Lesson 1 - Ecology

Lesson 1:
ECOLOGY
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, students are expected to:
● Relate the study of environmental science to the civil engineering

profession;
● Determine various renewable and non-renewable resources;
● Identify the abiotic and biotic components of the environment;
● Explain the diversity of biological organisms; and,
● Enumerate the different environmental pollutants and their sources.

Table Of Contents
01 02 03
Definition, Scope, and
Importance
Natural Resources Ecosystem
04 05
Biodiversity and Pollution and its
Conservation Factors
01
Definition, Scope, and
Importance
What is
Environment?
Why are people
taking so much
interest in
Environment in
recent years?
Why are people so
much concerned
about the
environmental
issues of the day?
Definition of
Environment
Definition of Environment
Boring:
‘A person’s environment consists of

the sum total of the stimulation
which he receives from his
conception until his death.’
Douglas and Holland:
‘The term environment is used to

describe, in the aggregate, all the
external forces, influences and
conditions, which affect the life,
nature, behavior and the growth,
development and maturity of living
organisms.’
Environment
means all that
surrounds us.
Environment performs different
functions in relation to man:
a. recreation and aesthetics,

b. source of natural resources,
c. sink for wastes produced by
human activities.
Scope of
Environment
Scope of Environment
The environment consists of four
segments as under:
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
1. Atmosphere
The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of
gases, surrounding the earth.
1. Atmosphere
a) It sustains life on the earth.
b) It saves it from the hostile environment
of outer space.
c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays

from outer space and a major portion
of the electromagnetic radiation from
the sun.
d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible,

near infrared radiation (300 to 2500
nm) and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m)
while filtering out tissue-damaging
ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm.
1. Atmosphere
The atmosphere is composed of:
21%
Oxygen
78%
Nitrogen 1%
Combination of
Helium, Carbon Dioxide,
Methane, and Hydrogen
2. Hydrosphere
The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water
resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
2. Hydrosphere
About 2% of the water
resources is locked in the
polar ice caps and glaciers
Only about 1% is
available as fresh surface
water – rivers, lakes
97% of the earth’s
streams, and ground
water supply is in
water fit to be used for
the oceans
human consumption and
other uses
3. Lithosphere
Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It
consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts
and the soil.
4. Biosphere
Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms
and their interactions with environment, viz
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Elements of the Environment
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological
and cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as
collectively. These elements may be explained as under:
1. Physical elements
Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies,
climate soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable
character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as
limitations.
2. Biological elements
Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms
and men constitute the biosphere.
3. Cultural elements
Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements
are essentially manmade features, which make cultural milieu.
Elements of the Environment
ENVIRONMENT
Physical Elements Biological Elements Cultural Elements
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere Economic Social Political
Plants Microbes Animals Man

Importance of
Environmental
Studies
Importance of Environmental Studies
Environment Studies enlighten us about the
importance of protection and conservation of
our indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment.
At present a great number of environment

issues, have grown in size and complexity day
by day, threatening the survival of mankind on
earth. We study about these issues besides
and effective suggestions in the Environment
Studies.
Environment studies have become significant
for the following reasons:
1. Environmental Issues Being of International

Importance
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of
Development
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
4. Need for An Alternative Solution
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development
4. Need for An Alternative Solution
It is essential, specially for developing countries to

find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We
need a goal as under:
i. A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of

development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.
ii. A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
iii. A goal distant from the developing world in
the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
Misra’s Report
Misra (1991) recognized four basic principles of
ecology, as under:
i. Holism
ii. Ecosystem
iii. Succession
iv. Conversation.
Holism has been considered as the real base of
ecology. In hierarchical levels at which
interacting units of ecology are discussed, are as
under:
Individual<population<community<ecosystem
<biome<biosphere.
Misra’s Report
Misra (1991) has recognized four basic
requirements of environmental management
as under:
i. Impact of human activities on the

environment
ii. Value system
iii. Plan and design for sustainable
development
iv. Environment education
Need for Public
Awareness
Need for Public Awareness
It is essential to make the public aware of the
formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative
measures undertaken, result in the extinction of
life. We are facing various environmental
challenges.
Need for Public Awareness
It is essential to get the country acquainted with
these challenges so that their acts may be eco-
friendly. Some of these challenges are as under:
1. Growing Population
2. Poverty
3. Agricultural Growth
4. Need to Ground water
5. Development and Forests
6. Degradation of Land
7. Reorientation of Institutions
8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity
9. Evil Consequences of Urbanization
10. Air and water Pollution
The Three Aspects of Man
1. The Physical Man
2. The Social Man
3. The Economic Man

1. The Physical Man
The ‘Physical Man’ is one of the organisms

populations or biological community. He is in
need of basic elements of the physical
environment like habitat (space), air, water
and food. Besides, like other biological
populations, he releases wastes into the
ecosystem.
2. The Social Man
The ‘Social Man’ performs the following

functions:
a. Establishing social institutions

b. Forming social organizations
c. Formulating laws, principles and policies
d. Taking steps to safeguard his existence,
interest and social welfare
3. The Economic Man
The economic man derives and utilizes

resources from the physical and biotic
environment with his skills and technologies.
The economic function makes the man an
environment/ geomorphic process as he
transports matter and energy from one
component of the ecosystem to the other.
3. The Economic Man
There may be any following two situations:

a. His exploitative functions may be in harmony
with the natural environment. Such, functions
do not necessarily involve change in the
working of the ecosystem.
b. These functions may exceed the critical limit.
Consequently, the equilibrium of the
environment/ecosystem is disturbed and a
great number of environment and ecological
problems crop up. These are detrimental to
man him besides to whole population of
human species in a given ecosystem.
End of
Topic 01
“In nature,
nothing
exists alone.”
– Rachel
Carson
02
Natural Resources
Natural Resources
A natural resource may be
defined as any material given to
us by nature which can be
transformed in a way that it
becomes more valuable and
useful.
Natural Resources
For an example wood is
used for making furniture.
Natural Resources
Yarn obtained from cotton is
used for weaving cloth.
Natural Resources
Likewise, various machine,
tools and household goods
are made of metals.
Natural Resources
Water, minerals, forests, wildlife as
well as human beings are
resources. Any material may be
called, as a resource provided and
appropriate technology is available
to transform that into more
valuable goods.
Earth Resources and Man
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
1. Atmosphere
• Oxygen
Oxygen is a vital element

of earth that supports life.
1. Atmosphere
Oxygen is utilized for the following:

• Human and animals do respiration
(metabolic requirement to convert food into
energy).
• Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems
and domestic birds and animals used for
human’s food.
• Oxygen for degrading waste. Natural process
of oxidation breaks down inorganic and
organic waste for cleaning the environment.
• Oxygen is a part of 𝐶𝑂2 , required for the
growth of plants, in turn used by man.
• Oxygen required to keep the fire going.
2. Hydrosphere
• Water
Water is an important
compound available on
the planet. Life begins in
water, and water is the
essence of life.
2. Hydrosphere
Water is utilized for the following:

•Clean water is used for drinking by living
organisms.
•Water is used for cleaning, washing and cooking.
•Ocean water evaporates by solar energy, drops
down as rain to nourish forests and irrigate
agriculture fields.
•Water is used for industry.
•Cool breeze under the shade of a tree is caused
by water vapor in the air.
•Food items from sea such as fish, crab, lobster
and sea weed.
•Water flowing down in rivers from hilly areas is
harnessed to generate hydro-electric power.
•Water dissolves and transports nutrients from soil
to plants. It is used by plants to make food.
3. Lithosphere
• Soil
Soil is an important natural

resource on which man is
dependent for his
agriculture. Components of
soil are: mineral particles and
humus for healthy growth of
plants, moisture for nutrients to
form solution that is absorbed
by plants and oxygen for
respiration of soil organisms.
3. Lithosphere
Lithosphere contents are used as:

• Soil, the basic for agriculture production, provides
us food.
• Soil stores and releases nutrients for sustenance
of natural and agro-ecosystem.
• Soil, fauna and fungi in soil are living organisms of
lithosphere, act to breakdown animal waste and
plant litter to produce nutrients for plants.
• All the minerals on which our industries are based.
• Stone, gravel, shingle and sand used for civil
construction works.
• Coal, oil and natural gas are extracted from
underground. They are used to generate electric
power, for operating industry and agriculture
machinery, to run vehicles and homes.
4. Biosphere
Biosphere materials support the following

activities:
• Food from crops and domestic animals,
provide human metabolic requirements.
• Food, for all forms of life in a habitat and
organism of all species in a community. It
forms a food chain in nature on which man
is also dependent.
• Energy Fuels: biomass fuel, wood required to
cook food is collected from trees and forest.
Recycling of city garbage supply landfill gas
(calorific value 4500 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙Τ𝑚3 ). Biodiesel, a
liquid fuel is produced from non-edible oil
seeds called Jatropha.
• Timber and herbs obtained from forest.
Classification of Natural Resources
On the basis of continuity, the
resources are classified as under:
1. Renewable Resources
2. Non-renewable Resources.
Resources, which can be renewed along

with their exploitation, are always
available for use. Hence they are called
renewable resources. For instance,
forests are renewable. If trees are felled
for wood, original forest covers may be
maintained through planting new trees
i.e. a forestation. Likewise, solar energy
and wind energy are examples of
renewable resources.
Solar energy is the prime source of energy for

