Respiration in plants:-

Cellular-Respiration
Cellular respiration or the mechanism of breakdown of food materials
within-the cell to release energy and trapping the same energy for
synthesis of ATP.

Respiration is the process of breaking of the C-C bonds of complex

compounds through oxidation within the cells, leading to release of
considerable amount of energy.

Respiratory-Substrates
The compounds that are oxidised during the process of respiration are
called respiratory substrates. Carbohydrates are used as major
respiratory substrates are oxidised in high amounts, to release energy,
but under some conditions in some plants, proteins, fats and organic
acids are also used as respiratory substrates
Do Plants Breathe

In the case of plants, there is no unique breathing or gas exchange

system. During respiration, plants need oxygen and release carbon
dioxide. Plants use their lenticels and stomata to facilitate the
exchange of gases, with only a small amount of gases moving from
one area of the plant to another.

Plants don’t need a lot of gases to exchange or multiple requirements

to proceed through respiration.

The majority of the time when they conduct gaseous exchange is

during photosynthesis. Since oxygen is released during
photosynthesis together with energy, it is not required to come from
the outside world.
The synthesis of biomolecules and other biological processes can
make use of the 50% of total energy generated during respiration. One
can use the carbon created during respiration as a precursor to aid in
the creation of other chemicals found in the cell.

Types of Respiration
1.AerobicRespiration
This is the type of respiration in which organism utilise oxygen for
the complete oxidation of organic food into CO2 and water. It occurs
insidethe-mitochondria.
Aerobic respiration yields more energy as the respiratory substrate
gets completely oxidised in the presence of O2.

2.AnaerobicRespiration
This is the type of respiration in which organic food is oxidised
incompletely without utilising energy as oxidant. It occurs in
cytoplasm and often releases small amount of energy.

Respiration: The Mechanism

Cellular respiration occurs inside the cell and proceeds with the help
of enzymes. The first step in respiration (taking glucose as substrate)
is the glycolysis (glucose oxidised to pyruvic acid). After which the
pyruvic acid may enter the Krebs’ cycle (aerobic respiration) or
undergo fermentation (anaerobic respiration).

Glycolysis
Glycolysis (Gr. Glycor-sugar; lysis-splitting), is a step-wise process
by which one molecule of glucose (6C) breaks down into two
molecules of pyruvic acid (3C).

The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto

Meyerhof and J Parnas and is often referred as the EMP pathway. It is
a common pathway in both aerobic and anaerobic modes of
respiration. But in case of anaerobic organisms, it is the only process
of respiration.
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. During the process
glucose gets partially oxidised. In plants this glucose is derived from
sucrose (end product of photosynthesis) or from storage
carbohydrates.
During the course of process in plant this sucrose is first converted
into glucose and fructose by the action of invertase enzyme after this,
these two monosaccharides enter the glycolytic pathway.

Steps Involved in Glycolysis

In glycolysis, a chain of 10 reactions often reactions occur under the
control of different enzymes.

It involves the following steps

Step I Phosphorylation of glucose occur under the action of an
enzyme hexokinase and Mg2+ that gives rise to glucose-6-phosphate
by the utilisation of ATP.

Step II Isomerisation of this phosphorylated glucose-6-phsophate

takes place to form fructose-6-phosphate with the help of an enzyme
phosphohexose isomerase (Reversible Reaction).

Step III This fructose-6-phosphate is again phosphorylated by ATP in

order to form fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate in the presence of an enzyme
phosphofructokinase and Mg2+.
The steps of phosphorylation of glucose to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
(i.e., from step 1 to 3) activates the sugar thus, preventing it from
getting out of the cell.

Step IV Splitting of fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate takes place into two

triose phosphate molecules, i.e., dihydroxyacetone 3-phosphate and
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (i.e., PGAL). This reaction is catalysed by
an enzyme aldolase.

Step V Each molecule of PGAL removes two redox equivalents in the

form of hydrogen atom and transfer them to a molecule of
NAD+ (This NAD+ forms NADH + H+) and accepts inorganic
phosphate (Pi) from phosphoric acid. This reaction in turn leads to the
conversion to PGAL (which gets oxidised) to 1, 3-
bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA) (Reversible reaction).

Step VI 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate

with the formation of ATP.
This reaction is catalysed by an enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. It is
also known as energy yielding process. The formatibn of ATP directly
from metabolites constitutes substrate level phosphorylation
(Reversible reaction).

