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Zn CO2 and CO2

Fe corresponding oxide. ZnCO3 + 2HCl
Pb ZnCO3 ZnO + ZnCl2 + H2O + CO2
CO2
Cu Insoluble in water Decompose to form Reacts with dilute
Ag corresponding metal, acid to form salt,
O2 gas and CO2 H2O and CO2
2Ag2CO3 4Ag +
O2 + 2CO2

Test for CO32- salts

When trioxocarbonate (IV) salts are warmed with dilute acid, they liberate a colourless and
odourless gas acidic to moist litmus paper and turns lime water milky.
HCO3-
-
HCO3 salts are prepared by diluting excess CO2 into alkali.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2NaHCO3
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
All hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) salts decompose on heating to form corresponding
CO32- salt, H2O and CO2 and with acid release CO2
2KHCO3 K2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Carbon Cycle

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The carbon cycle is important because carbon is the fundamental building block of life and an
important component of many chemical processes. Every living thing needs carbon to live,
grow and reproduce. Carbon is a finite resource that cycles through the earth in many forms
in order to make carbon available to living organisms and remain in balance with other
chemical reactions in the atmosphere and in bodies of water like ponds and oceans.
The carbon cycle shows that carbon is being continuously circulated in nature as CO2. The
quantity of CO2 is being kept constant due to a balance of processes which use up CO 2 and
that which liberates it. The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is always kept constant at about
0.03% by volume.

Ways in which CO2 is continuously added to air are as follows:

1. Burning of materials such as wood, coal and petroleum products.
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O
2. Fermentation process. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
3. Respiration of plants and animals: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
4. Volcanic eruption

Ways in which CO2 is removed from the atmosphere

1. Process of photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
2. During rain, CO2 dissolves in rainwater, hence it is removed from the atmosphere.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
3. Some chemicals such as alkalis remove CO2 from the atmosphere by absorbing it.
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON

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A hydrocarbon is a compound containing hydrogen and carbon only. All hydrocarbons can be
represented by the molecular formula CxHy, where x and y are whole numbers.

Main classes of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are divided into two main classes namely aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon

Aliphatic (Straight chain) Aromatic

Eg. benzene
Acyclic Cyclic ring structure
Straight only Cyclo alkanes (straight chain turns into ring str.)
eg. Cyclopentane

Alkane Alkene Alkyne

Aliphatic Hydrocarbon
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are made up of carbon chains which may be acyclic or cyclic.

Acyclic compounds
In acyclic compounds, the carbon chains are straight or branched. The members of this group
are the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

Sources of hydrocarbon
1. Coal: Hydrocarbons are obtained by destructive distillation of coal, to obtain coal tar, eg,
coal tar (consisting of benzene, toluene & phenols) and coal gas (consisting of methane,
ethane etc)
2. Natural gas: It consists mainly of methane with varying proportions of ethane, butane, etc.
3. Petroleum: Gaseous, liquid & solid alkanes, alkenes, cyclo-alkanes, benzene,
ethylbenzene, naphthalene, etc.
Thus, the main source of alkanes are crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas.
Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons in which tetra valency of carbon atoms are fully satisfied
by single covalent bonds, ie, they contain only carbon-hydrogen and carbon-carbon bonds.
Example:
Methane H ethane H H propane H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
They can be represented by a general formula CnH2n+2, where n is an integer (a whole
number), starting from carbon number one

First ten members of the alkane series

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Name of alkane Molecular formula (CnH2n+2) Physical state

1. Methane CH4
2. Ethane C2H6 GASES
3. Propane C3H8
4. Butane C4H10
5. Pentane C5H12
6. Hexane C6H14
7. Heptane C7H16 LIQUIDS
8. Octane C8H18
9. Nonane C9H20
10. Decane C10H22

Alkenes
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond between the
carbon atoms in the molecule satisfying the valency of 4. The general molecular formula is
CnH2n, n starts from 2 eg, ethene
H H C C is the functional group of alkenes
C C
H H
First five members of the alkene series.
IUPAC Name Molecular formula (CnH2n) Structural formula
Ethene C2H4 CH2 = CH2
Propene C3H6 CH2 = CHCH3
But – 1 – ene C4H8 CH2 = CHCH2CH3
But – 2 – ene C4H8 CH3CH = CHCH3
Pent – 1 – ene C5H10 CH2 = CH(CH2)2CH3

Alkynes
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond between the carbon
atoms in the molecule and satisfying a valency of 4. The general formula is CnH2n-2, n starts
from 2, eg, ethyne.
H–C C–H – C C – is the functional group for alkyne.
First five members of alkyne series.
IUPAC Name Molecular formula ( CnH2n-2) Structural formula
Ethyne C2H2 CH CH
Propyne C3H4 CH CCH3
But – 1 – yne C4H6 CH CCH2CH3
But – 2 – yne C4H6 CH3C CCH3
Pent – 1 – yne C5H8 CH C(CH2)2CH3

Cyclic compounds

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In cyclic aliphatic compounds, the end carbon atoms of an acyclic carbon chain join together
to form a ring. Examples are: cycloalkanes, eg, cyclopentane
H H
H C C H
H C C H OR cyclopentane
H C H
H H

H H
H C C H OR cyclopropane
C
H H

Aromatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons are all cyclic compounds which contain one or more benzene (C6H6)
rings, eg benzene.
H
C
H C C H OR
H C C H
C Benzene
H

Saturated hydrocarbons
They are hydrocarbons in which the tetravalency of the carbon atoms are fully satisfied by
single bonds. Examples are alkanes.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons
They are hydrocarbons that can undergo addition reactions because they possess one or more
double (C – C = C - ) or triple (C – C C - ) bonds. Examples are alkenes and alkynes.