all ecological system. Ecosystem act as
resource producer for living organisms and are
capable to recycle their waste. A forest is a rich
ecosystem and recycles dead plant materials
i.e., leaves, branches, flowers, unused fruit to the
soil. Grasslands act faster than forests to
recycle its dried grass after rainy season.
Different aquatic ecosystems are activated by
solar energy and have cycles of growth when
plant life develops and aquatic animals breed.
Solar energy provides driving force to water
cycle.
Forests are valuable natural resource, a major

source of oxygen, habitats for animals, source of
timber, bamboo and sandalwood. Dry forests
are prone to fire. Forests once destroyed by
overuse, due to development projects or natural
disaster take hundreds of years to re-grow into
developed natural ecosystems.
Our food comes from both natural and

agricultural ecosystems. Food requirement has
increased to meet higher demand. Thus, rainfall
dependent agriculture system is modified to
irrigation system beside addition of extra
chemicals to meet the food requirement. The
changeover from cultivation to modern
agriculture system created several environmental
problems, viz;
a. Land productivity reduced as soil turned saline
due to extra irrigation.
b. Use of chemical and fertilizers ruined soil
quality.
c. Pesticides became health hazard for humans.
d. With modern practices, output of agriculture
land reduces.
Population of plant and animal

species is reduced by human
activities. Species are most distinct
and stable units. Their decline
indicates environment degradation.
Action is required to improve the
reproduction, lest before the
species becomes extinct.
2. Non-Renewable Resources
The formation of some resources like iron

ore, coal, mineral oil etc. has taken
several thousand years. Once they are
used in unlimited way, they cannot be
easily replaced. Thus, their exploitation at
large scale will result in their fast
depletion. Some such resources are
called non-renewable resources or
exhaustible.
Mineral resources of the earth are fuels,

metals and non-metals. These are called
non-renewable resources. Once used, it
cannot be renewed or replenished.
Metals may be recycled and other
material becomes waste.
Non-renewable resources include fossil

fuels, i.e., coal, oil and gas, that if
extracted and consumed at present rate,
will soon be exhausted. End products of
fossil fuels are: mechanical energy,
electric power and 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂, 𝑆𝑂2 etc. which
cannot be reconstituted as a resource.
Air is polluted by obnoxious exhaust
gases from thermal power house, motor
vehicles and industries. Air pollution
affects growth, living and life of humans,
animals plants and organisms.
Industries require raw materials from

nature to manufacture consumer goods.
Raw materials in use are; water, mineral,
biomass, fossil fuel and power. During
manufacturing process, gases, solid
waste and liquid chemical discharge
pollute the environment.
3. Cyclic Resources
For resources there is no final use as

they can be used continuously. For
example, water used in industry and
domestic ways can be cleaned and
used again for similar or other
purpose. Such resources are given
the name of Cyclic Resources.
Natural Resources and
Associated Problems
LAND RESOURCES
A. LAND DEGREDATION
1. Urbanization
2. Agricultural Practices
3. Industrial Activities
4. Overgrazing
5. Mining
B. SOIL EROSION
C. DESERTIFICATION
D. DEFORESTATION
1. Infrastructure and
Development Projects
2. Mining
LAND RESOURCES
A. LAND DEGREDATION
Land degradation is a process in which the
quality of land is affected by a combination of
human induced processes. Land degradation
has affected a significant portion of Earth’s
arable land. The degraded land has lower
productivity of food, fiber, fodder, fuel, and
biodiversity. The decreasing agricultural
productivity in turn affects the wealth of a
nation. The degraded land should be
rehabilitated for the following reasons:
• To produce more food and other
agricultural and industrial products.
• For maintaining nutrient status of the soil by
preventing soil erosion.
• For preserving wildlife.
LAND RESOURCES
A.1 Urbanization
The rapid expansion of urban areas all
over the world due to rise in population
and economic growth is bringing about
land use changes especially in big cities.
Land intrusion on productive agricultural
land is bringing about land degradation.
Due to the acceleration of the global
urbanization there is a loss of arable
land, habitat destruction and decline in
vegetation cover.
LAND RESOURCES
A.2 Agricultural Practices
The modern agricultural practices by
indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides have degraded the
quality and fertility of agricultural land.
Excessive irrigation can also damage soil.

It causes water logging and salinization.
When irrigation water is not absorbed
into the soil, the water evaporates
leaving on surface a thin crust of
dissolved salts. This accumulation of
salts is called Salinization. The plant
growth is retarded in the saline soil.
LAND RESOURCES
A.3 Industrial Activities
Industries are major cause of land

degradation; on the other hand,
development of industries is
important for economic growth of a
country. Large tracts of forest and
agricultural land are converted for
construction of industries.
LAND RESOURCES
A.4 Overgrazing
As the demand for cattle has

increased, more area is required for
grazing. As result the grazing area is
under pressure. Overgrazing
decreases the growth of natural
vegetation and increases growth of
unwanted plant species. The reduce
plant cover leads to soil erosion and
land degradation.
LAND RESOURCES
A.5 Mining
Minerals are used as raw material for
many industries and thus play an
important role in the industrialization and
prosperity of a nation. However, careless
way of mining has detrimental effect on
the environment. Land degradation by
mining is common in most countries of
the world. Mining disturbs the land and
produces waste in the form of dust,
stones and rocks. Mining also emits toxic
chemicals into atmosphere.
LAND RESOURCES
B. SOIL EROSION
The loss of top layer of soil is called soil
erosion. Once the nutrient rich top soil is lost,
the soil becomes barren and can not
support plant growth. Soil erosion is the
movement of top soil from one place to
another. The two main agents of erosion are
flowing water and wind. The amount of soil
carried away depends on the speed of wind
and water. Also the lost of vegetation cover
increases the rate of erosion. Plants slow
down the movement of rain. The roots of
plants hold the soil and prevent erosion.
When plant cover is destroyed then soil
becomes vulnerable to soil erosion.
LAND RESOURCES
C. DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is process of land

degradation where economically
productive land becomes less productive
and is incapable of sustaining
communities which depended on it.
Desertification occurs mainly because of
prolonged drought and human activities
that degrade top soil.
LAND RESOURCES
D. DEFORESTATION
Deforestation occurs when trees are

cut at a pace exceeding the rate of
natural re-growth. Deforestation is
caused by the growing demand for
forest products and the conversion
of forests for agricultural land.
LAND RESOURCES
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
1. Infrastructure and Development
Projects
 Diversion of forest land for
human settlements and
construction of roads is a big
threat to forest.
2. Mining
 Forest degradation, due to
mining and other projects, has
depleted the ecosystems. In the
name of development, the
poverty-stricken and
marginalized Tribes are losing
out on their livelihood.
WATER RESOURCES
A. OVEREXPLOITATION OF SURFACE
WATER
B. OVERUSE OF GROUND WATER

WATER RESOURCES
A. OVEREXPLOITATION OF SURFACE
WATER
Fresh water is becoming scarce in rural areas of
poor countries. The surface water is getting
polluted by domestic sewage, industrial and
agricultural wastes. Industrial effluents and
domestic sewage is directly discharged into the
rivers, without adequate treatment to remove
harmful compounds. Surface water also
becomes polluted when rain water carries
pollutants into the water bodies.
Surface water pollution has detrimental effect

on the aquatic ecosystem and is unsafe for
human consumption.
WATER RESOURCES
Ground water is another source of fresh water.
When surface water is inadequate to meet our
demand then we have to depend on ground
water. When water infiltrates the ground and is
stored in spaces in soil, it is called the
groundwater. Aquifers (porous water saturated
layers of soil and bed rock through which
ground water flows.) hold ground water.
Aquifers are recharged slowly by rain water and
some time by nearby streams.
Over pumping of groundwater can lead to

drying up of aquifers. Aquifer depletion is a
problem in many countries.
WATER RESOURCES
Ground water is a precious resource which
needs to be conserved. The solution to water
scarcity is to build dams and reservoirs to store
water.
Drip irrigation should be adopted by farmers to

reduce wastage of water. The augmentation of
ground water by Rain Water Harvesting, is the
need of the hour. It is an old technology, gaining
popularity in a new way. Rain Water Harvesting
should be mandatory for rural and urban areas.
WATER RESOURCES
FLOOD
A flood is an overflow of water which
submerges dry lands. The overflow of
rivers, lakes or other water bodies is the
source of flood. Due to heavy rainfall
there is too much water to fit in the rivers
and water spreads over the adjoining
land. Floods can happen very quickly
when lots of heavy rain falls over a short
period of time. These ‘flash floods’ occur
with little or no warning and cause the
biggest loss of human life than any other
type of flooding.
WATER RESOURCES
FLOOD
Floods are natural phenomenon, which

kills people and damages property and
agricultural crops. Human activities can
increase the occurrence and intensity of
flood damage in several ways. One is
deforestation in hilly areas, where during
heavy rains, erosion of top soil floods
river and reservoirs.
Flood risk can be reduced by

afforestation and building dams. Dams
store water in reservoir and release the
water gradually.
WATER RESOURCES
DROUGHT
Drought is a period of below average

rainfall in a given area. It can also be
described as a relatively long time when
there is not enough water as a result of
dry weather to support human, animal
and plant life. During the drought period
there is not enough supply of water for
irrigation, municipal and industrial
functioning. A drought can last for a few
months or years. It can have significant
impact on agriculture.
WATER RESOURCES
CONFLICTS OVER WATER
Water shortage is brought about by the

