CHEMISTRY

Syllabus

Chemistry IGCSE 0620 23-25 EXTENDED

TOPIC 11: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

General Understanding
General Formulae

Formula for Alkanes: C nH 2n + 2

Formula for Alkene: C nH 2n
Formula for Alcohols: C H nOH 2n+1

Formula for Carboxylic Acids: C nH 2n + 1 COOH

Statements

State that a saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon − carbon bonds
are single bonds , and state that an unsaturated compound has molecules in which
one or more carbon − carbon bonds are not single bonds .

Homologous Series

A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with the same functional

group and general formula, where each successive member differs by a −CH − unit. 2

This means that each molecule in the series has one more carbon atom and two more
hydrogen atoms than the previous one.

Examples

Alkanes: Methane (CH ), Ethane (C 4 2H6 ), Propane (C 3H8 )

Alkenes: Ethene (C 2
H4 ), Propene (C H6
3
), Butene (C 4
H8 )
Alcohols: Methanol (CH 3OH ), Ethanol (C 2H5OH ), Propanol (C 3H7OH )
Carboxylic Acids: Methanoic Acid (H COOH ), Ethanoic Acid (CH 3COOH ),
Propanoic Acid (C H COOH )
2 5

Esters: Methyl methanoate (H COOCH ), Ethyl ethanoate (CH 3

COOC2H5
3
), Propyl
propanoate (C H COOC H )
2 5 3 7

In each example you increased by −CH to get the next molecule.

2
Descriptions

Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series.

(a) having the same functional group
(b) having the same general formula
(c) differing from one member to the next by a −CH 2− unit
(d) displaying a trend in physical properties
(e) sharing similar chemical properties

Suffixes

Suffix Compound Type Examples

-ane Alkane Methane
-ene Alkene Ethene
-anol Alcohol Ethanol
-anoic acid Carboxylic acid Ethanoic Acid
-yl/anoate Ester

Hydro-Carbons
The Hydro-Carbons

Alkanes fall into the hydrocarbon family. You will be required to memorize the first
four .
Alkenes fall into the hydrocarbon family. You will be required to memorize the first
three.

Combustion Reactions

There are two types of combustion reactions, complete & incomplete

Complete Combustion

A complete combustion reaction with any organic compounds will produce Carbon
Dioxide and Water as its product . The general equation is:

CX HY + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Incomplete Combustion

An incomplete combustion reaction with any organic compounds will produce Carbon
Monoxide and Water as its product . The general equation is:

CX HY + O2 → CO + H2O

Note: Carbon Monoxide is poisonous & is harmful to the environment as well.

Alkanes

Statements

State that the bonding of carbon − carbon in alkanes are all single bonds, and that they
are saturated hydrocarbons .

Formulae

You must also know how to draw the structural formula for each alkane.
You can use the General Formula to figure out the symbol equation: C nH 2n + 2

1. Methane (CH 4)
2. Ethane (C 2H 6)
3. Propane (C 3H 8)
4. Butane (C 4H 10)
The difference between each compound in this family is −CH 2−, which falls into
the general characteristics stated earlier. **The functional group is the C-C bond
They are also saturated , since the carbon − carbon bond is a single bond.

Properties

As the chain length (amount of CH) increases the boiling point increases.
All 4 alkanes previously mentioned are gasses at room temperature.
Short alkanes are more volatile , which means they evaporate more easily.
Long alkanes are viscous , which means they are more sticky.
Alkanes are also the least reactive organic compound.
Lastly, short alkanes are also more flammable .
Note: As chain length increases , alkanes become less flammable due to higher
activation energy

Isomers

In IGCSE, you're only required to know the isomer of butane, the naming, and the
structural formulae.
check booklet for the structural formulae for butane and iso-butane, page 5

Combustion Reactions [D]

One of the main uses for alkanes is in fuels , that's because they produce enormous
amounts of energy. Take for example Complete Combustion .

H ydroCarbon + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + W ater

This is an Exothermic reaction, which produces tons of energy in the form of heat.
The Hydrocarbon in the reaction gets oxidised.
You must be able to write the balanced equations for combustion reactions [D].
 C3H8 + 5O2 → 4H2O + 3CO2

There can also be incomplete combustion reactions, they generally follow the same
formulae as complete combustion, however instead of producing carbon dioxide CO2,
it produces CO, which is carbon monoxide , and its toxic .

