Computer

Networks:
Unit 1
Prof. Swarnalata Bollavarapu
Contact: swarnalata.b@nmims.edu
Contents

Communicating in a network centric world

Network as a platform
Architecture of the Internet
Classification of Networks
Layered Models
Network Addressing
Components of Network
Topology
Transmission modes
Internetworking devices
Ref Book: Mark Dye et.al, “Network Fundamentals”, CCNA
Exploration Companion Guide, Cisco Press
H/W Q1
How many nodes were part of the ARPANET in 1969?
A) 4
B) 5
C) 6
D) 3
H/W Q2
Who is/are called the father/father’s of the Internet?
A) Donald Davies and Leonard
B) Robert Metcalfe
C) Kahn and Cerf
H/W Q2
In which year Ethernet was invented?
A) 1962
B) 1955
C) 1980
D) 1973
Communicating in a network centric world
Computer Network: It is a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information .
The connection can be via any media(wired/wireless)
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms
Communicating in a network centric world
Communication is almost as important to us as our reliance on
air, water, food, and shelter.
Methods that we use to communicate are constantly changing
and evolving
Breakthroughs in technology have significantly extended the
reach of our communications
Each new development has improved and enhanced our ability
to connect and communicate with others.
One cannot even imagine a life without Internet today
Communicating in a network centric world
On daily basis,
Post and share your photographs, home videos, and experiences
with friends or with the world
Communicate with friends, family, and peers using email,
instant messaging, or video applications
Watch videos, movies, or television episodes on demand
Play online games with friends
check weather conditions
Find the least congested route to your destination
Check your bank balance and pay bills electronically
Communicating in a network centric world
Communicating in a network centric world
Significant impact:
1. Network support the way we learn:

2. Network support the way we communicate:

3. Network support the way we work:

4. Network support the way we play:

Whatever form it may be, networks are improving our

experience
Communicating in a network centric world
What is communication?
How do humans communicate?
agreement on a common method
agreement on a common language
Confirmation of message
A communication protocol is a system of rules that allow two
or more entities of a communications system to transmit
information via any kind of variation of a physical quantity.
The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics and
synchronization of communication and possible error recovery
methods.
Communicating in a network centric world
What is communication?

Quality of Communication:
External factors- related to the complexity of the network and
the number of devices a message must pass through
Eg., The number of other messages being transmitted
simultaneously on the communication network
Internal factors-elated to the nature of the message itself.
eg., The size of the message
Network as a platform
Our dependency of networks has become essential for personal
as well as business lives
Networks are the platforms on which to run businesses, to
address emergencies, to inform individuals, and to support
education, science, and government.
Network as platform
Early data networks were limited to exchanging character-based
information between connected computer systems.
Current networks have evolved to carry voice, video streams,
text, and graphics between many different types of devices.
Network as platform
Four basic characteristics that the N/w architectures need to
address in order to meet user expectations:

Fault tolerance: how networks can manage unexpected

equipment failure
Scalability: a network that will be able to efficiently expand
QoS: network can prioritize network traffic to provide users with
reliable quality of service,
Security: securing information as well as n/w infrastructure
Components of network
End devices: interface between users and the underlying
communication network.
Eg., Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web
servers)
A host device is either the source or destination of a message
transmitted over the network.
Intermediary devices: interconnect end devices, multiple
individual networks
Eg.,switches, routers
Network media: The medium provides the channel over which
the message travels from source to destination.
Eg., Copper wires, fiber-optic cables and wireless transmission
Components of network
Network representation:
A diagram provides an easy way to understand the way the
devices in a large network are connected, known as topology
diagram
Topology
Network topology is the
physical interconnection of
the elements of a computer
Network
Types:
Bus
Ring
Star
Mesh
Hybrid
BUS Topology
In a bus network, every device is connected to a single cable
that runs from one end of the network to the other
at any instant at most one machine is the master and is
allowed to transmit.
All other machines are required to refrain from sending.
Some mechanism is needed to resolve conflicts when two or
machines want to transmit simultaneously.
For example : IEEE 802.3, Ethernet.
Computers on an Ethernet can
transmit when ever they want to;
if two or more packets collide,
each computer just waits a random
time and tries again later.
RING Topology
each computer is connected to the network in a closed
loop or ring.
Each machine or computer has a unique address that
is used for identification purposes.
The signal passes through each machine or computer
connected to the ring in one direction.
Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing
scheme, used to control access to the network.
By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can
transmit on the network at a time.
RING Topology
The machines or computers connected to the ring act
as signal boosters or repeaters which strengthen the
signals that transverse the network.
The primary disadvantage of ring topology is the
failure of one machine will cause the entire network
to fail.
Star Topology
every node is connected to a central node called a hub or
switch
Components of network
Important terms:
Network interface card (NIC): Provides the physical
connection to the network at the PC or other host device. The
media connecting the PC to the networking device plugs directly
into the NIC (also known as a LAN adapter).
Physical port: A connector or outlet on a networking device
where the media is connected to a host or other networking
device.
Interface: Specialized ports on an internetworking device that
connect to individual networks. Because routers are used to
interconnect networks, the ports on a router are referred to as
network interfaces.
Types of Network
Depends on:
Size of the area covered
Number of users connected
Number and types of services available