Step VII In the next step, 3-phosphoglycerate is subsequently

isomerised to form 2-phosphoglycerate, catalysed by enzyme
phosphoglyceromutase (Reversible reaction).

Step VIII In the presence of enzyme enolase and Mg2+, with the loss
of a water molecule, phosphoglycerate is converted to
Phosphoenol Pyruvate (PEP) (Reversible reaction).

Step IX High energy phosphate group of Phosphoenol Pyruvate

(PEP) is transferred to a molecule of ADP, by the action of enzyme
pyruvate kinase in the presence of Mg2+ and K+ This in turn
produces two molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) and a molecule of
ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. The pyruvic acid thus,
produced is the key product of glycolysis.

Fermentation

Various microorganisms, bacteria, animals and plants are known to

catabolise pyruvic acid into various organic compounds depending
upon the specific enzymes they possess.
Some of these types are as follows
(i) During alcoholic fermentation, in fungi (e.g., yeast), and some
higher plants, the incomplete oxidation of glucose is achieved under
anaerobic condition by a series of reactions in which pyruvic acid is
converted to CO2 and ethanol.
It is done under two steps
(а) Pyruvic acid is first decarboxylated to acetaldehyde in the
presence of enzyme pyruvic acid decarboxylase.

(b) This acetaldehyde is further reduced to ethyl alcohol or ethanol in

the presence of enzyme, i.e., alcohol dehydrogenase.

(ii) During lactic acid fermentation, organisms like some bacteria

produces lactic acid as an end product from pyruvic acid.

During the reduction, the pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis is

reduced by NADH2 to form lactic acid, CO2 is not produced and
NADH2 is oxidised to NAD+.

This reaction is catalysed by an lactic acid dehydrogenase, FMN

proteins and Zn2+ ions.

 In both alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation, the energy

released is very less, i.e., not more than 7% of the energy is
released from glucose and not all of it is trapped as high energy
bonds of ATP.

AerobicRespiration
Aerobic respiration is the next step (after glycolysis) that leads to
complete oxidation of organic substances. It occurs in the presence of
oxygen. The oxygen acts as a final acceptor of electron and protons
are removed from the substrate. For aerobic respiration to take place
within the mitochondria, the final product of glycolysis, i.e., pyruvic
acid is transported into from the cytoplasm mitochondria and thus, the
second phase of respiration is initiated.

The process of aerobic respiration involves two crucial events

(i) The complete oxidation of pyruvate occurs by the step-wise
removal of all the hydrogen atoms, thereby, leaving three molecules
of CO2. This occurs in the matrix of mitochondria.
(ii) The electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms are then
passed on to molecular 02 with the simultaneous synthesis of ATP.
This on the contrary takes place on the inner membrane of the
mitochondria.

Krebs Cycle
It is also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle or citric acid cycle. It
begins with the Acetyl CoA condensate with oxaloacetic acid and
water to form citric acid and ends with malic acid getting oxidized
to regenerate the oxaloacetic acid to undergo the next cycle.
Following are the steps of Krebs ’ cycle
(i) Condensation The Krebs’ cycle starts with the condensation of
acetyl group with oxaloacetic acid and water to yield citric acid, a 6C
compound. This is the first stable product of the cycle.
This step is catalysed by an enzyme citrate synthetase. Co-A is
liberated during this reaction.

(ii) Citric acid then undergoes reorganisation in two steps in order to

form in the presence of an enzyme acinotase. intermediate

(iii) Oxidative decarboxylation Isocitrate is followed by two

successive steps of oxidative decarboxylation, that leads to the
formation of a-ketoglutaric acid, (a 5C compound in the presence of
an enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase and Mn1 ) and then succinyl Co-
A, catalysed by a-complex. .

The succinyl Co-A then splits into a 4C compound succinic acid and
Co-A with the addition of water. During this conversion, a molecule
of GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is synthesised catalysed by an
enzyme succinyl Co-A synthetase (this occurs when co-enzyme A
transfers its high energy to a phosphate group that joins GDP forming
GTP).
(i) GTP is also an energy carrier like ATP. Thus, this is the only high
energy phosphate produced in the Krebs’ cycle.
(ii) In plants cells, this reaction also produces ATP from ADP.
In the remaining steps of Krebs’ cycle, succinyl Co-A is oxidised to
oxaloacetic acid, a 4C compound following the formation of fumaric
acid and malic acid catalysed by enzymes succinate dehydrogenase
and fumacase respectively.