steady increase in population,
urbanization, industrialization and
change in rainfall pattern. Disputes
related to international waters are more
common in developing countries
because here the rates of population
growth and urbanization both are high,
and per capita water availability is
already low.
ENERGY RESOURCES
USE OF NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
ENERGY RESOURCES
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Non-renewable energy is limited in

supply and gets depleted by use.
ENERGY RESOURCES
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY:
FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas

are example of non-renewable energy.
These fossil fuels are remains of organism
that lived millions of year ago which got
buried under layer of sediments and were
converted by heat and pressure into coal
and oil. Fossil fuels are harmful for the
environment as air pollution due to emission
of green house gases such as carbon
dioxide is responsible for global warming
and climate change.
ENERGY RESOURCES
OIL
We have finite reserves of oil whereas our

rate of consumption is very high. That is
why there is world-wide concern for oil
shortage.
Several research groups have predicted

that in the near future, oil will be
insufficient to meet the demand and this
will lead to massive disruption in
transportation, industrial and agricultural
sector Another reason for opting for
clean fuel is that use of fossil fuel brings
about global warming.
ENERGY RESOURCES
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is found above the oil

reserves and it is a mixture of methane,
butane, ethane and propane. Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG) is made up of
propane and butane. Methane is
pumped into pipelines and this
compressed natural gas (CNG) is used
as a clean fuel.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
These are the sources of energy which

are replenished and inexhaustible.
The following are various examples of

renewable energy:
1. Bioenergy
2. Solar Energy
3. Wind Energy
4. Geothermal Energy
5. Ocean Energy
6. Hydrogen Energy
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
1. BIOENERGY
Bioenergy is one of the most promising

alternative sources of energy. It generally
refers to energy from the sun stored in
plant biomass by photosynthesis. It is the
energy released upon combustion of
recently grown biomass.
Examples:
Fuelwood, Dung, Kerosene, and Charcoal

ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
2. SOLAR ENERGY
Solar panels are regularly seen

nowadays at different sites such as on
rooftop of various buildings, traffic
signals, bus stop etc. Rising energy cost
and increasing concern about the
environment have combined to generate
growing interest in developing solar
energy
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
2. SOLAR ENERGY
Energy from the sun is called solar

energy. Solar energy is inexhaustible and
non-polluting and ecologically
sustainable form of energy. It can be
harnessed to supply thermal as well as
electrical energy. It can be used for
heating and cooling of buildings. Solar
water heaters can easily substitute for
water geyser.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
2. SOLAR ENERGY
Solar photo voltaic cell: A solar cell or

photo voltaic cell (PV Cell) is used to
convert solar energy in to electrical
energy by means of photo voltaic effect.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
2. SOLAR ENERGY
Uses of Solar Energy are given below:
• Solar street lighting
• Solar powered traffic signal
• Solar lanterns Heating and cooling of
buildings.
• Solar water heating.
• Solar cookers.
• Solar engines for water pumping.
• Solar photo voltaic cells are used for
generating electricity which is used
for lightening and Refrigeration.
• Solar furnaces.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
3. WIND ENERGY
Wind energy has huge potential to play

an important role in the future energy
supply of the world. The wind energy is
an unlimited, clean, and plentiful
resource with low maintenance cost.
Recently, wind turbine technology has
reached a very reliable and
sophisticated level and it is cost effective
compared to solar power and small
hydro projects.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
3. WIND ENERGY
At present, wind energy is receiving

considerable attention in the world. Wind
energy can be harnessed by using
modern aero generators (also known as
wind turbines) here kinetic energy of the
wind is transformed into electricity. Wind
turbines are usually grouped together in
numbers to form a wind farm. Wind
farms are being built in various countries
and are already making significant
contributions to a nations energy supply.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
3. WIND ENERGY
Advantages of wind energy:
• It is a well established technology.
• It takes less time for establishment.
• It can generate power in remote
areas, where it is expensive and
difficult to run electrical lines.
• It is non-polluting and clean source of
energy.
• It runs on low cost.
• No emission of hazardous waste.
• No consumption of fossil fuels
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
3. WIND ENERGY
Despite the above advantages, there are

some disadvantages of wind energy.
There is a lot of public opposition
because it is unattractive to look, causes
noise pollution and birds are killed by the
turbine blades. Also, the availability of the
energy varies with time of the day and
seasons. For this reason some means of
storage has to be devised if a continuous
supply of power is required.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
4. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy is the vast reservoir

of heat energy in the earth’s interior
which comes up on earth surface in the
form of volcanoes, geysers and hot
springs.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Deep under the surface, water sometimes
makes its way close to the hot rock and
turns into boiling hot water or into steam.
The hot water can reach temperatures of
more than 300°F (148°C) more than boiling
water. When this hot water comes up
through a crack in the earth, we call it a hot
spring or, it sometimes explodes into the air
as a geyser. Some of the areas have so
much steam and hot water that it can be
used to generate electricity. Hot water or
steam from below ground can also be used
to make electricity in a geothermal power
plant.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
A geothermal power plant is like a regular
power plant except that no fuel is burned to
heat water into steam. Holes are drilled into
the ground and pipes lowered into the hot
water. The hot steam or water comes up
through these pipes from below ground and
goes into a special turbine. The turbine
blades spin and the shaft from the turbine is
connected to a generator to make
electricity. The steam then gets cooled off in
a cooling tower. The cooled water can then
be pumped back below ground to be
reheated by the earth.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Advantages of geothermal energy are
many: geothermal energy is relatively
clean, cheap and renewable resource.
The disadvantage of geothermal energy

is the cost of exploration and
construction of a geothermal power
plant is very high similar to oil and gas
exploration. It is very expensive because
out of five wells only one may yield a
reservoir suitable for development and it
can be harnessed only at specific
locations.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
5. OCEAN ENERGY
Ocean energy or ocean power refers to

the energy carried by ocean waves, tides,
salinity, and ocean temperature
differences. The movement of water in
the world’s oceans creates a vast store of
kinetic energy, or energy in motion.
The ocean can produce two types of

energy: thermal energy from the sun’s
heat, and mechanical energy from the
tides and waves.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
5. OCEAN ENERGY
a) Thermal Energy
Ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) uses the
temperature difference
between cooler deep and
warmer surface ocean waters
to run a heat engine to
produce electricity
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
5. OCEAN ENERGY
b) Mechanical Energy
Wave Energy
Waves are caused by the wind
blowing over the surface of the
ocean. In many areas of the world,
the wind blows with enough
consistency and force to provide
continuous waves along the
shoreline. Kinetic energy exists in the
moving waves of the ocean and
these waves contain tremendous
energy potential.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
5. OCEAN ENERGY
b) Mechanical Energy
Tidal Energy
Tide is periodic rise and fall of the
water level of the sea due to the
gravitational pull of seawater by the
moon. These tides can be used to
produce electrical power which is
known as tidal power. Tidal energy
has been used since about eleventh
century, when small dams were
built along ocean estuaries and
small streams.
ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY
6. HYDROGEN ENERGY
The development of hydrogen energy

can be a long-term solution to the
growing energy needs of the world. There
is a growing interest for the development
of technologies for production, storage
and utilization of hydrogen as a fuel.
The current technologies for use of

hydrogen for power generation or to be
use in automobiles is yet to be
commercialized.
What can a common
citizen do?
• Spread awareness about conserving land
and water
• Install solar panel over roof top of big
buildings.
• Use solar cooker and solar water heater at
home.
• Use agricultural wastes for generating
energy.
• Avoid wastage of electricity. Switch off
electric gadgets when not in use.
• Protest against felling of trees and mining in
forest areas.
• Do not waste water. Use only one bucket to
have bath.
• Institutes should reuse waste water for
toilets and gardens.
• Farmers should grow millets and other crops
requiring less water for irrigation.
• Do not overuse natural resources such as
aluminum for making cans and wrapping
foils.
• Use biofertlizers and biopesticides.
End of
Topic 02
“It is a natural
resource.
But it is not
unlimited.”
– Billy Mayes
03
Ecosystem
Ecology
the study of the interactions of
living things with each other
and their physical environment
Ecological Organization
1. Individual
2. Population
3. Community
4. Ecosystem
5. Biome
6. Biosphere
1. Individual
refers to a single organism of a

particular species
2. Population
all the members of a species

inhabiting a given location
3. Community
all the interacting populations in

a given area
4. Ecosystem
the living community and the

physical environment
functioning together as an
independent and relatively
stable system
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is self-sustaining
if the following requirements are
met:
1. A constant source of energy
and a living system capable
of incorporating this energy
into organic molecules.
2. A cycling of materials
between organisms and
their environment.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem involves
interactions between abiotic
(physical) and biotic (living)
factors. The members of the
community in the ecosystem
and environment must interact
to maintain a balance.
Abiotic Factors
those physical and chemical
factors which affect the ability
of organisms to survive and
reproduce
Abiotic Factors
1. intensity of light
2. range of temperatures
3. amount of moisture
4. type of substratum (soil or
rock type)
5. availability of inorganic
substances such as minerals
6. supply of gases such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen
7. pH
Abiotic Factors
Each of the prior listed abiotic
factors varies in the
environment and, as such, may
act as a limiting factor,
determining the types of
organisms that exist in that
environment.
Abiotic Factors
Some examples:
• A low annual temperature
common to the northern
latitudes determines in part the
species of plants which can exist
in that area.
• The amount of oxygen dissolved
in a body of water will help
determine what species of fish
live there.
• The dry environment of desert
regions limits the organisms that
can live there.
Biotic Factors
all the living things that directly
or indirectly affect the
environment
Biotic Factors
1. Thus, the organisms,
2. their presence,
3. parts,
4. interaction, and
5. wastes are all biotic factors.
Nutritional
and Symbiotic
Relationships
Nutritional Relationships
Autotrophs: can synthesize
their own food from inorganic
compounds and a usable
energy source
Heterotrophs: can NOT

