs under undrained conditions.
Care should be taken during sampling particularly in
the case of sensitive soils because sampling disturbance
is more marked in its effect on the undrained strength
than on the values of c' and 0'
b). Stability of the clay foundation on an embankement or

dam where rate of construction permits partial conso-
lidation.
stress using the values of c' and 4' obtained from drained
tests or consolidated-undrained tests with the measurement
of pore pressure. Field measurements of pore pressure
during construction is desirable to corraborate laboratory
measurements. The magnitude of the initial pore pressure
is controlled not only by the vertical stress due to the
71
weight of the embankment but also by the shear stress set
up beneath it. The value of A necessary for this calcula-
tion is obtained from the consolidated-undrained test.
c). Stability of impervious rolled fill.
stress using the values of c' and 4,1 obtained from un-
drained tests with measurement of pore pressure in which

the major and minor principal stresses are increased simu-
ltaneously to approximate the actual stress conditions in
the embankment. The rate of dissipation of pore pressure
is obtained from tests in the triaxial apparatus in which
the rate of decrease of pore pressure is measured at
one end of the sample while drainage is permitted from the
other end. Difficulties arise in reproducing field condi-
tions in the laboratory with regard to:
i. varying moisture content:
The excess pore pressure, in certain soils, get
doubled by a 1% increase in the water content.
Although 0 remains almost unchanged by variations,
the value of c' drops rapidly with an increase in water
content.
ii. rolled fill materials containing stones:
The coarser fraction of the natural material (which

72
is omitted from tests on clay) has a significant effect
on the relationship between water content and density.
This difficulty applies mainly to the magnitude of the
pore pressure.
d. The stability of impervious rolled fill, and of natural

slopes and cuts in clay, subject to rapid drawdown.
The analysis is performed in terms of effective stress
using the values of c' and 9 measured in consolidated-
undrained tests in which full opportunity has been given
for saturation to occur. In this test the sample is
allowed to saturate and consolidate under the principal
stress ratio obtained before drawdown, and is then subjec-
ted to the appropriate stress change under undrained con-
ditions. The overall effect of consolidation and satura-
tion is a drop in the value of c' , the value of 0' remai-
ning almost unchanged; the value of c' found to be contro-
lled almost entirely by the water content at which the
test is run.
73
4.2.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST (1)
The limiting factors may be briefly summarized as:
1. influence of the value of the intermediate principal

stress
2. change in principal stress directions
3. influence of end restraint
4. duration of test
1. Influence of the value of the intermediate principal

stress
In the cylindrical compression test the intermediate
principal stress q is equal to the minor principal

stress. In many practical problems, the value of ai will
be higher than 5 . This will influence both c' and 0'
and the pore pressure parameters A and B.
2. Change in principal stress directions
In the cylindrical compression test the principal
planes are fixed in relation to the axis of the specimen.
This restriction is unimportant in problems involving
active or passive pressures in zones with a horizontal
boundary, but in problems where the direction of the major
principal stress changes steadily under the applied stres-
ses this restriction limits the accuracy with which pore
74
pressure can be predicted.
In soils which are laminated as a result of over-
consolidation or method of compaction, the values of CI
and # will be influenced by the inclination of the plane
on which the maximum shear stress occurs.
3.Influence of end restraint
Friction between the ends of the specimen and the
rigid end caps necessary to transfer the axial load res-
tricts lateral deformation adjacent to these surfaces.
This leads to a departure from the condition of uniform
stress and strain. This affects:
i. strength characteristics:
No significant error occurs in the strength

measurements, provided that the length to diameter
ratio is about 2.
ii. volume change characteristics:
In the standard test, the cell pressure is general-

ly applied first, and the decrease in diameter which
accompanies the reduction in volume is resisted locally
by end-restraint. As the deviator stress is applied
the diameter tends to increase, and this again is
opposed by end-restraint.
iii. Pore pressure characteristics:
In the undrained test non-uniformity of pore pres-

sure is likely to result from end-restraint. Where
this nonuniformity is of appreciable magnitude, it
leads to a migration of pore pressure. The extent
to which this readjustment occurs depends on the
75
permeability of the sample, its dimensions and the
rate of testing.
4. Duration of test
The duration of test commonly used in the triaxial
apparatus and the parameters by which the results are
expressed do not take into account the phenomena of creep

in soils. However, in the case of over-consolidated
clays, in which shear may result in a drop in pore pres-
sure under undrained conditions, delayed failure may be
the consequence of the increase in pore pressure which
occurs with passage of time as equilibrium ground water
conditions are reestablished.