Types:
LAN
MAN
WAN
Wireless network
Internet
Types of Network: LAN
spans a small geographical area

LANs interconnect end devices in a limited area such as a home,

school, office building, or campus.
A LAN is usually administered by a single organization or
individual. The administrative control that governs the security
and access control policies are enforced on the network level.
LANs provide high-speed bandwidth to internal end devices and
intermediary devices.
LANs run at speed s of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

Newer LANs operate upto 10 GBPs.

Types of Network: MAN
A network infrastructure that spans a physical area larger than a
LAN but smaller than a WAN (for example, a city).
MANs are typically operated by a single entity such as a large
organization.
Example: A MAN is the cable television network available in
many cities.
Types of Network: WAN
spans a wide geographical area.

WANs interconnect LANs over wide geographical areas such as

between cities, states, provinces, countries, or continents.
WANs are usually administered by multiple service providers.
WANs typically provide slower-speed links between LANs.
Concluding Remarks

H/W:
 Wireless Networks
Wireless network can be divided into three main categories.
System interconnection.
Wireless LANs.
Wireless WANs.
 System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of
computer using short range radio.
To connect these components short range wireless network is used,
which is known as BLUETOOTH.
Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread
spectrum, which chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks
of it
It can achieve a gross data rate of 1 Mb/s.
Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information
between devices such as mobile phones, telephones, laptops, personal
computers, printers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers,
digital cameras, and video game console.
 Wireless LANs

These are the systems in which every computer has modem and antenna
with which it can communicate.
For the home user, wireless has become popular due to ease of
installation, and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops.
IEEE 802.11 is the wireless standard
Wireless Networks (2)

(a) Bluetooth configuration

(b) Wireless LAN
Architecture of Internet
the Internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected networks (internetworks or
internet for short), cooperating with each other to exchange information using common
standards
It is not owned by any individual or group.
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) along with some other organization helps to
maintain the structure and standardization of Internet protocols and processes
Terms similar to Internet are : Intranet and Extranet
Intranet is a term often used to refer to a private connection of LANs and WANs that
belongs to an organization, and is designed to be accessible only by the organization’s
members, employees, or others with authorization.

An organization can use an extranet to provide secure and safe access to individuals who
work for a different organization, but require company data. Examples of extranets
include
•A company providing access to outside suppliers/contractors
•A hospital providing a booking system to doctors so that they can make appointments for
their patients
Architecture of Internet
Architecture of Internet

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Architecture of Internet
To join the Internet, the computer is connected to an Internet Service
Provider
There are many kinds of Internet access, and they are usually distinguished by how
much bandwidth they provide and how much they cost
Challenges
Complex system:
Many users
World-wide reach
Many user requirements –reliable, interactive, multicasting
Heterogenous technology: Ethernet, Wireless etc

Object-oriented approach:
Segregate functionality
Abstraction-provide interface
Layered Model
Advantages of layering
Modular design—less complex
Software reuse
Abstraction of implementation
Contents

Communicating in a network centric world

Network as a platform
Architecture of the Internet
Classification of Networks
Layered Models
Network Addressing
Components of Network
Topology
Transmission modes
Internetworking devices
Ref Book: Mark Dye et.al, “Network Fundamentals”, CCNA
Exploration Companion Guide, Cisco Press
Network software
Protocol Hierarchies (Layer structure)
•Design Issues for the Layers
•Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
•Service Primitives
•The Relationship of Services to Protocols
Network Software
Protocol:
Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on
how communication is to proceed.
The protocols define the following:
■ The format of the message, such as how much data to put into each segment
■ The way intermediary devices share information about the path to the destination
■ The method to handle update messages between intermediary devices
■ The process to initiate and terminate communications between hosts

Example: interaction between a web server and a web browser.