synthesize their own food and
are dependent on other
organisms for their food
Types of Heterotrophs
Herbivore – is an animal which eats plants only
Examples: rabbit, greenfly, honeybee
Carnivore – is an animal which eats meat only
Examples: fox, hawk, ladybird.
Omnivore – is an animal which eats both plants
and animals
Examples: sparrow, crow, blackbird, thrush,
badger, field mouse, hedgehog.
Detritivores – feeds on dead organic matter
Examples: earthworm, snails, many bacteria
and fungi.
Saprophyte – bacteria and fungi
that feed on dead
organic matter
Examples: Rhizopus
Types of Carnivores
Predators: animals which kill and consume their prey
Scavengers: those animals that feed on other animals

that they have not killed
Symbiotic Relationships
Symbiosis: living together
with another organism in
close association
Types of Symbiosis:
1. Commensalism
2. Mutualism
3. Parasitism
Types of Symbiosis
1. Commensalism
one organism is benefited and

the other is unharmed
Examples:
• barnacles on whales
• orchids on tropical trees
Types of Symbiosis
2. Mutualism
both organisms benefit from the

association
Examples:
• nitrogen-fixing bacteria on
legume nodules
• certain protozoa within
termites (also ruminants)
Types of Symbiosis
3. Parasitism
the parasite benefits at the

expense of the host
Examples:
• athlete's foot fungus on
humans
• tapeworm and heartworm in
dogs
Food Chains
and Webs
Food Chains and Webs
If an ecosystem is to be self-
sustaining it must contain a flow of
energy.
Those life activities that are

characteristic of living organisms
require an expenditure of energy.
The pathways of energy through the

living components of an ecosystem
are represented by food chains and
food webs.
Producers convert the radiant

energy of the sun into the chemical
energy of food.
Food Chain
involves the transfer of energy
from green plants through a
series of organisms with
repeated stages of eating and
being eaten
Food Web
In a natural community, the flow
of energy and materials is much
more complicated than
illustrated by any one food
chain.
Since practically all organisms

may be consumed by more
than one species, many
interactions occur along the
food chains of any community.
Food Web Interactions
1. Producers
2. Primary Consumers
3. Secondary Consumer
4. Decomposers
1. Producers
Plants - the energy of the

community is derived from the
organic compounds in plants
2. Primary Consumer
(always a herbivore)
feeds on plants
Examples:
• Mice
• Grasshoppers
• rabbits
(always a carnivore)
feeds upon other consumers
Examples:
• Frogs
• Sparrows
• Snakes
• foxes
(always a carnivore)
The hawk is a secondary or third

level consumer depending on
the availability of food.
Omnivores may be primary or

secondary consumers.
4. Decomposers
break down organic wastes and

dead organisms to simpler
substances
Example:
• bacteria of decay
4. Decomposers
Through decomposition,
chemical substances are
returned to the environment
where they can be used by
other living organisms.
Energy Flow
Energy flows through
ecosystems in one direction,
typically from the Sun, through
photosynthetic organisms,
including green plants and
algae, through herbivores, to
carnivores, and finally
decomposers.
Energy Flow
There is a decrease in the overall
energy in each level as you move
up the food web.
• This means that there is much
more energy in the producer
level in a food web than at the
consumer levels.
• Also, this means that there is
more energy at the primary
consumer level than at the
secondary consumer level.
Energy Transfer
Each consumer level of the food pyramid utilizes approximately 10% of its ingested
nutrients to build new tissue.
This new tissue represents food for the next feeding level.
The remaining energy is lost in the form of heat and unavailable chemical energy.
Eventually, the energy in an ecosystem is lost and is radiated from the earth.
Thus, an ecosystem can not survive without the constant input of energy from the sun.
Biomass
amount of organic matter
• Biomass is organic,
meaning it is made of
material that comes from
living organisms, such as
plants and animals. The
most common biomass
materials used for energy
are plants, wood, and
waste.
Biomass
The decrease of energy at each
successive feeding level (trophic
level) means that less biomass
can be supported at each level.
Thus, the total mass of

carnivores in a particular Level D – Producers
ecosystem is less than the total Level C – Primary Consumers
mass of the producers. (A Level B – Secondary Consumers
pyramid of biomass illustrates
Level A – Tertiary Consumers
this.)
Biomass
Above is a typical representation of a NY State terrestrial energy pyramid.

Carrying Capacity
and
Succession
Carrying Capacity
the maximum number of
organisms the resources of an
area can support
Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of the
environment is limited by the
available abiotic and biotic
resources, as well as the ability
of ecosystems to recycle the
residue of dead organisms
through the activities of
bacteria and fungi.
Carrying Capacity
Steady State
this occurs when the population

remains relatively constant over
a number of years. This will
occur when the number of
births equals the number of
deaths.
Succession
replacement of populations in habitat as it moves toward a stable state
(determined by changes in plants)
Succession
The environment may be altered in substantial ways through the activities of
organisms, including humans, or when the climate changes.
Although these alterations are sometimes abrupt (Example: Natural Disasters), in

most cases species replace others, resulting in long-term gradual changes in
ecosystems.
Ecosystems tend to change with time until a stable system is formed.
The type of ecosystem that is formed depends on the climatic limitations of a

given geographical area.
Pioneer Organisms
The first organisms to inhabit a
given location
Example:
lichens on bare rock
Pioneer Organisms
Pioneer organisms modify their environment, thus establishing conditions
under which more advanced organisms can live.
Example:
seasonal dieback and erosion, for example, would create pockets of "soil" in the
crevices and hollows of the bare rock inhabited by the lichen
Pioneer Organisms
Each community modifies its
environment, often making it
more difficult for itself and,
apparently, more favorable for
the following community which
infiltrates the first community
over a period of years.
Types of Ecological
Succession
1. Primary Succession
2. Secondary Succession
Types of Ecological Succession
1. Primary Succession
the development of plant communities on newly formed habitats

that previously lacked plants (Example: a lava flow)
2. Secondary Succession
return of an area to its natural vegetation following a disruption

or removal of the original climax community
Example of a PRIMARY SUCCESSION: Adirondack Bog Succession
1. water plants at pond edge
2. sedges and sediments begin to fill pond
3. sphagnum moss and bog shrubs fill pond (Labrador tea &
cranberries)
4. black spruce and larch
5. birches, maple, or fir
Example of a SECONDARY SUCCESSION:
1. plowed field
2. annual grasses
3. shrubs and briers
4. cherries, alders, and birches
5. climax community
• Northern N.Y. (hemlock, beech, maple)
• Southern N.Y. (oak, hickory)
Climax Community
a self-perpetuating community
in which populations remain
stable and exist in balance with
each other and their
environment
Climax Community
The climax community of
a region is always its
dominant plant species.
Altered ecosystems may

reach a point of stability
that can last for
hundreds or thousands
of years.
Climax Community
A climax community persists
until a catastrophic change
of a major biotic or abiotic
nature alters or destroys it.
Examples:
• forest fires
• abandoned farmlands
• floods
• areas where the topsoil
has been removed)
Climax Community
After the original climax
community has been destroyed,
the damaged ecosystem is
likely to recover in stages that
eventually result in a stable
system similar to the original
one.
Climax Community
Ponds and small lakes, for
example, fill in due to seasonal
dieback of aquatic vegetation
and erosion of their banks, and
eventually enter into a terrestrial
succession terminating in a
terrestrial climax community.
Climax Community
Flora (plant species) dominate in the sense that they are the most abundant
food sources
Plant succession is a major limiting factor for animal succession.
Animal Succession - as the plant community changes so will the animals