Output of Krebs’ Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle

+
During this cycle of reactions, 3 molecules of NAD are reduced to
NADH + H+, and one molecule of FAD+ is reduced to FADH2. And
also one molecule of ATP is reduced directly from GTP (by substrate
levelphosphorylation).
For continuous oxidation of acetyl Co-A, continued replenishment of
oxaloacetic acid is necessary. In addition to this regeneration of
NAD+ and FAD+ from NADH and FADH2 respectively are also
required.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The metabolic pathway through which the electron passes, starting
with one transporter and then onto the next, is known as the electron
transport chain (ETC). The electron transport chain (ETC) is located
in the inner mitochondria membrane of eukaryotic cells and the
plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.
The main components of the ETC include:
 Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase): Removes electrons from
NADH and transfers them to a mobile electron carrier called
ubiquinone (coenzyme Q).
 Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase): Removes electrons
from succinate and transfers them to ubiquinone.
 Complex III (Cytochrome bc₁ complex): Transfers electrons
from ubiquinone to cytochrome c. During this process, protons are
pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 Cytochrome c: A small mobile electron carrier that shuttles
electrons between Complex III and Complex IV.
 Complex IV (Cytochrome oxidase): The terminal complex of the
ETC that accepts electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them
 to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Protons are also pumped
across the membrane during this process.
 Complex V (ATP synthase): Utilizes the proton gradient
generated by the ETC to phosphorylate ADP to ATP.
NADH2 is oxidized by NADH dehydrogenase and electrons are then
moved to ubiquinone situated in the inward mitochondrial film.
FADH2 is oxidized by succinate dehydrogenase and moved electrons
to ubiquinone. The decreased ubiquinone is then oxidized with the
move of electrons by means of cytochromes bc 1 complex to
cytochrome c.
Cytochrome c is a little protein joined to the external surface of the
internal film and moves electrons from complex III to complex IV. At
the point when electrons moved to start with one transporter and then
onto the next by means of mind-boggling I to complex IV, they are
coupled to ATP amalgamation of ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic
phosphate) Oxygen assumes an essential part in eliminating electrons
and hydrogen particles lastly help in the development of H₂

Oxidative Phosphorylation the energy released during the electron

transport system is utilised in synthesising ATP with the help of ATP
synthase (complex V). This complex consists of two major
components, F1 and F0 . The F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane
protein complex and contains the site for synthesis of ATP from ADP
and inorganic phosphate. F0 is an integral membrane protein complex
that forms the channel through which protons cross the inner
membrane. The passage of protons through the channel is coupled to
the catalytic site of the F1 component for the production of ATP. For
each ATP produced, 4H+ passes through F0 from the intermembrane
space to the matrix down the electrochemical proton gradient

Balance Sheet
Below is the different balance sheet of aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is defined as a process of complete combustion
of glucose. During the election transport system, oxidation of each
NADH molecule produces three ATP whereas FADH2 molecule
which produces two ATP molecules.
1 NADH → 3ATP
1 FADH2 → 2ATP
Reaction aerobic respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + 673Kcal
Cost perGain per
glucose glucose
Phase Molecular change molecules molecule

Conversion of glucose 4 ATP

Glycolysis 2 ATP
(6C) to 2 pyruvates (3C) 2 NADH

oxidation of Conversion of pyruvates Not

2 NADH
pyruvates (3C) to acetyl group (2C) produced

Conversion of citric acid

(6C) which is formed by
2 ATP
the combination of an Not
Krebs cycle 6 NADH
acetyl group and produced
2 FADH2
oxaloacetate to
oxaloacetate (4C)

oxidation of FAH2 and

Electron
NADH to build water 2 ATP
transport
molecules and ATP.
The net gain of ATP is 36 in most eukaryotes, whereas it is 38 in
prokaryotes.

What is an Amphibolic Pathway?

An amphibolic pathway can be described as the biochemical pathway
where both the processes- anabolic and catabolic are involved. In
order to produce the energy molecule ATP, in the process of
respiration, the complex compounds break down into simple ones.
respiratory quotient (RQ)
The ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2
consumed in respiration is called the respiratory quotient (RQ) or
respiratory ratio. = RQ volumeofCO evolved 2 volumeof O consumed
2 The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory
substrate used during respiration.
 When carbohydrates are used as substrate and are completely
oxidised, the RQ will be 1, because equal amounts of CO2 and
O2 are evolved and consumed, respectively.
 When fats are used in respiration, the RQ is less than 1.
 When proteins are respiratory substrates the ratio would be
about 0.9.