This interaction uses a number of protocols and standards in the process of exchanging
information between them. The different protocols work together to ensure that the
messages are received and understood by both parties
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies :
a series of layers (levels)
–lower layer provides service to higher layers
–protocol:
•an agreement between the communication parties on how
communication is to proceed
–Peers:
•the corresponding layers on different machines.
–Network architecture: a set of layers and protocols
–Protocol stack:
•a list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer
Network Software
Two networking models:
The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions that occur at
each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite.

OSI model: primary purpose of a reference model is to aid clearer understanding of the
functions and process involved
 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

Design Issues for the Layers
• Addressing
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Multiplexing
• Routing
Design Issues -Addressing
• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders
and receivers.
• Since a network normally has many computers, some of
which have multiple processes, a means is needed for a
process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to
talk.
• Some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a
specific destination.
Design Issues – Data Transfer
• Another set of design decisions concerns the rules for
data transfer.

• In some systems, data only transfer in one direction, in

others data can transfer in both direction.

• It is needed to decide whether there will be simplex

communication, duplex communication.
Design Issues – Error Control
• Physical communication channels are not perfect.

• Many error correcting and error detecting codes are

available, but systems need to agree upon which to use.

• There should be some mechanism for receiver informing

sender about which message has been correctly received
and which are not.
Design Issues – Sequencing
• Order of messages may or may not be preserved by
communication channels.

• To deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the protocol

must make explicit provision for receiver to allow the
pieces to be reassembled properly.

• An obvious solution is to number the pieces.

Design Issues – Flow Control
• An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast
sender from swamping a slow receiver with data.

• One solution is feedback from receiver to the sender

either directly or indirectly about the receiver's current
situation.

• This is called flow control.

Design Issues – Long and short Messages
• Another problem that must be solved at several levels is
the inability of all processes to accept arbitrarily long
messages.
• This property leads to mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting and then reassembling messages.
• What to do when processes insist on transmitting data
in units that are too small that sending each one
separately is inefficient.
• solution is to gather several small messages heading
toward a common destination into a single large
message and dismember the large message at the other
side.
Design Issues – Routing
• When there are multiple path between source and
destination, a route must be chosen.
• Choosing optimal routing technique is also a design
issue.
• This is known as routing.
 Connection Oriented Service and Connectionless Services
• Connection oriented service are modeled after the
telephone system.
• To talk to someone

Pick up the phone

Dial the number Establish the connection

Talk Use the connection to

transmit
Hang up Release the connection
Connection Oriented Service and Connectionless Services

• In some cases when a connection is established, the

sender, receiver conduct a negotiation about parameters
to be used, such as maximum message size, quality of
service required and other issues.

• One side makes a proposal and other side can accept it,
reject it or counter proposal it.
 Connection Oriented Service and Connectionless Services
• Connection less service is modeled after the postal
system.
• No prior connection need to be established.
• Each message(letter) carries the full destination address,
and each one is routed through the system independent
of all others.
• Normally when two messages are sent to the same
destination, the first one sent will be the first one to
arrive.
• But it is also possible that the first one sent can be
delayed so that the second one arrives first.
 Connection Oriented Service and Connectionless Services
• Each service can be characterized by a quality of
service.
• Some services are reliable in the sense that they never
lose data.
• A reliable service is implemented by having the receiver
acknowledge the receipt of each message so the sender
is sure that it arrived.
• Example for reliable connection oriented service: File
transfer.
• The owner of file wants to be sure that all the bits arrive
correctly and in the same order they were sent.
Service Primitives
• A service is specified by a set of primitives(operations)
to a user process to access the service.

• These primitives tell the service to perform some action.

• The primitives for connection oriented service are

different from connection less service.
Service Primitives

Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-

oriented service.
Service Primitives (2)

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a

connection-oriented network.
Recap
What is layering?
Importance of layered model for N/w communication
Understanding of peers, Layer, Protocol, service and
Interface
Design issues with Layers: Message size, routing etc…
Connection oriented vs Connectionless services
Service primitives
Two Networking models
OSI Reference Model
Based on the proposal developed by international standard
organization (ISO)

The model is called the ISO OSI(Open Systems Interconnection)

Reference Model.

It deals with connecting open systems – that is, systems that are
open for communication with other systems.

The OSI model has seven layers.