Climax Community
Climax communities are identified by the dominant plant
species – the one that exerts the most influence over the other
species present.
Competition
Competition occurs when two
different species or organisms living
in the same environment (habitat)
utilize the same limited resources,
such as food, water, space, light,
oxygen, and minerals.
The more similar the requirements

of the organisms involved, the more
intense the competition.
Competition
Competitive Exclusion Principle
If two different species compete for

the same food source or
reproductive sites, one specie may
be eliminated. This establishes one
specie per niche in a community.
Competition
Niche (Job): the organism's role in
the community, particularly its role
in relation to food with other
species.
Habitat: a place where a plant or

animal can get the food, water,
shelter and space it needs to live.
Competition
 Woodpeckers make holes in this
cactus to live.
 When the woodpeckers are
finished with this housing, the elf
owl and the screech owl move in.
 The elf owl eats insects and the
screech owl occupies the same
habitat, but have different niches.
When two species compete for the

same niche in the same habitat, it
often leads to local extinction of the
less competitive species.
Material
Cycles
Material Cycles
In a self-sustaining ecosystem,
materials must be cycled among
the organisms and the abiotic
environment.
Thus the same materials can be

reused.
Materials constantly need to be

recycled from the living and non-
living environment so that materials
can be reused by different living
organisms.
Material Cycles
1. Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
2. Nitrogen Cycle
3. Water Cycle
Material Cycles
1. Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
involves the processes of respiration and
photosynthesis.
• In respiration, oxygen and glucose are
combined releasing energy and
producing water and carbon dioxide.
• In photosynthesis water and carbon
dioxide along with the energy from
the sun are combined to produce
glucose (containing energy) and
oxygen.
Each process compliments the other and

the ecosystem maintains its balanced
communities.
Material Cycles
2. Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen
moves through the atmosphere, soil, and
living organisms.
• Nitrogen gas (N₂) in the atmosphere is
converted into usable forms like
ammonia (NH₃) by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
• Plants absorb this nitrogen from the soil,
and animals get nitrogen by consuming
plants.
• Decomposers break down dead
organisms, returning nitrogen to the soil.
• Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen
compounds back into N₂, releasing it into
the atmosphere.
Material Cycles
3. Water Cycle
The water cycle, or hydrological

cycle, involves the continuous
movement of water on Earth.
• Water evaporates from oceans,
lakes, and rivers, forming clouds
through condensation.
• When clouds become heavy,
water falls back to Earth as
precipitation (rain, snow, etc.).
• This water flows into bodies of
water or seeps into the ground,
eventually evaporating again,
sustaining the cycle.
5. Biome
a large geographic area

characterized by specific
climate conditions, plant
communities, and animal
species
Flora: plant life

Fauna: animal life
Biomes of the
Earth
Biomes of the
Earth
1. Savanna
2. Grassland
3. Taiga
4. Tundra
5. Desert
6. Temperate
Forest
7. Tropical
Rainforest
8. Marine
9. Freshwater
Savanna
Location: Found in Africa,
South America, and parts of
Australia.
Climate: Warm temperatures

year-round, with distinct wet
and dry seasons.
Vegetation: Grasses
dominate, scattered trees like
acacia and baobabs.
Wildlife: Large herbivores

(elephants, zebras) and
predators (lions, cheetahs).
Grassland
Location: North America
(prairies), South America
(pampas), Eurasia (steppes),
and Africa (veld).
Climate: Moderate to low

rainfall, hot summers, and
cold winters.
Vegetation: Mainly grasses,

with very few trees.
Wildlife: Bison, antelope, and

various grazing animals, as
well as predators like wolves
and foxes.
Taiga (Boreal Forest)
Location: Northern
hemisphere (Canada, Russia,
Scandinavia).
Climate: Cold winters, mild

summers; low precipitation.
Vegetation: Dominated by
coniferous trees like pines,
spruces, and firs.
Wildlife: Bears, wolves,

moose, and various bird
species.
Tundra
Location: Arctic regions and
high mountain ranges.
Climate: Extremely cold, long

winters, and short, cool
summers; low precipitation.
Vegetation: Low-growing
plants such as mosses,
lichens, and small shrubs.
Wildlife: Caribou, Arctic foxes,

polar bears, and migratory
birds.
Desert
Location: Found worldwide
(Sahara, Gobi, Mojave).
Climate: Extremely dry with

very low rainfall; can be hot
or cold.
Vegetation: Sparse; cacti,

succulents, and drought-
resistant shrubs.
Wildlife: Lizards, snakes,

camels, and small mammals
like rodents.
Temperate Forest
Location: Eastern North
America, Europe, and parts of
Asia.
Climate: Moderate rainfall,

four distinct seasons.
Vegetation: Deciduous trees

(oak, maple) and evergreen
trees.
Wildlife: Deer, bears, small

mammals, and various birds.
Tropical Rainforest
Location: Near the equator
(Amazon, Congo Basin,
Southeast Asia).
Climate: Warm temperatures

and high rainfall year-round.
Vegetation: Dense,
multilayered forests with a
high diversity of trees.
Wildlife: High biodiversity

including jaguars, monkeys,
birds, and reptiles.
The Rain Forest is made of three layers: the first layer is the canopy, the second layer is the understory,
and the third is the forest floor.
Marine
Location: Covers 70% of
Earth’s surface (oceans, seas,
coral reefs).
Climate: Varies depending

on region, from tropical to
polar waters.
Vegetation: Seaweeds, algae,

and plankton.
Wildlife: Fish, marine

mammals (whales, dolphins),
corals, and invertebrates.
Freshwater
Location: Lakes, rivers, ponds,
and wetlands.
Climate: Varies depending

on the geographical location.
Vegetation: Aquatic plants

like reeds, water lilies, and
algae.
Wildlife: Fish, amphibians

(frogs, salamanders), insects,
and birds.
6. Biosphere
that portion of the earth where

life exists
Components of the Biosphere:

• Plants
• Animals
• Man (Humans)
• Microbes
Components of the Biosphere
Plants
• Produce oxygen and absorb

carbon dioxide via
photosynthesis.
• Serve as primary producers in
ecosystems, forming the base of
food chains.
• Convert solar energy into
chemical energy for
consumption by other
organisms.
• Provide habitat and food for
animals and microbes.
Animals
• Act as consumers, feeding on

plants (herbivores) and other
animals (carnivores or
omnivores).
• Help in seed dispersal and
pollination, supporting plant
reproduction.
• Regulate populations of other
species through predation and
competition.
• Contribute to nutrient cycling
through their waste products
and decomposition after death.
Man (Humans)
• Alter ecosystems through

activities like agriculture,
urbanization, and
industrialization.
• Influence the environment
through resource extraction,
pollution, and land-use changes.
• Participate in ecosystem
management, conservation, and
restoration efforts.
• Develop technologies and
policies to mitigate
environmental impacts and
promote sustainability.
Microbes
• Decompose organic matter and

recycle nutrients like nitrogen
and phosphorus.
• Facilitate processes such as
nitrogen fixation, supporting
plant growth.
• Help in the breakdown of
pollutants and organic waste,
contributing to soil and water
health.
• Act as symbionts with plants and
animals, aiding in digestion,
nutrient absorption, and
protection against pathogens.
End of
Topic 03 You cannot tackle hunger,
disease, and poverty
unless you can also
provide people with a
healthy ecosystem in
which their economies can
grow.”
- Gro Harlem Brundtland
04
Biodiversity and
Conservation
Biodiversity
the vast array of all the species
of plants, animals, insects and
the microorganisms inhabiting
the earth either in the aquatic or
the terrestrial habitats
Biodiversity
Three Levels of Diversity
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystems diversity
1. Genetic Diversity
It includes the genetic variations

within species, both among
geographically separated
populations and among
individuals within single
population.
2. Species diversity
It includes full range of species

from micro organisms to giants
and mammoth varieties of
plants and animals, e.g. single
celled viruses and bacteria etc.
and multi-cellular plants,
animals and fungi.
Endemic Species
Endemic species are restricted to a particular area and occur nowhere else.
Endangered Species
A species of animal or plant that is at risk of extinction is known as endangered species.
Many plant and animal species are becoming endangered due to overexploitation, hunting, loss
of habitat and population pressure.
Extinction
The most serious consequence of loss of biodiversity is the extinction of a species. Extinction is a
dying out or termination of a race or species. A species is considered to be extinct when no
member of the species remains alive anywhere in the world. The organisms which have become
extinct in the recent past are Dodo, Passenger pigeon and Rhynia.
Rhynia
is a single-species
genus of
Devonian
vascular plants
3. Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the

biological communities in which
species Jive, exist and interact.
Value of
Biodiversity
The Value of Biodiversity
Ecosystems and species provide an
enormous range of goods and
other services - immediate as well
as long term, material as well as
spiritual and psychological - which
are vital to our well being. The
values of the earth’s biological
resources can broadly be classified
into:
1. Direct Values
2. Indirect Values
1. Direct Values
Consumptive and productive uses.

Direct Values
Food Resources:
• Grains
• Vegetables
• Fruits
• Nuts
• Condiments
• Tea and Coffee
• Tobacco
• Liquor
• Oil from Plant Resources
• Meat
• Fish
• Egg
• Milk (and milk products)
• Honey, etc. from
• animal resources
Direct Values
Other Resources:
• Medicine
• Fuel
• Timber
• Household Accessories
• Fodder
• Fiber
• Fertilizer
• Wool
• Leather
• Paint
• Resin
• Wax
• Thatch
• Ornamental plants
• Rubber
• Creams
• Silk
• Feathers
• Decorative items, etc.
2. Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options