H ydroCarbon + Oxygen = Carbon M onoxide + W ater

It's also an Exothermic reaction, which produces energy & the hydrocarbon is
oxidised, here's an example equation:

3
CH4 + O2 → 2H2O + CO
2

[In exams, it's generally recommended to not use fractions when balancing]
Substitution Reactions [D]

Alkanes go through substitutional reactions, where the atom of another element

(mainly halogens) under UV light replaces the hydrogen atom ( Photochemical )
The presence of UV light is to provide activation energy
The general formula for this reaction is

U V −LI GH T
−
Alkane + H alogen → H aloalkane + H ydrogen H alide

light

CnH2n+2 + X2
− → CnH2n+1X + H X

X: Halogen , C H : Alkane
n 2n+1

An example equation of this type of reaction is Methane with Chlorine

light
CH4 + Cl2
− → CH3Cl + H Cl

Alkenes

Statements

State that the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon − carbon covalent bond ,
and that they are unsaturated hydrocarbons .
State that alkenes also have isomers; like but-1-ene & but-2-ene

Formulae

You must also know how to draw the structural formula for each alkene.
You can use the General Formula to figure out the symbol equation: C nH2n

2. Ethene (C H )
2 4

3. Propene (C H )
3 6

4. Butene (C H )
4 8

The difference between each compound in this family is −CH −, which falls into the
2

general characteristics stated earlier. The functional group is the C=C bond
Notice how there is no "Methene" , this is because an alkene must contain a double
bond of carbon, which is impossible with only 1 carbon. Thus the simplest alkene is
Ethene.
Properties

As the chain length increases (more carbon atoms), the boiling point of alkenes
increases.
Short alkenes are gases at room temperature, while longer alkenes are typically
liquids .
Short alkenes are more volatile , meaning they evaporate more easily.
Longer alkenes are more viscous , making them more sticky .
*Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of a carbon-carbon
double bond.
Short alkenes are more flammable than longer ones.
They can be used to form Polymers.

Isomers

In IGCSE, you're only required to know the isomer of butene, the naming, and the
structural formulae.
check booklet for the structural formulae for but-1-ene and but-2-ene, page 7

Bromine Water Test

If you add bromine water to a solution of alkenes , the alkenes will turn the bromine
water's orange-brown color into colourless . This is the test for Alkenes.

Cracking [D]

Statements

State that cracking is a Thermal Decomposition Reaction, which means breaking

down molecules by heat.

There are two methods: catalytic cracking & steam cracking .

Regardless of which method you choose, you must turn the long chain hydrocarbon
into a gas by vaporising it with heat .

State that cracking is used to produce an alkene (and sometimes hydrogen) from an
alkene.

Catalytic Cracking

You need a Hot Powdered Aluminum Oxide ready as your catalyst.

You then pass the vaporised hydrocarbon over the catalyst, and as it comes into
contact it will split into two smaller hydrocarbons, one of which will be a short-chain
compound with a C=C bond.
 Steam Cracking

Mix the vaporised hydrocarbon with steam, and heat them with very high
temperatures which will then split it into two smaller hydrocarbons

Cracking Equations [D]

A long chain alkane after cracking will give you a shorter chain alkane with an alkene.

Long Chain Alkane → Short Alkane + Alkene

–

This is the word equation for the reaction.

Note that the symbol equation must be balanced, if you had octane (which has 18
hydrogen and 8 carbon) be cracked, then the products must also add up to that total
(18 hydrogen and 8 carbon), here's a practical example:

C10H22 → C8H18 + C2H4

cracking is used to meet the demand for short-chain hydrocarbons (e.g., fuels) and
produce alkenes

Addition Reaction

Since alkenes are unsaturated ('meaning': they have a double bond of carbon), they
can undergo addition reactions, which means the carbon − carbon bond can open up
for more molecules to bond with.

You must know 3 types of addition reactions: Hydrogen, Water, and Halogens

With Hydrogen

The general idea of a reaction between hydrogen and an alkene is

Catalyst
Alkene + H ydrogen
− → Alkane

The double bond will break, so it will become saturated.

The catalyst must also be a Nickel (N i) catalyst.

With Water

The general idea of a reaction between water and an alkene is

Catalyst, H igh temp
−
Alkene + W ater → Alcohol

This is a very important reaction.

The catalysts must be Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 or Phosphoric Acid .
H3P O4

With Halogens

The general idea of a reaction between halogen and an alkene is:

 Alkene + H alogen → H aloalkane

This reaction with bromine is very common, and is used to distinguish between an
alkene and alkane, since alkenes are more reactive than alkanes , the bromine's brown
color will disappear.
The formed product will contain an Alkane not an Alkene, so if you write Propene
instead of Propane, its wrong.
Examples

Here is an example of an addition reaction with water (as steam)

H2SO4

Ethene + W ater
− → Ethanol

H2SO4
C2H4 + H2O
− → C2H5OH

One of the hydrogens from the water will be given to the alkene, since the equation for
alcohols is CnH2n+1 OH .