Formation of Crude oil

Petroleum or crude oil was formed as a result of the bacteria decomposition at the sea bed,
under pressure of animals and plants remains once living in the sea. Petroleum is another
fossil fuel found with natural gas.

Refining of Petroleum and Uses of fractions

The preparation of useful products from crude oil or petroleum is known as refining. The
refining of crude oil involves separation by fractional distillation into fractions of different
boiling point ranges to obtain petrol, fuel oil, paraffin wax, asphalt using a fractionating
column.

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Fractionating column in an oil refinery.

Properties and uses of different fractions of petroleum

Name of fractions Number of carbon Boiling Main use
atoms per point range
o
molecule C
Petroleum gas C1 – C4 Below 40 -Industrial and domestic
fuel.
-To produce H2S and CCl4
Petroleum ethers C5 – C7 40 - 65 Organic solvents
Petroleum ligroin C5 – C7 100 Organic solvents

Gasoline or petrol C10 – C18 175 - 250 -Fuel for motor cars.
-Fuel for small generators
-Source of chemicals
Kerosene C12 – C18 250 -Fuel for jet, aircraft.
-Use in lamps for lighting
purposes.
-fuel for cooking
Diesel oil C18 – C25 250 - 340 Fuel for diesel engine,
tractors and diesel car
engines.
-Fuel for big generators
Heavy oil, C19 – C35 340 - 500 As lubricants, waxes,
lubricating oil, Vaseline and very heavy
waxes oil for ships and boilers.
Creams, candles, hair care
products

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Asphalt, bitumen Above C35 Over 500 Road surfacing

Cracking
Cracking is the process of breaking higher molecular mass (long chain) alkane (hydrocarbon)
into smaller molecular mass alkanes (hydrocarbon). The two main methods are:
1. Thermal cracking
2. Catalytic cracking
Thermal cracking is the type of cracking in which long chain hydrocarbons of higher
boiling fractions of crude oil are heated in the presence of a catalyst, silica – alumina at a
reduced temperature (723K – 773K) and relatively lower pressure to give high grade motor
spirit (gasoline).
Catalytic cracking is the use of lower temperature and catalyst Al2O3
C8H18 C2H4 + C6H14
C17H36 C8H18 + 3C2H4 + C3H6

Octane Number (Octane Rating)

Octane number or rating is a measure of the performance of petrol in the engine. The octane
number is raised by the presence of branched chain hydrocarbons,
eg, 2, 2, 4 – trimethylpentane, C8H18
H CH3 H H H
H C C C C C H
H CH3 H CH3 H
Thus heptane, C7H16 that produces much knocking is given the value of 0% and 2, 2, 4 –
trimethylpentane which produces little knocking is given value of 100%. A petrol sample is
said to have an octane number of N% 2, 2, 4 - trimethylpentane and (100 – N)% heptanes.
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
Knocking
This is the tapping sound in a cylinder of an engine which makes the engine to lose power. It
can be prevented by adding chain alkanes or tetraethyl lead, [Pb(C2H5)4] referred to as TEL,
though the TEL causes pollution as lead poisoning.

Nigerian Petroleum
Nigerian petroleum has low sulphur that is why it is in high demand in the world. Such
petroleum is called sweet petroleum. If sulphur is not removed from petrol, this badly affects
the internal combustion engine of automobiles as sulphur (IV) oxide which is subsequently
produced attacks it. The process of removing sulphur is called desulphuring. Research
Chemists blend different petroleum fractions together to make new fuels or superior
multigrade oils. Multigrade oils are made by adding long chain molecular compounds to the
oil. To make standard fuel for jet aircraft and satellite – launching rockets, kerosene is mixed
with some quantity of gasoline (petrol).

Reforming

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Reforming is the rearrangement of atoms in the molecules of petroleum fractions into

different branched and cyclic hydrocarbons. It occurs at low temperatures in the presence of
catalyst, platinum. It improves the quality of petrol.

Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals are chemical products obtained from petroleum products or natural gas.
Ethane, propane, butane and other hydrocarbons extracted from crude oil and natural gas by
fractional distillation. When the long chain hydrocarbons are cracked petrochemicals are
obtained. Petrochemicals include ethene for making polyethene (plastic), propene, benzene,
toluene, xylene, butadiene, methanol, etc.