for the future.
Indirect Values
• Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which
provides the support system for species.
• Pollination, gene flow, etc.
• Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground
water, protecting watersheds.
• Buffering from climatic extreme conditions
such as flood and drought;
• Soil production and protection from erosion;
• Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, Examples:
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
• Absorbing and decomposing pollutants,
organic wastes, pesticides, air and water
pollutants;
• Regulating climate at both macro and micro
levels;
• Preserving recreational, aesthetic, socio-
cultural, scientific, educational, ethical and
historical values of natural environments.
Threats to
Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wild life
3. Biological invasion
4. Pollution
5. Climate change
1. Habitat Loss
It is brought about by
deforestation, habitat
fragmentation and habitat
degradation. Commercial
activities such as industries,
agriculture, mining, road and
dam building etc. are
responsible for habitat loss.
1. Habitat Loss
Deforestation:
Deforestation is mass scale felling
of trees which converts forested
area into non-forested area.
Deforestation is the indiscriminate
cutting of trees without sufficient
reforestation. Deforestation not
only causes removal of trees but
also destroys the habitat for other
plants and animals and thereby
reducing their number.
1. Habitat Loss
Habitat Fragmentation:
Habitat fragmentation is a
process where a large,
continuous area is divided into
two or more fragments. Forests
are often divided into fragments
by road and canal buildings and
laying of power lines. Small
fragments of lands support a
small population of biodiversity
which results in inbreeding and
may lead to extinction of species.
1. Habitat Loss
Habitat Degradation:
Habitat is degraded by activities
such as mining and slash-and-
burn cultivation. Slash-and-
burn cultivation is an agriculture
base system followed by
landless farmers. It is also
known as shifting cultivation.
2. Poaching of Wildlife
Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife
for pleasure, food, furs. Skins,
horns, tusks, etc. pose a serious
threat to the survival of wildlife.
There are laws in the country to

prevent illegal trade, but
unscrupulous elements, traders
and exporters often violate
these.
2. Poaching of Wildlife
• The illegal trade in animal skins has
been responsible for the destruction
of a large number of tigers, leopards,
deer, fishing cat, crocodiles and
snakes, as well as birds with beautiful
plumage.
• Elephants were hunted for ivory. The
rhinoceros was killed for its horns
because of the superstitious belief
that it contained aphrodisiac
properties.
• Added to this is the practice of trade
in exotic mammals, birds and reptiles
and use of wild animals in biomedical
research.
3. Biological Invasion
Damong Hagonoy
• Introduced Nationwide, native to South America
• Now a prevalent weed in the Philippines, the plant was
introduced in the southern Philippines in the 1960s. It
also easily spreads in agricultural land reducing space
Biological invasion is a process when an alien or for edible plants consumed by livestock. Hagonoy itself
exotic species becomes established in a new is poisonous to livestock due to its allelopathic
properties.
geographical region. Exotic species is any
species which is not a natural inhabitant of the
area but is accidently or deliberately introduced
in to a new country. These species compete with
the natural flora and fauna and they spread fast
because of their high reproductive rate and
stress tolerance. Exotic species makes the
environmental conditions unfavorable for the
native flora; they often become noxious weeds Tilapia
• Native to Africa
and cause damage to crop plants and this • Introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s.
result in tremendous economic loss to the Giant African Land Snail Although the fish has been made a staple
native country. Mahogany • Introduced Nationwide, native to East Africa of Filipino diet, it is noted to have displaced
• Introduced in the Philippines in 1942 during World other native fishes fit for human
• Mahogany was first introduced to the
War II by the Imperial Japanese military from consumption. Wild tilapia has been
Philippines in 1907 by Tropical America
Taiwan. A crop pest. recorded in Lake Sebu, Agusan Marsh, and
for reforestation due to its rapid growth
Liguasan Marsh.
and ability to tolerate environmental
stresses. However, the use of
mahogany to restore forests has long Water Hyacinth (Water Lily)
been frowned upon, as research shows • Introduced Nationwide, Native to South America
this non-native species is invasive. • Noted to cover the Pasig River and affect Laguna de Bay
While not all non-native species are during the rainy season. It competes with native plant species
harmful, mahogany has an allelopathic and covers wide swathes of surface causing low level of
effect on the environment, meaning it oxygen in the water. The plants however are recognized for
produces chemicals that inhibit the their role in removing heavy metal in the Pasig River's
growth of surrounding vegetation. polluted waters.
4. Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil due to
various industrial activities not only
affect our health, but the health and
well being of animal population also.
Industrial effluents one reaching water
bodies adversely affect aquatic life.
Pesticides like DDT and Dieldrin are
very harmful. These have a major
effect particularly sea birds and their
eggs. Oil pollution is another serious
problem affecting the seas through
leakage from cargo ships or
accidents.
4. Pollution
Besides there are other numerous
factors that affect wildlife
population, which are mostly
anthropogenic. Introduction of
exotic species, unhealthy
agricultural practices, diseases
introduced by domesticated
animals, silting of rivers, floods and
droughts are a few to name some.
These all have somehow
contributed to the process of
endangering animal species.
5. Climate Change
Global warming due to release of
greenhouse gases by burning of fossil
fuels is bringing about climate change.
The thinning of ice in the arctic because
of global warming has reduced the
number of polar bear in that region.
Golden Toad formally found in Costa
Rica, is the first species to become extinct
because of climate change. Many
butterflies have shifted from their original
location due to global warming. For
instance, Edith’s Checker spot Butterfly
has moved away from its habitat in
western USA.
Conservation
of Biodiversity
Conservation
To preserve genetic resources,
species and ecosystem
Development
To promote economically viable
development with social and
cultural activities with ecological frill
Scientific Research and Education
To provide logistic support for

environmental education, training
and research and exchange of
information for local, national and
global issues of conservation
Biodiversity Conservation
There are two basic approaches
to biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation
1. In-Situ Conservation
It can be defined as the
conservation of plants and
animals in their native
ecosystem (natural habitats) or
even man made ecosystem,
where they naturally occur.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries
• National Parks
• Biosphere Reserves
1. Wildlife Sanctuaries
Wildlife Sanctuary is officially

designated territory within
which wildlife is protected.
Philippine Tarsier and Wildlife Sanctuary

Corella, Bohol
1. Wildlife Sanctuaries
A Wildlife Sanctuary does not allow

any activity that would place the
animals in an unnecessary stressful
situation. A sanctuary provides Mount
protection for a species from Hamiguitan
hunting and other human activities Range Wildlife
which endanger the animals. In Sanctuary
sanctuaries cultivation, grazing and Davao Oriental
forestry are not allowed. Carrying of

weapons and lighting of fire are
strictly prohibited.
Mount Pulag
National
Park
Benguet,
Ifugao, and
Nueva
1. In-Situ Conservation Vizcaya
2. National Park Puerto

Princesa
Subterranean
A national park is a reserve of River National
natural or semi-natural land, Park
declared or owned by a Palawan
government. It is set aside for
human recreation and
Hundred
enjoyment, animal and Islands
environmental protection and National
restricted from developmental Park
Pangasinan
activities.
1. In-Situ Conservation Fuyot
2. National Park Springs
National
In 1969 the International Union for Park
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) declared a Ilagan City,
national park to be a relatively large area
Isabela
with particular defining characteristics
which are:
• A national park has one or several
ecosystems not materially altered by
human exploitation and occupation.
• Visitors are allowed to enter, under
special conditions, for inspirational,
educational, cultural and recreation Minalungao
purposes. National
• A minimum size of National Park should Park
be of 1,000 hectares, where protection of General
nature takes place. Tinio, Nueva
• National Park should have statutory legal Ecija
protection.
• Exploitation of natural resources is
prohibited.
Albay
Biosphere
Reserve
3. Biosphere Reserve
Palawan
Biosphere Reserves Biosphere Biosphere
Reserves have been described Reserve
as undisturbed natural areas for

scientific study as well as areas
in which conditions of
disturbance are under control. Puerto Galera
These serve as the centers for Biosphere
ecological research and habitat Reserve
protection.
3. Biosphere Reserve
Each biosphere reserves contain three

areas:
Core Zone: The core zone comprises the
deepest area of the reserve and is legally
protected ecosystem. No human activity is Apayao is Philippines'
allowed there to facilitate biological 4th Biosphere Reserve
reproduction of animals.
Buffer Zone: The buffer zone surrounds the
core area used for cooperative activities of
researcher and educationist compatible
with ecological practices.
Transition Zone: It is the outer most
periphery of the Biosphere Reserve, is an
area for active cooperation between local
communities and reserve management.
There activities like cropping, forestry,
recreation and economic uses for
developing area’s resources with aim of
conservation.
2. Ex-Situ Conservation
It can he defined as the
conservation of plants and
animals away from their natural
habitats, which includes
collection of samples of genetic
diversity and their treatment in
the laboratory, where they are
cultured.
This type of conservation includes the use of botanical gardens, arboreta, and gene
banks.
Arboretum (plural: Arboreta): a place where trees are grown for study and display.
Baguio Botanical Garden
University of the Philippines Svalbard Global Seed Vault,

