CHAPTER TWO

2. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

2.1 Computer Network and Its Application
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Distributed Processing

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance

Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit
time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends
on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is often
evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and
less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in
the network.

Reliability

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

The purpose of a network is to share resources.

A resource may be: A file, folder, printer, and disk drive or just about anything else that exists on
a computer.

Advantages of Networking

1. Connectivity and Communication,

2. Data Sharing,
3. Hardware Sharing,
4. Internet Access Sharing,
5. Data Security and Management,
6. Performance Enhancement and Balancing and
7. Entertainment

Disadvantages (Costs) of Networking

 Network Hardware, Software and Setup Costs

 Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs
 Undesirable Sharing
 Illegal or Undesirable Behavior
 Data Security Concerns

Computer Network Application

 Email, Web, Instant messaging, Remote login, P2P File Sharing, Multi User Network
(Games) Streaming Stored Video Clips, Social networks, Voice over IP, Real Time Video
Conferencing (Multimedia), Grid Computing
Physical Structures

Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine
any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.

Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link in a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
2.2 Computer Network Types
Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two primary categories: local-
area networks and wide-area networks. The category into which a network falls is determined by
its size. A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 mi; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a
size in between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used,
a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to
a few kilometers.

LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations.
The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application
program), or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a
workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs.
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission
media and topology.

In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most common LAN
topologies are bus, ring, and star. Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second
(Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Wireless LANs are the
newest evolution in LAN technology.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the
whole world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple
as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet. Another example of WANs is the
wireless WAN that is becoming more and more popular.
Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-
speed DSL line to the customer. Another example is the cable TV network that originally was
designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to the Internet

Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. If two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.

The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring.

2.3 Computer Network Topologies

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find
the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider
that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n – 1 node,
node 2 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes.

We need n (n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows communication in both
directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2 , we need n (n -1) /2 duplex-
mode links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n - 1
input/output (VO) ports to be connected to the other n - 1 stations.
A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of dedicated links
guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices. Second, a mesh topology is robust.
If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system. Third, there is the
advantage of privacy or security.

When every message travel along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages. Finally, point-to-point links make
fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected
problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise location of the fault
and aids in finding its cause and solution.

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation
and reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.

Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for
example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include
several other topologies. One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone
regional offices in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

Star Topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology,
a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange:
If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In
a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This
factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long
as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less
cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling
is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus). The star topology is used
in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.

Bus Topology

A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable act as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network. A bus is the simplest physical topology. It consists of a single cable that runs
to every workstation. This topology uses the least amount of cabling, but also covers the shortest
amount of distance. Each computer shares the same data and address path. With a logical bus
topology, messages pass through the trunk, and each workstation checks to see if the message is
addressed to itself.

If the address of the message matches the workstation’s address, the network adapter copies the
message to the card’s on-board memory. It is difficult to add a workstation. If any one of the cables
breaks, the entire network is disrupted. Therefore, it is very expensive to maintain.

Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks.
Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.
Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until
it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives
a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal
within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location. However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring,
a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can
be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the
need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

2.4 Componets of Network

There are about 4 components of networks these are :-

1. Hardware(Computer , Network Card , Routers , Switch , Hub , Modem )

There are three basic hardware components for a data communications network: a server
(e.g., personal computer, mainframe), a client (e.g., personal computer, terminal), and a
circuit (e.g., cable, modem) over which messages flow. Both the server and client also
need special-purpose network software that enables them to communicate.

The server stores data or software that can be accessed by the clients. In
client-server computing, several servers may work together over the network with a client
computer to support the business application.

The client is the input-output hardware device at the user’s end of a communication
circuit. It typically provides users with access to the network and the data and software on the
server.
The circuit is the pathway through which the messages travel. It is typically a
copper wire, although fiber-optic cable and wireless transmission are becoming common.
There are many devices in the circuit that perform special functions such as switches and routers.

2. Software(Utilities , Network Operating system )

3. Medium(Cables(Fiber optics , Coaxcial , Twisted) , Wired , Microwave)
4. Network Design ( Physical Layout , Logical Layout )

2.5 Network Model

Networks Model can be classified in to broad categories based on their capability and Number of
Layers. Based on Capability they are classified in to Client Server and Peer to Peer Network
Model, and based on their Layers they are categorized in to TCP/IP and OSI Network Model.

1. Client Server Model

A distinction exists between computers that make available network resources (servers) to those
computers that use the resources (clients or work stations)

Microcomputer users, or clients, share services of a centralized computer called a server.

Advantages of Client Server Model

 Very secure
 Centeralized servers easy to manage
 Physically centralized
 Secure OS
 Better performance
 Centeralized backups
 Simple job to do plus built in redundancy
 Reliability

Disadvantage

 Requires professional administration

 More hardware intensive
2. Peer to peer Network Model

Computers on the network communicate with each other’s as equals and each computer is
responsible for making its own resources available to other computers on the network.

Computers share equal with one another without having to rely on a central server.

Advantage of Peer to peer

 Uses less Expensive computer networks

 Easy to administer
 No network operating system is required
 More built in redundancy
 Contain both NOS and Application software
 Ideal for small business and home users (up to 10 computers)
Disadvantage of Peer to Peer

 Individual user performance easily affected

 Not very secure
 Hard to backup

Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact. There are several different
network models depending on what organization or company started them. The most important
two are:

The TCP/IP Model - This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for
the department of defense It is also called the internet model because TCP/IP is the protocol used
on the internet.

OSI Network Model - The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a standard
called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven layer architecture
listed in the next section.

Internet Model

Although the OSI model is the most talked about network model, the one that dominates
current hardware and software is a simpler five-layer Internet model. Unlike the OSI model that
was developed by formal committees, the Internet model evolved from the work of thousands of
people who developed pieces of the Internet. The OSI model is a formal standard that is
documented in one standard, but the Internet model has never been formally defined; it has to be
interpreted from a number of standards. We use the five-layer Internet model for the rest of this
topic.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer in the Internet model, as in the OSI model, is the physical connection
between the sender and receiver. Its role is to transfer a series of electrical, radio, or light signals
through the circuit. The physical layer includes all the hardware devices (e.g., computers, modems,
and hubs) and physical media (e.g., cables and satellites). The physical layer specifies the type of
connection and the electrical signals, radio waves, or light pulses that pass through it.

Layer 2: The Data Link Layer is responsible for moving a message from one computer to the next
computer in the network path from the sender to the receiver. The data link layer in the Internet
model performs the same three functions as the data link layer in the OSI model. First, it controls
the physical layer by deciding when to transmit messages over the media. Second, it formats the
messages by indicating where they start and end. Third, it detects and corrects any errors that have
occurred during transmission.

Layer 3: The Network Layer in the Internet model performs the same functions as the network
layer in the OSI model. First, it performs routing, in that it selects the next computer to which the
message should be sent. Second, it can find the address of that computer if it doesn’t already know
it.

Layer 4: The Transport Layer in the Internet model is very similar to the transport layer in the
OSI model. It performs two functions. First, it is responsible for linking the application layer
software to the network and establishing end-to-end connections between the sender and receiver
when such connections are needed. Second, it is responsible for breaking long messages into
several smaller messages to make them easier to transmit. The transport layer can also detect lost
messages and request that they be resent.

Layer 5: Application Layer is the application software used by the network user and includes
much of what the OSI model contains in the application, presentation, and session layers. It is the
user’s access to the network. By using the application software, the user defines what messages
are sent over the network. It discusses the architecture of network applications and several types
of network application software and the types of messages they generate.