For long-term stability problems in which the solution
is based on effective stress parameters and on calculated
or observed pore pressures, the drained test normally used
is performed in a time varying from one-half to three days
depending on soil type.

The routine undrained test on undisturbed samples is
often performed in about 10 minutes.
76
q., in tons/ ft'
Con- Very Very

sistency Soft Soft Medium Stiff Stiff Hard
N <2 2-4 4-8 8-15 15-30 > 30

q. <0.25 0.25-0.50 0.50-1.00 1.00-2.00 2.00-4.00 >4.00
Table 4.1 Relation of consistency of clay, number of blows N on

sampling spoon, and unconfined compression strength.
(25)
Size (area) 1 3/4 1/2 1/3 1/5 1/10 1/20

2
(in. )
End 1.124 0.976 0.796 0.651 0.505 0.357 0.252

(in.)
Table 4.2 Sizes of Penetrometer needles. (24)
77
(b)
Figure 3.1 Friction on horizontal surface. (3)
Figure 3.2 Modes of failure in soils.(5)
b
a. Single Slip Line
b. Family of Slip Lines
Figure 3.3 Shear Pattern.
(5) 78
= Normal Unit Pressure (Applied Stress)
Stress
Figure 3.4 Graph of Coulomb Formula for shearing strength of soils.

(24)
a. Relationship between major and minor principle stresses in the

case of failure.
b. Envelope of Mohr's circles: 1-5 = Mohr's circles.

79
Figure 3.5 (5)
Figure 3.6 Mohr Diagram for Normal and Shearing Stresses. (24)
........ (ai.
01-0i
2
/6 pee
4 50
sq /n
3 40
s
P O
O
0 5 10 /5 2
Axial Strain %
Figure 3.7 Graph of d, -o3 vs. axial strain for undrained test on
compacted fill material. (1)
Axial Strain %
E0
1 0
AV
v 0
/01
Figure 3.8 Graph of volumetric strain vs. axial strain for

undrained test on a compacted fill material. (1)
80
Figure 3.9 3-D loading followed by 1-D loading of soil. (1)
dpi
AO; mg A5
AU- 4. 4113
AU.
Figure 3.10 Stress change stages in Triaxial test. (24)
81
DRIVING SHOE SAMPLER MEAD
SuITARLE
SPLIT DARREL -1 SEATING

I.
VENTS
01A lmial
1 WCr4reARIIMIPAPOW/APIIM
"w411111%/117/1=IWILIM
1,F41
uis...w,Aartoiaw/AopAurAnrAinip
11" 11641
STEEL SALT r OD PliEFERAIILT
COATED WITH A MATERIAL OF
SHORE NANONESS Or 30 TO 40
27- (...w I t0 PEN1
Figure 4.1 Standard Split Barrel Sampler Assembly. (25)
Very loos*
Lore
Meolum Dense Very dense
70
60
50
40
J.J
30
cn
0
1-1 20
i4 ID
0
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Angle of shearing resistance, 0
Figure 4.2 Relation between relative density, 0. and N obtained ,
from the Standard Penetration Test. (After Peck, Hanson,

and Thornburn). (24)
82
04 0.6 1.0 1.2 1. 1.5 /8 2.0
0
0.5
C
tO
=
1.5
gt 2.0
c
- -y,3.0
cv, 2.5
u m
W C
W 0
W 15
U w.
> U 4.0
U M 4.5
4-1 w 5.0
W
Correction Factor, CN
CN = 0.77t0 d Jj1
.,10
Figure 4.3 Chart for correction of N value in sand for

influence of overburden pressure. (24)
83
N-50
5
N=40
4
0
/ 2 3 4 0 / 2 3 4
(a). D /B = 1.0 (b). D /B = 0.5
f f
Width of footing, B, ft.
N50
/ 2 3 6
(c). Df/B = 0.25
Width of footing, B, ft.
Figure 4.4 Design chart for proportioning shallow footings

on sand. (24)
84
100
I// ,/
I
psi (0.28 MN/m2)

k-
J2 80 4 f.. /
o.
et?/ 4' /
a- / Z / "NI
/
Z
7
60 11'
aq .1.,../
Jta.
i r....,
i
CI
\s
+
20 psi (0.14 MN /m =)
// , &/.s/
/ /,
c
4C
/ / // /
a,
10 psi (69 kN/m2)
/,///// /
a.
20
.'. ODs' 0
0 40 60 80 100
Relative density -
Very I very
Loose I Medium I Dense dense
loose
0 15 35 65 85 100
Pressure values indicbte overburden pressure
Gibbs and Holtz curves

aazaraa =ryes
Figure 4.5 Relationship among Standard Penetration Resistance,

relative density, and effective overburden pressure
for coarse sand. (24)
85
Rod
C
4 bladed
'`.
vane
C
Sheared
surface
. I
RECTANGUL, Mt VANE TAPERED van(
a. Vane Shear Test Apparatus b. Geometry of Field Vane
Figure 4.6 (13)
Figure 4.7 Assumed distribution of shear stress on side surface

and ends of soil cylinder in the Vane Shear Test. (13)
86
Sliding Ring
AV' Ns--1
Needle Stem
(a) Penetrometer
(0) Penetration Needle
Figure 4.8 Soil Penetrometer (9)