Arboretum Norway
Zoos and Aquariums: These organizations house and breed endangered animal species
in captivity to prevent extinction and, in some cases, support reintroduction into the wild.
Philippine Crocodile
Philippine Eagle Center Conservation Program Palawan Wildlife Rescue and
Conservation Center
Manila
Ocean
Park Manila Zoological
and Botanical
Garden
End of
Topic 04
“Uniformity is
not nature’s
way; diversity is
nature’s way.”
- Vandana Shiva
05
Pollution and its
Factors
Pollution
Pollution may be defined as an
undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and
land that may be harmful to human
life and other animals, living
conditions, industrial processes and
cultural assets.
Pollution
Pollution can be natural or
manmade.
The agents that pollute are called

pollutants.
Pollution
Pollution can be categorized
according to the medium in which it
occurs such as:
1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Noise Pollution
Air
Pollution
Air Pollution
The World Health Organization
(WHO) defines air pollution as the
presence of materials in the air in
such concentration which are
harmful to man and his
environment.
Sources of Air Pollution
Common Air Pollutants
• Carbon Dioxide, CO2
• Carbon Monoxide, CO
• Oxides of Nitrogen, NO and NO2
• Oxides of Sulphur, SO2 and SO3 When acid rain and dry acidic
Photochemical Oxidants
particles fall to earth, the nitric and
• sulfuric acid that make the
• Hydrocarbons particles acidic can land on
statues, buildings, and other
• Particulate Matter manmade structures, and damage
their surfaces. The acidic
• Aerosols particles corrode metal and cause
Radioactive Substances
paint and stone to deteriorate
• more quickly.
• Fluorides
Chlorosis, yellowing of leaves, in

plants induced by NO2
Effects of Air Pollution
Effect on Plants
Effect on Animals
Effect on Humans
Aesthetic Loss
Dust and smoke spoils the beauty of nature.
Especially the mountain environments, which
Change in Climate serve as a great attraction for tourists. Foul odors
CO2 content of air is increasing due to emitted by industries, automobiles, dirty drains
deforestation and combustion of fuel. This and garbage heaps in cities are a great nuisance.
increase is affecting the composition and balance
of gases in the atmosphere. Increase in CO2
concentration may increase the atmospheric
temperature, producing green house effect.
What are the ways to control Air Pollution?
Adopt Clean Energy Solutions Improve Transportation Systems
• Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy • Encourage the use of public
(solar, wind, hydropower). transportation, cycling, and walking.
• Promote energy-efficient technologies • Promote electric vehicles and hybrid cars.
(LEDs, energy-efficient appliances). • Implement carpooling or ride-sharing
• Support policies for cleaner energy grids systems.
and energy efficiency standards. • Create infrastructure for non-motorized
transport (bike lanes, pedestrian zones).
Enhance Industrial Processes Regulate Agriculture Practices
• Install pollution control devices in • Promote sustainable farming techniques
industries (scrubbers, filters). (reduced pesticide use, organic farming).
• Shift to cleaner production techniques and • Properly manage animal waste to reduce
technologies. methane emissions.
• Implement stricter emission standards for • Avoid burning agricultural residue and
factories and plants. encourage composting.
• Regularly monitor industrial emissions and
enforce compliance with regulations.
Implement Green Urban Planning Promote Waste Management
• Increase green spaces in urban areas • Reduce waste through recycling,
(parks, urban forests). composting, and reusing materials.
• Promote green building standards • Implement stricter regulations on waste
(energy-efficient designs, use of eco- burning, especially in open areas.
friendly materials). • Properly manage landfills to control the
• Design cities with efficient traffic release of methane.
management systems to reduce vehicle
emissions.
Raise Public Awareness
• Educate the public on the
importance of reducing air
pollution.
• Encourage eco-friendly habits,
such as reducing energy
consumption and limiting vehicle
use.
Water
Pollution
Water Pollution
Any change in the dynamic
equilibrium in aquatic ecosystem
disturbs the normal function and
properties of pure water and gives
rise to the phenomenon of water
pollution.
Water Pollution
The symptoms of water pollution of
any water body/ground water are:
• Bad taste of drinking water,
• Offensive smells from lakes, rivers
and ocean beaches,
• Unchecked growth of aquatic
weeds in water bodies
(eutrophication),
• Dead fish floating on water
surface in river, lake, etc.
• Oil and grease floating on water
surface.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Domestic sewage
• Industrial effluents
• Agricultural source
• Pesticides
• Thermal pollution
• Pathogenic organisms
• Mineral oils
• Underground water pollution
• Marine water pollution
Effects of Water Pollution
Diseases
In humans, drinking or consuming

polluted water in any way has many
disastrous effects on our health. It causes
typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various
other diseases.
Destruction of Ecosystems
Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and

respond to even small changes in the
environment. Water pollution can cause
an entire ecosystem to collapse if left
unchecked.
Effects of Water Pollution
Eutrophication
Chemicals in a water body, encourage

the growth of algae. These algae form a
layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria
feed on this algae and this decreases the
amount of oxygen in the water body,
severely affecting the aquatic life there.
Effects the food chain
Disruption in food chains happens when

toxins and pollutants in the water are
consumed by aquatic animals (fish,
shellfish) which are then consumed by
humans.
Biomagnification is the increase of toxic materials
at each tropic level of a food chain.
What are the ways to control Water Pollution?
Proper Waste Disposal Reduce Plastic Use
• Avoid dumping waste in water bodies: • Avoid single-use plastics: Plastics
Ensure proper disposal of household and contribute to significant water pollution as
industrial waste by utilizing waste they break down into microplastics.
management services and recycling. • Clean-up initiatives: Participate in or
• Hazardous waste management: Dispose organize waterway clean-ups to remove
of chemicals, paints, and other hazardous plastic waste from rivers, lakes, and oceans.
substances through dedicated disposal
programs.
Conservation of Wetlands Reduce Water Consumption
• Wetland protection: Wetlands act as • Efficient water use: Using less water
natural water filters. Protecting and reduces the amount of wastewater
restoring these areas can significantly generated, which decreases the risk of
improve water quality. pollution.
• Leak repair: Fix leaks promptly to prevent
contaminants from entering water systems.
Sustainable Agricultural Practices Erosion Control
• Limit pesticide and fertilizer use: Overuse of • Implement soil conservation practices: In
fertilizers and pesticides leads to runoff that construction and agriculture, methods like
pollutes rivers and lakes. Sustainable terracing, contour plowing, and tree planting
practices like organic farming can reduce reduce soil erosion, which carries pollutants
this. into water sources.
• Buffer zones: Planting vegetation along • Silt fences and barriers: During construction
waterways helps absorb nutrients and projects, use erosion control measures to
pollutants before they reach water bodies. prevent soil and sediment from reaching
nearby water bodies.
Stormwater Management Wastewater Treatment
• Green infrastructure: Use permeable • Install treatment plants: Industrial facilities
pavements, green roofs, and rain gardens to should treat wastewater before releasing it
absorb stormwater and reduce runoff. into natural water bodies.
• Proper drainage systems: Ensure • Upgrade sewage systems: Municipalities
stormwater drains are clear and direct should improve sewage treatment systems
runoff to treatment facilities rather than to reduce contaminants.
natural water bodies.
Public Education and Policies
• Raise awareness: Educating communities
on the effects of pollution and promoting
environmentally friendly behaviors can
reduce pollution at the source.
• Regulatory policies: Governments should
enforce strict environmental regulations to
control industrial discharge and agricultural
runoff.
Secondary treatment. Sewage
Treatment of Wastewater obtained after primary treatment is
sent to aeration tank where it is mixed
Domestic sewage and industrial wastes with air and sludge laden with bacteria
should be properly treated before these and algae. The algae provide oxygen
are drained in the mainstream water. to the bacteria and decompose
Treatment involves the following two organic matter into simple
steps: compounds. Chlorination is finally
done to remove bacteria.
i. Sewage treatment
Tertiary treatment. In the third and last
It involves following steps: step water is passed through ion
exchangers to remove dissolved salts.
Primary treatment. It involves physical
processing of sedimentation, flotation
and filtration where sewage water is
passed through screens to remove
larger particles and then through
grinding mechanism to reduce the
larger particles to smaller size. The
sewage is finally passed through
settling tanks to remove suspended
impurities.
Treatment of Wastewater
ii. Treatment of industrial effluents
Treatment of industrial effluents involves neutralization of acids and
bases, removal of toxic compounds, coagulation of colloidal impurities,
precipitation of metallic compounds and reducing the temperature of
effluents to decrease thermal pollution.
Soil
Pollution
Soil Pollution
Like water and air, soil is also equally
important for living organisms. It
supports plants on which all other
living organisms depend. The
process of soil formation is so slow
that the soil may be regarded as a
non-renewable source. Therefore,
the study and control of soil
pollution is important. Any
substance that reduces soil
productivity is called soil pollutant.
Sources of Soil Pollution
• Indiscriminate solid waste
disposal on land.
• Random discharge of industrial
waste effluents on land and
water courses.
• Excessive use of pesticides,
herbicides and chemical
fertilizers, in agriculture
• Excessive irrigation.
• Open defecation on land by
animals and man particularly in
rural areas and city slums.
Effect of Soil Pollutants
• Chemicals and pesticides affect the
structure and fertility of soil by killing
the soil microorganisms. Pesticides
are absorbed by the plants and then
transferred to other organism. Hence,
they affected food chains and food
webs.
• Excretory products of livestock and
human beings used as manure
pollute the soil besides giving high
yield. The faulty sanitation and
unhygienic practices of the people
add to the soil pollution. Pathogens
present in the wastes and excreta
contaminate the soil and vegetable
crops causing diseases in man and
domesticated animals.
Types of Soil Pollution
It is of the following types:
i. Positive soil pollution

Reduction in the productivity of soil
due to the addition of undesirable
substances like pesticides,
herbicides, fertilizers, etc. is called
positive pollution. These pollutants
have cumulative effect and kill the
soil organisms.
ii. Negative soil pollution