Here is an example of an addition reaction with hydrogen (nickel catalyst)

Ni

P ropene + H ydrogen → P ropane

−

Ni

C3H6 + H2 → C3H8
−

All the hydrogens join the alkene to form the alkane.

Here is an example of an addition reaction with Halogen (common test)

P ropene + Bromine → Dibromo P ropane

C3H6 + Br2 →C3H6Br2

The color of the solution will be colorless, unlike with alkane which would remain red-
brown.

Uses

They are not waste products and can be used to make polymers.
Ethene is used to make polyethylene or commonly known as plastic.
Propene is used in the produce of polypropylene plastics.
Alkene in general is used for the manufacture of polymers, detergents and alcohols.

Alcohols
Statements

You must state the uses of ethanol as:

(a) a solvent
(b) a fuel
 Descriptions

Describe the two ways in which you can manufacture ethanol , by fermentation &
catalytic addition of steam, the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Describe the combustion of ethanol.

Formulae

You must also know how to draw the structural formula for each alcohol.
You can use the General Formula to figure out the symbol equation: C H n
OH
2n+1

1. Methanol (CH OH
3
)
2. Ethanol (C2H5OH )
3. Propanol (C 3
H7OH )
4. Butanol (C 4H9OH )
The difference between each compound in this family is −CH , which falls into
2−

the general characteristics stated earlier. **The functional group is OH

Properties
1. They are flammable; means they can undergo complete combustion in air
2. They are ; can dissolve in water, and will have a neutral pH
3. They can be oxidised to produce carboxylic acids;
4. It is a saturated organic compound

Manufacturing

Fermentation of Aqueous Glucose (Ethanol)

Memorize these following steps:

1. Yeast is added to dissolved glucose in the absence of oxygen , at a temperature

around 25–35 °C for optimum enzyme activity.
2. This produces Ethanol & Carbon Dioxide , and it's a slow reaction that produces a
dilute solution that requires processing , and can only be produced in batches

Advantages: Uses renewable resources

Disadvantages: Produces greenhouse gasses CO 2

The word & symbol equation are as follows for this reaction:
yeast

Glucose
− → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

yeast
−
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Catalytic Addition of Steam to Ethene

Memorize these following steps:

 1. Ethene reacts with steam (reversibly) to form ethanol in the following conditions:
300°C, 60 atm (6000 kPa), and phosphoric acid as a catalyst
2. This produces pure ethanol , with continuous production ( no batches ), and does
not produce any greenhouse pollutants.

Advantages: No greenhouse pollutants

Disadvantages: Uses non-renewable resources (crude oil)

The word equation are as follows for this reaction:

Ethene + Steam ⇌ Ethanol

The uses of ethanol are: organic solvent & as a bio-fuel

Combustion Reaction

As stated earlier in the properties of alcohols, they are flammable; so they undergo
complete combustion which goes like this:

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

This is Ethanol being combusted to produce water and carbon dioxide ; The equation
must also be balanced.

Carboxylic Acids
Descriptions

Describe the reaction of an ethanoic acid with metals, bases, carbonates , including
the names and formulae of the salts produced.

Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol:

(a) with acidified aqueous potassium manganate (V I )
(b) by bacterial oxidation during vinegar production

Describe the reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol using an acid catalyst to form
an ester.

Fuels
Statements

You must name the types of fossil fuels as: coal, natural gas, and petroleum.
You must name methane as the main constituent of natural gas.
You must state that hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon
only .
Crude Oil

Crude oil is a fossil fuel that is a mixture of many compounds, and most of them are
hydrocarbons. Crude oil is formed naturally by dead organisms [Not Required].

We must separate the crude oil's components by fractional distillation .

Since fractional distillation separates fractions based on heat, the crude oil's
components each have their own Boiling & Melting Point.

You first feed the crude oil into a chamber and heat it until most of it turns into gas.
then pass it into a Fractionating Column, where the bottom is extremely hot and as
you go up the temperature decreases.

The gas will then condense into a liquid at different parts of the fractionating column
based on their boiling points , compounds with a high boiling point will condense at
the bottom, while the ones with a lower boiling point will condense at the top.

From the bottom to the top:

(a) Decreasing chain length
(b) Higher volatility
(c) Lower boiling points
(d) Lower viscosity
(e) Decreasing Temperature
These applies to the properties of alkanes listed earlier.