CONNECTION TO
CONTRACTION AMPLIFIER SUB
RING
CHINESE LANTERN
MEMBRANE
CLAMP RING
MEMBRANE
-r
ARM COVER
SLEEVE
E
E
STRAIN GAUGED
SPRING
r.
3 STRAIN SENSING
ARMS AT
120° SPACING
0
INSTRUMENT BODY
E
E
MEMBRANE 1.4
E
E
MEMBRANE
CLAMP RING
CHINESE LANTERN
CONTRACTION
RING
43.7 mn,
CONNECT:CV TO
CONE SPACER AND CONE
Figure 4.9 The Prototype Fugro Full Displacement Pressuremeter. (15)

87
PUSH HEAD ELECTRO/HYDRALILIC HOSE
CONTROLE UNIT
READ OUT
CONE ROOS
CONDUCTING HOSE
STANDARD CONE ROD
CONE 0.00
ADAPTOR
AMPLIFIER HOUSING
O
CONTRACTION RING
PRESSUREMETER
MODULE tf1
C
CONTRACTION RING
O
CONE SPACER C
DUMMY CONE
Figure 4.10 Set-up for prototype FDPM testing. (15)
88
Compressive load
11111
Proving ring Porous plates
ji
(shear force)
Shear box
Shear force
applied at
Move able_ constant rate
of strain
carriage
Figure 4.11 Direct Shear Stress Test Apparatus. (25)
Normal Force
Loading Plate
Porous
Stone
Shear
Force
Shear Box
Porous
Stone
Figure 4.12 Schematic diagram of the Direct Shear Stress Test.

(25)
89
o Tests on normally
consolidated clay
Tests on over-
consolidated clay
Note: c = 0 for normally
consolidated clay; c>0
for over-consolidated
clay
Normal Stress
Figure 4.13 Failure envelope for clay obtained from the Direct
Shear Test. (1)
Time
Time
(a). Stress-Control Method
I
Time
Time
;If CO
"UV
(b). Strain-Control Method
Figure 4.14 Direct Shear Test Methods. (6)
90
Acr u Gr,--Cri
Rubber
gasket
Rubber
gasket
Chamber
fluid
4-
4-
Bottom Saturation
base plate and
drainage
Figure 4.15 Schematic Illustration of the Triaxial Cell. (6)
shear shear
stress $$
(a)
Normal
compressive
stress
i
(b)
Normal
compressive
Stress
(c)
Normal
compressive
stress
Figure 4.16 Shear Stress vs. Normal Compressive Stress

relationships for the three types of soils. (24)
91
0-
Figure 4.17 Graph of Coulomb Equation for shearing strength

of soil. (24)
ri-ct*6
.pci.p
C. ct+fi
r pc +0
Figure 4.18 Principle of the Triaxial Compression Test. (25)
92
Direction of r
I
(a). Sketch showing the physical representation of a stressed sample.
-°3 sin 29
re (07-cri)sin 8 cos9
2
(b). Sketch showing the Mohr Circle representation of the same

stressed sample.
Figure 4.19 (25)
93
Figure 4.20 Sketch showing stress representation by p and q. (25)
94
Figure 4.21 Stress condition and failure envelope generated from
the Triaxial Compression Test. (25)
s.
cn
Total stress Mohr's

(1
circles at failure
Failure envelope
........ ,I.::::::-..- :::"="17...;;::::".'"" : - ""..".1.'": 4" °
U . .. :
1
-1... ,
er3 1 3
a'1 cr
3 Normal Stress
Figure 4.22 Total Stress Mohr's circles and failure envelope