It is caused by the removal of useful
components from soil by erosion,
deforestation and improper
methods of agriculture.
Salination of Soil
Increase in the concentration of
soluble salts is called salination.
This adversely affects the quality
and productivity of soil. It takes
place in two ways: accumulation of
salts dissolved in irrigation water on
the soil surface due to intensive
farming and poor drainage, and
deposition of salts as white crust
during summer months drawn by
capillary action from the lower
surface to the top surface.
What are the ways to control Soil Pollution?
Waste Management Agricultural Practices
• Proper disposal of household, industrial, • Using organic farming methods, reducing
and agricultural waste reduces the pesticide and herbicide use, and
accumulation of harmful chemicals in the practicing crop rotation can minimize
soil. Recycling and composting organic chemical leaching into the soil.
waste can minimize the amount of waste
that ends up in landfills.
Bioremediation Regulatory and Policy Measures
• Use of plants (phytoremediation) or • Governments can enforce laws to prevent
microorganisms to remove or neutralize illegal dumping of hazardous waste and
contaminants in the soil. promote the proper disposal of industrial
and municipal waste.
Erosion Control Sustainable Land Use
• Practices like afforestation, terracing, and • Zoning and land-use planning can prevent
contour farming can help prevent soil industrial facilities from being placed near
degradation and pollution from runoff. residential or agricultural areas where
contamination risks are higher.
Noise
Pollution
Noise Pollution
Noise can be defined as
unwanted/unpleasant sound. So
noise pollution is unwanted sound
dumped into the atmosphere
without regard to the adverse
effects it may have.
Noise Classification
There are broadly three categories
of noise:
i. Transport noise,
a. Road traffic noise,
b. Aircraft, and
c. Rail traffic noise
ii. Occupational noise, and
iii. Neighborhood noise.
Decibel Decibel Levels of Common Sounds
The louder a sound is, the more
energy its sound wave carries.
Loudness of sound is measured in
Decibel (dB).
Our ears can hear ordinary

conversation between 30-60
decibels. Modern conversation has
a noise value of 60 decibels. A
decibel value greater than 80
decibels causes noise pollution.
Noise becomes troublesome above
140 decibels.
Effects of Noise Pollution
Health Effects
• Hearing Loss: Prolonged exposure to loud

noises can lead to temporary or permanent
hearing damage.
• Stress and Anxiety: Constant noise can

increase stress levels, leading to anxiety and
other mental health issues.
• Sleep Disturbance: Excessive noise, especially

at night, can interrupt sleep, leading to
fatigue, reduced focus, and long-term health
issues.
• Cardiovascular Problems: Long-term

exposure to high noise levels can increase the
risk of high blood pressure, heart disease, and
stroke.
Effects on Wildlife
• Disruption of Communication: Animals rely

on sound for communication, hunting, and
navigation. Noise pollution can interfere with
these functions, affecting their survival.
Underwater noise pollution, from ships or
industrial activities, can affect marine
animals, particularly those that rely on
echolocation, such as dolphins and whales.
• Habitat Displacement: Animals may move

away from noisy areas, disrupting
ecosystems and causing population changes.
• Reproductive Impact: In some species, noise

can affect mating calls, reducing
reproductive success.
Impact on Human Productivity
• Reduced Concentration: In workplaces or

schools, noise pollution can reduce
productivity, impair focus, and increase errors.
• Communication Interference: Excessive noise

can disrupt conversations and make
communication difficult, especially in public
spaces.
What are the ways to control Noise Pollution?
Urban Planning and Zoning Architectural and Building
• Zoning Regulations: Separating residential Design
areas from industrial zones and highways • Soundproofing: Using soundproof
can help reduce exposure to loud noises. materials like double-glazed windows,
• Green Spaces: Parks, green belts, and other acoustic ceiling tiles, and insulated walls
vegetative areas act as natural sound can reduce noise levels inside buildings.
barriers, absorbing noise and providing a • Building Orientation: Designing buildings
buffer between noisy and quiet zones. so that noise-sensitive rooms (like
• Noise Barriers: Constructing physical bedrooms and offices) are positioned
barriers, such as walls or berms, along away from noisy streets or industrial
highways and busy roads can help block areas can minimize noise exposure.
and reflect sound away from residential • Acoustic Planning: In public spaces like
areas. schools and hospitals, designing with
acoustic planning can control sound
reflections and reduce noise spread
within the buildings.
Traffic and Transportation Control Industrial Noise Control
• Vehicle Regulations: Enforcing limits on • Noise Reduction Technology: Industries can
vehicle noise emissions through proper install noise-cancelling equipment, quieter
vehicle maintenance, mufflers, and quiet machinery, or use soundproof enclosures
engine designs can reduce traffic noise. around loud equipment.
• Quiet Road Surfaces: Using noise-reducing • Scheduling: Limiting noisy operations to
materials like porous asphalt or rubberized certain times of the day (e.g., during working
roads can help reduce noise generated by hours) to minimize disturbance to the
vehicle tires. surrounding communities.
• Limit Traffic Flow: Implementing traffic • Regular Maintenance: Ensuring proper
management systems like speed limits, maintenance of industrial machinery and
rerouting heavy vehicles away from equipment can prevent excess noise from
residential areas, and using low-noise faulty or worn-out components.
public transport can significantly reduce
noise pollution.
Regulations and Policies Personal Actions
• Noise Standards and Enforcement: • Using Noise-Canceling Devices: Individuals
Governments can establish noise level limits can reduce exposure to noise by using
for various areas (residential, industrial, noise-canceling headphones, earplugs, or
commercial) and enforce regulations for other protective devices in noisy
industries, construction sites, and public environments.
spaces. • Proper Use of Appliances: Reducing the use
• Public Awareness Campaigns: Raising of loud home appliances, limiting car
awareness about the sources of noise honking, and using low-noise equipment
pollution and promoting noise control can contribute to lower noise pollution
measures can encourage individuals and levels.
companies to adopt quieter practices. • Planting Trees and Vegetation: Individuals
can plant trees around homes or properties,
which act as natural sound absorbers,
reducing noise entering homes from
external sources.
Control in Construction Sites
• Quieter Equipment: Encouraging the use of
low-noise machinery and equipment in
construction projects can reduce the overall
noise pollution.
• Work Hours Regulation: Restricting noisy
construction activities to certain hours of the
day and enforcing limits on noise levels can
reduce disturbances in residential areas.
Noise Control Measures
There are four ways by which noise
can be controlled:
• Reduce noise at the source.
• Block the path of the noise.
• Increase the path length.
• Protect the recipient.

Other Types of Pollution
• Radiation Pollution
• Light Pollution
• Marine Pollution
• Thermal Pollution
• Solid Waste Pollution
• Plastic Pollution
• E-Waste Pollution, etc.
The Chernobyl
On 6 and 9 August 1945, the disaster began
United States detonated two on 26 April 1986
atomic bombs over the with the
Japanese cities of explosion of the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, No. 4 reactor of
respectively. The bombings the Chernobyl
killed between 150,000 and Nuclear Power
246,000 people, most of Plant near the
whom were civilians, and city of Pripyat in
remain the only use of northern Ukraine.
nuclear weapons in an
armed conflict.
End of
Topic 05 “Water and Air, the two
essential substance on
which all life depends,
have become global
garbage cans.”
- Jacques-Yves
Cousteau
How does the integration of
environmental science impact the
design and construction practices
in civil engineering?
What are the key differences between
renewable and non-renewable resources,
and how can civil engineers utilize these
resources in construction projects?
Name and describe one abiotic
component of the environment, and
explain its significance in civil
engineering projects.
Name and describe one biotic
component of the environment, and
explain its significance in civil
engineering projects.
Discuss the importance of
biodiversity in ecosystems and how
civil engineering projects can
affect this diversity.
Identify one specific pollution category
and explain how civil engineers can design
solutions to mitigate its impact on the
environment.
Thanks
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Lesson 1 - Ecology

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Lesson 1:

● Relate the study of environmental science to the civil engineering

● Determine various renewable and non-renewable resources;

● Identify the abiotic and biotic components of the environment;

● Explain the diversity of biological organisms; and,

● Enumerate the different environmental pollutants and their sources.

‘A person’s environment consists of

‘The term environment is used to

a. recreation and aesthetics,

c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays

d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible,

Physical Elements Biological Elements Cultural Elements

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere Economic Social Political

Plants Microbes Animals Man

At present a great number of environment

1. Environmental Issues Being of International

It is essential, specially for developing countries to

i. A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of

i. Impact of human activities on the

1. The Physical Man

2. The Social Man

3. The Economic Man

The ‘Physical Man’ is one of the organisms

The ‘Social Man’ performs the following

a. Establishing social institutions

The economic man derives and utilizes

There may be any following two situations:

Oxygen is a vital element

Oxygen is utilized for the following:

Water is utilized for the following:

Soil is an important natural

Lithosphere contents are used as:

Biosphere materials support the following

Resources, which can be renewed along

Solar energy is the prime source of energy for

Forests are valuable natural resource, a major

Our food comes from both natural and

Population of plant and animal

The formation of some resources like iron

Mineral resources of the earth are fuels,

Non-renewable resources include fossil

Industries require raw materials from

For resources there is no final use as

Excessive irrigation can also damage soil.

Industries are major cause of land

As the demand for cattle has

Desertification is process of land

Deforestation occurs when trees are

B. OVERUSE OF GROUND WATER

Surface water pollution has detrimental effect

Over pumping of groundwater can lead to

Drip irrigation should be adopted by farmers to

Floods are natural phenomenon, which

Flood risk can be reduced by

Drought is a period of below average

Water shortage is brought about by the

Non-renewable energy is limited in

Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas

We have finite reserves of oil whereas our

Several research groups have predicted