Classes of Petrochemicals
1. Olefins (unsaturated hydrocarbons of short carbon chains, from C1 – C4):- this include
ethene (for making plastics), propene (for making plastics), butadiene (for making
synthetic rubber)
2. Aromatics (ring structure):- such as benzene (for making dyes and detergents), toluene and
xylene
3. Synthetic gas:- such as Carbon (ii) oxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia (for making
fertilizer) and methanol (used as solvent)
Petrochemicals

Olefins Aromatics Synthetic gas

Ethene Propene Butadiene Benzene Toluene Xylene Ammonia

Methanol

plastics & synthetic fibres

Chemicals & plastics synthetic rubber dyes & detergents polyurethanes
fertilizer solvent

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are
exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. It is found in deep underground
rock formations. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the
form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a non-renewable resource because it
cannot be replenished on a human time frame.
Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly
includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of carbon (iv)
oxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide.
Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must be processed to remove impurities,
including water, to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas. The by-products of this
processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular mass
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide (which may be converted into pure sulphur), carbon (iv)

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oxide, water vapour, and sometimes helium and nitrogen. Natural gas is an odourless,
colourless and flammable gas.

Uses of Natural gas

1. for heating
2. for cooking
3. to generate electricity
4. fuel for vehicles
5. for the manufacture of plastics
6. manufacture of organic chemicals.
7. export as liquefied natural gas (LNG)
8. for the production of ammonia, (via the Haber process, for use in fertilizer production)

State three differences between cracking and reforming.

Cracking Reforming
It increases the quantity of petrol It improves the quality of petrol
Breaks down larger alkanes to lower Rearranges long straight chains to
alkanes branched chains alkanes
It requires high or low temperatures It requires low temperature

INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY

A chemical industry is the industry that uses chemical processes to convert raw materials into
useful products/ finished goods.

Importance of Raw Materials

-A raw material is a substance converted into finished goods.
-A raw material is a basic substance used in its natural, modified or semi processed state used
as
input to a production process for subsequent modification or transformation into a finished
good -A raw material is a feedstock used to produce goods.
The most basic raw for the chemical industry are petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone,
sodium chloride, sulphur, water, mineral ores and air.
1. Coal:- coal from the earth’s crust is destructively distilled to obtain:
(a) Coal gas:- used to produce fuel gas
(b) Coal tar:- which is fractionally distilled to obtain benzene, toluene, phenol,
naphthalene and cresols.
(c) Ammoniacal liquor:- used to yield ammonia gas for the manufacture of
fertilizer.
(d) Coke:- used to produce CO, CO2, water gas and producer(synthetic) gas.
2. Petroleum and natural gas:- When distilled by fractional distillation produces
products such as petroleum gas, kerosene, petrol, diesel oil, lubricating oil,
naphthalene, bitumen.
3. Limestone rock:- is broken down to obtain calcium oxide used in making cement
and concrete.
4. Common salt (sodium chloride):- occurs as rock salt underground of sea water.

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When NaCl is electrolysed sodium hydroxide and chlorine are obtained. Sodium
hydroxide is used in producing soap, while chlorine is used in producing
chloroalkane, used as raw material for the synthesis of rubber, paint, removers,
insecticide, dry cleaning agents and refrigerants.
5. Sulphur:- This occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. It is converted to
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and other sulphate salts.
6. Air:- It is the main source of oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrogen is used in the
Haber process for producing ammonia gas.
7. Metals:- are obtained from deposits on the earth’s crust. Metals are extracted to obtain
them in their pure states. Metals are used in constructing bridges, buildings, machines,
ships and aircrafts.
Division of Chemical Industry
A chemical industry is the industry that uses Chemical processes to convert raw materials
into useful products. Chemical industry is classified according to the products produced.
There are chemical industries which produce:
(a) acid, alkali and salts
(b) chemical product used to manufacture fibres and plastics
(c) chemical products used as raw materials for paint, fertilizer and explosives.
(d) chemical product used as cosmetics, drugs and soaps.

Heavy Chemical
-Heavy chemicals are chemicals which are produced and used in large quantities.
Example: NaOH, KOH, Na2CO3, HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, NH4OH, KHCO3, NH3, etc.

Fine Chemicals
-Fine chemicals are chemicals produced and used in small quantities.
-Fine chemicals are also chemicals manufactured to the purest state. Example: drugs, dyes,
perfumes, paints, bleaching powder; tetra ethyl lead TEL, analytical chemicals and
photographic chemicals, etc.
Difference between Heavy and Fine chemicals
Heavy chemicals Fine chemicals
1. It is produced in large quantities It is produced in small quantities
2. They are not produced to very high They are produced to very high degree of
degree of purity purity
3. It is less expensive It is more expensive

Fertilizer Industry
Fertilizers are synthetic manure added to the soil to increase the yield of crops, eg. NPK
(Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium). NH4NO3 [ammonium trioxonitrate (v)], (NH4)3PO3
[ammonium trioxophosphate (iii)] and NaNO3 [sodium trioxonitrate(v)] supply the nitrogen.
Phosphate rock supplies the phosphorous and Potassium compounds eg. KOH and KNO3
supply the potassium. Trace elements such as zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum (Mo) are
added to improve the NPK depending on the need of soil of that area.

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