( = 0) obtained from unconsolidated-undrained
triaxial tests. (13)
95
Tf = C Crta 95
I
I
1 Normal stress
(total)
Figure 4.23 Total stress failure envelope for undrained tests

on partly saturated cohesive soils. (1)
Total stress
Effective stress failure envelope
failure envel4
"ri g eiian
cu
Normal stress
t=lo h;i74J,Ti
Figure 4.24 Total and effective stress failure envelope for

consolidated-undrained triaxial tests. (13)
96
8, 45°1- 41
Total and effective

stress failure
envelope
Tf =eicanyb
9j=-61 0i:di Normal stress

ar),
65,4i
Figure 4.25 Effective stress failure envelope from drained

tests in sand. (13)
1°7
0=0
Total stress 117
'1.---Mohr's circle at failure
Normal stress
Figure 4.26 Failure envelope from Unconfined Compression Test. (25)
97
CONCLUSIONS
Two basic problems exist in present-day soil analysis:
1. effect of unloading of the sample taken from
depths as it is brought to the surface and removed
from the sampler.
2. changes in the moisture content that may occur in
the soil strata after construction is complete and
the effects these changes will have on the strength
of the soil.
Simplistic tests such as the Standard Penetration
Test, the Vane Shear Test predict only a shear value at
the conditions under which the tests are conducted.
The Direct Shear Test has its inherent disadvan-
tages like no drainage control; the failure plane is
predetermined which may not be the weakest plane; pore
pressure is not measured; there is effect of lateral
restraint from the side walls of the shear box.
On the other hand, the Triaxial Compression Test is
the only test which incorporates control of drainage
conditions and the measurement of pore pressure and is
thus the most common and most reliable test for the
evaluation of the stress-strain characteristics of the
soil.
98
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bishop, A.W. and Henkel, D.J. The measurement of soil

properties in the Triaxial Test., Howard Arnold
Publishers Ltd., 1957.
2. Yoder, E.J. Principles of Pavement Design., John Wiley

& Sons, Inc., 1959.
3. Spangler, M.G. Soil Engineering., International

Textbook Company, 1951.
4. Selig, E.T. and Ladd, R.S. (Editors) Evaluation of

Relative Density and its role in Geotechnical
Projects involving Cohesionless Soils., American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1973.
5. Kedzie, A. Handbook of Soil Mechanics: Soil Physics

(Volume 1)., Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
1974.
6. Kedzie, A. Handbook of Soil Mechanics:Soil Testing

(Volume 2)., Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
1980.
7. Bowles, J.E. Foundation Analysis and Design.,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982.
8. Cernica, J.H. Geotechnical Engineering., Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, CBS College Publishing, 1982.
9. Smith, G.N. Elements of Soil Mechanics for Civil and

Mining Engineers., Crosby Lockwood & Sons, Ltd., 1968.
10. Scott, C.R. An Introduction to Soil Mechanics and

Foundations., Maclaren and Sons, Ltd., 1969.
11. Whitlow, R. Basic Soil Mechanics., Construction Press,

1983.
12. Smith, M.J. Soil Mechanics., Macdonald and Evans,

Ltd., 1970.
13. Das, B.M. Introduction to Soil Mechanics., The Iowa

State University Press, Ames, 1979.
99
14. Tschebotarioff, G.P. Soil Mechanics, Foundation, and
Earth Structures: An Introduction to Theory and
Practice of Design and Construction., McGraw-Hill Book
Company Inc., 1951.
15. Baguelin, F.; Jezequel, J.F.; and Shields, D.H. The

Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering, Trans Tech
Publications, 1978.
16. Peck, R.B.; Hanson, W.E.; and Thornburn, T.H.

Foundation Enginering, John Wiley & Sons, 1953.
17. Parker, J.C.; Amos, D.F.; Sture, S. Measurement of

Swelling, Hydraulic Conductivity, and Shear Strength
in a Multistage Triaxial Test; J-44:1133-1138, 1980,
American Society of Soil Sciences.
18. D 1558-71(1977) Test Method for Moisture-Penetration

Resistance Relations of fine-grained soils, 1984
Annual Book of ASTM Standards vol. 04.08.
19. D 1586-67(1974) Method for Penetration Test and

Split Barrel Sampling of Soils, 1984 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards vol. 04.08.
20. D 2166-66(1979) Test Methods for Unconfined Compres-

sion Strength of Cohesive Soils, 1984 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards vol. 04.08.
21. D 2573-72(1978) Method for Vane Shear Test in

Cohesive Soils, 1984 Annual Book for ASTM
Standards vol. 04.08.
22. D 2850-82 Method for Unconsolidated, Undrained

Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial
Compression, 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards
vol. 04.08.
23. D 3080-72(1979) Method for Direct Shear Test on

soils under Consolidated Drained conditions,
1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards vol. 04.08.
24. Class Notes: Kansas State University.
25. Murthy, V.N.S. Soil Mechanics and Foundation