OR

From the top to the bottom:

(a) Increasing chain length
(b) Lower volatility
(c) Higher boiling points
(d) Higher viscosity
(e) Increasing temperature

You are required to know these substances obtained from crude oil .

1. Refinery Gas [Used in Cooking & Heating]

2. Gasoline / Petrol [Fuel in Cars]
3. Naphtha [Chemical feedstock]
4. Kerosene [Jet Fuel]
5. Diesel Oil [Used in Diesel Engines]
6. Fuel Oil [Used in Ships & home heating]
7. Lubricating Oil [Used for lubricants]
8. Bitumen [Making Roads]
These are from lowest boiling point (top) to highest boiling point (bottom).
Polymers
Statements

You must state that plastics are made from polymers.

State that polymers differ in their monomers and linkage.
Identify a Homo-polymer as a polymer with only one type of monomer, and identify a
Co-polymer as a polymer with more than one type of monomer.

Naming

To name any polymer, you put the word 'Poly' in-front of the monomer's name, with
the monomer's name in brackets.
Butene -> Poly(Butene)

Naming organic compounds

You will be required to name & draw the displayed formulae of:

Methane and Ethane

Ethene
Ethanol
Ethanoic acid
Products of all reactions stated in this section, they will be given a [D] tag.

Structural Formulae
Alkanes

Study the st.f from the booklet provided, this is only explained in text
Methane CH -> (H surrounding C in all directions)
4

Ethane C 2H6 -> (Two C connected together by a single bond, with H surrounding
them)
Propane C 3H8 -> (Three C connected together by a single bond, with H surrounding
them)
Butane C 4H10 -> (Four C connected together by a single bond, with H surrounding
them)
Memorize Iso-Butane from booklet, here is a general explanation
Three C connected together by a single bond, H surrounding them, except the middle
C, has an H missing up or down, and instead has a bond with another C, that C is
surrounded by H except where it's bonded with the carbon

Alkenes

Study the st.f from the booklet provided, this is only explained in text
General Formula: C n
H2n
 Ethene C 2
H4 -> (Two carbon atoms connected by a double bond, each carbon is
surrounded by two hydrogen atoms to satisfy the octet rule.)
Propene C 3H6 ​-> (Three carbon atoms, with a double bond between the first and
second carbon. The first carbon is bonded to two hydrogens, the second carbon
is bonded to one hydrogen, and the third carbon is bonded to three hydrogens.)
Butene C 4H8 ​-> (*Four carbon atoms with a double bond at the first or second
position, forming two possible isomers:
But-1-ene: Double bond between the first and second carbon.
But-2-ene: Double bond between the second and third carbon.*)

Memorize Iso-Butene from booklet, here is a general explanation

(Three carbons in a row connected by single bonds. The second carbon has a double
bond with a fourth carbon atom. Each carbon atom is surrounded by hydrogen except
for those involved in the double bond.)

For cyclic alkenes, use the general formula C nH2n, and note that the structure forms a
closed ring with at least one double bond.

Alcohols

General Formula: C n
H2n+1OH

1. Methanol CH 3OH -> (One carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms and one
hydroxyl group (-OH).).

2. Ethanol C 2H5OH -> (Two carbon atoms connected by a single bond. The first
carbon is bonded to three hydrogen atoms, the second carbon is bonded to two
hydrogen atoms, and there is a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the second
carbon)

3. Propanol C 3
H7OH -> (Three carbon atoms connected by single bonds. The first
carbon is bonded to three hydrogen atoms, the second carbon is bonded to two
hydrogen atoms, and the third carbon is bonded to two hydrogen atoms with a
hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the third carbon.)

Definitions
Homologous Series: a family with similar compounds with similar chemical properties
due to the presence of the same functional group .

Functional Group: a group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement that
is responsible for the characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous series

Structural Isomers: compounds with the same molecular formula , but different
structural formula.
Saturated Compound: molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds

Un-Saturated Compound: molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon bonds are

not single bonds

Hydro-Carbons: Any compound that's formed from carbon and hydrogen only
Long Alkane: An alkane which it's chain length is considerable long
Short Alkane: An alkane which it's chain length is short , like Methane

Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required to activate

atoms/molecules so that they can undergo chemical transformation

Petroleum: a mixture of hydrocarbons ( Carbon and Hydrogen ONLY ) which can be

separated into useful fractions by fractional distillation

Polymer: large macromolecule built up from many smaller molecules called monomers

Structural Formula is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule

are arranged.

Dictionary
Unambiguous: not open to more than one interpretation
Volatile: (of a substance) easily evaporated at normal temperatures.
Constituent: being a part of a whole.