Engineering, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, India, 1977.
100
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his deep appreciation
and gratitude to Professor W. W. Williams for exposing him
to the basic ideas and concepts of this report. His
sincere interest and enthusiasm in this project, as well
as his continuing encouragement, helped make this a
tremendous learning experience.
The author also wishes to extend his gratitude and
appreciation to the members of his graduate advisory
committee: Dr. J. B. Sisson and Dr. B. M. McEnroe for
their assistance and review of this report.
Finally, the author wishes to express his sincere
appreciation and thanks to all the faculty and staff in

the Civil Engineering Department at Kansas State
University, for creating a very healthy environment for
pursuing graduate studies.
101
METHODS FOR DETERMINING SHEAR STRENGTH
OF SOILS AND THE LIMITATIONS AND/OR
ADVANTAGES OF THE VARIOUS TESTS
by
Amit Mukherjee
B.E., Calcutta University, India, 1983
AN ABSTRACT OF A MASTER'S REPORT
submitted in partial fullfilment of the
requirements for the degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Civil Engineering
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Manhattan, Kansas
1987
ABSTRACT
The friction angle and the unit cohesion (the shear
strength characteristics) of a soil are fundamental as-
pects in determining the suitability of soils for enginee-
ring purposes and in the analysis and design of soil-based
structures.
This report consisted of studying the methods for
determining the shear strength characteristics of soils

and the limitations and/or the advantages of the various
tests.
Amongst all the tests described, the triaxial compres-
sion test is the only one which makes it possible to
investigate the change in shear strength of a soil for

different ratios of major(axial) and minor(lateral) prin-
cipal stresses, to control the drainage conditions during
the test, and to measure the pore pressure. This test can
simulate the conditions imposed on a soil mass as it
exists in the field. Thus, the friction angle and the
unit cohesion obtained by the use of this test approximate
the true values of these properties.

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METHODS FOR DETERMINING SHEAR STRENGTH

OF SOILS AND THE LIMITATIONS AND/OR

B.E., Calcutta University, India, 1983

submitted in partial fullfilment of the

requirements for the degree

Department of Civil Engineering

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

1.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE 2

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 3

3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES RELATING TO FRICTION

3.2 TOTAL SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOIL 11

3.3 SHEARING RESISTANCE AND STRENGTH 12

3.4 COULOMB'S EQUATION 15

3.5 PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS 18

3.6 MOHR THEORY OF FAILURE 22

3.7 STRESS-STRAIN CHARACTERISTICS DURING

3.8 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS DURING SHEAR 27

3.9 PORE PRESSURE PARAMETER A 28

CHAPTER 4. SOIL TESTS 33

4.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING SHEARING

4.2 TESTS FOR MEASURING SHEAR PROPERTIES

4.2.1 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST . 35

4.2.2 VANE SHEAR TEST 37

4.2.3 THE 'DUTCH' CONE PENETROMETER

4.2.5 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 43

4.2.6 THE TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST 46

4.2.6.1 Principle of the Triaxial

4.2.6.2 Methods of Triaxial Testing 56

4.2.6.3 Stress condition in specimen

4.2.6.4 Application of the Triaxial

4.2.6.4.1 Undrained tests on saturated

4.2.6.4.2 Undrained tests on partly

4.2.6.4.3 Consolidated-undrained tests

4.2.6.4.4 Drained tests 63

4.2.7 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST 66

4.2.8 APPLICATION OF THE TRIAXIAL TEST TO

4.2.8.1 Analysis in which pore pressure is

4.2.8.2 Analysis in which pore pressure

4.2.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE TRIAXIAL

Table No. Page

4.1 Relation of Consistency of Clay,

4.2 Sizes of Penetrometer needles 77

3.1 (a,b,c) Friction on Horizontal Surface 78

3.2 Modes of Failure in Soils

3.3 Shear Pattern

3.4 Graph of Coulomb Formula for shearing

3.5 a. Relationship between major and minor

3.6 Mohr Diagram for Normal and Shearing

3.7 Graph of q...(5 vs. axial strain for undrained

3.8 Graph of volumetric strain vs. axial

3.9 Stresses on a compressible, isotropic

3.10 Stress change stages in the Triaxial

4.1 Standard Split Barrel Sampler Assembly 82

4.2 Relation between relative density, and ,

N obtained from the Standard Penetration

4.3 Chart for correction of N values in sand for

4.4 Design chart for proportioning shallow

4.5 Relationship among Standard Penetration

4.6 a. Vane Shear Test Apparatus 86

4.7 Assumed distribution of shear stress on