OSI Reference Model
 Functions of layers
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel
•The data link layer performs flow control and also transforms a raw
transmission facility into a line that appears error free
•The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, e.g. routing,
flow control, internetworking,…
•The transport layer performs assembling and disassembling, isolates
the upper layers from the changes in the network hardware, and
determines the type of services
•The session layer establishes sessions (dialog control, …)
•The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
•The application layer contains a variety of commonly used protocols
(e.g. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol for WWW, file transfer, e-mail…)
Network Addressing
With millions of computers in use on the web, so proper
addressing is essential to make sure that the sent message arrives
intact at the proper destination

Getting data through the internetwork– IP Addressing

Getting data to the end device– MAC addressing

Getting data to the right application/process—Port Addressing

Network Addressing
Getting data through the internetwork:
Layer 3 protocols are primarily designed to move data from one local network to
another local network within an internetwork
At the boundary of each local network, an intermediary network device, a router,
decapsulates the frame to read the destination host address contained in the header of
the packet, the Layer 3 PDU.
Routers use the network identifier portion of this address to determine which path to
use to reach the destination host. When the path is determined, the router encapsulates
the packet in a new frame and sends it on its way toward the destination end device.
Network Addressing
Getting data to the end device:
Layer 2 is concerned with the delivery of messages on a single
local network.
The Layer 2 address is unique on the local network and
represents the address of the end device on the physical media.
The physical address comes from codes placed on the NIC by
the manufacturer.
In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the MAC address.
The terms physical address and MAC address are often used
interchangeably
Network Addressing
Getting data to the right application:
People using PCs often have an e-mail client running at the same
time as a web browser, an instant messaging program, some
streaming media, and perhaps even a game.
All these separately running programs are examples of
individual processes.
A port number is used identify a specific process or service
running on the destination host device that will act on the data
being delivered.
Hosts, whether they are clients or servers on the Internet, can run
multiple network applications simultaneously.
Recap
Overview of OSI model
Network Addressing
 Transmission modes
Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also
known as communication mode.
Simplex mode
Half-duplex mode
Full-duplex mode
 Transmission modes
Simplex mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can
only receive.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can
only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.
 Transmission modes
Half-Duplex mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both the directions.
 Transmission modes
Full-Duplex mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in other direction
 Internetworking/Intermediary devices
End devices are the hosts that initiate communications
Getting a message from the source to the destination can be a complex task
involving several intermediary devices along the way.
Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network and can connect
multiple individual networks to form an internetwork.
- Network access devices: Connect end users to their network. Examples are hubs,
switches, and wireless access points.
- Internetwork devices: Connect one network to one or more other networks. Eg.,
Routers, Gateways
- Communication servers: Route services such as IPTV and wireless broadband.
- Modems: Connect users to servers and networks through telephone or cable.
- Security devices: Secure the network with devices such as firewalls that
analyze traffic exiting and entering networks.
 Internetworking/Intermediary devices
Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform these
functions:
■Regenerate and retransmit data signals
Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and
internetwork
■ Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
■ Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
Classify and direct messages according to quality of service (QoS) priorities
■ Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
 Internetworking devices
Repeater: electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level
or higher power, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation
they operate on the Physical layer

Hub: physical layer device containing multiple ports allows for connections from
many computers
When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub
It offers ease of use but collision domain is high
A collision domain is a network segment connected by a shared medium or
through repeaters where simultaneous data transmissions collide with one another.
A network collision occurs when more than one device attempts to send a packet on
a network segment at the same time.
 Internetworking devices
Bridge: operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a
single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Switch: (layer 2 device) originally known as switching hub, operate at data link
layer
Can inspect the ethernet traffic hence sending data to whom it is intended to
The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data making it very
efficient
Used to connect computers on a single network usually referred to as LAN
 Internetworking devices
Router: device that knows how to forward data between independent networks
Operates at network layer
Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.

Gateway: A gateway is a passage to connect two networks together that may work
upon different networking models.
They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router
Reflection Question 1
What's the difference between full and half duplex?
Full duplex is slower than half duplex.

Full duplex allows communications in two directions at the same time; half
duplex means that only one side can communicate at a time.
Full duplex is a form of simplex communications.

Half duplex occurs when hubs are in use; full duplex occurs when switches are
in use
Reflection Question 1
What's the difference between full and half duplex?
Full duplex is slower than half duplex.

Full duplex allows communications in two directions at the same time;

half duplex means that only one side can communicate at a time.
Full duplex is a form of simplex communications.

Half duplex occurs when hubs are in use; full duplex occurs when switches are
in use
Reflection Question 2
Which of the following statements accurately describe the differences between
a hub and a switch? Check all that apply.

A switch remembers which devices are connected on each interface, while a

hub does not.
A hub causes larger collision domains.

Hubs are more sophisticated versions of switches.

A hub is a physical layer device, and a switch is a data link layer device.
Reflection Question 2
Which of the following statements accurately describe the differences between
a hub and a switch? Check all that apply.

A switch remembers which devices are connected on each interface,

while a hub does not.
A hub causes larger collision domains.

Hubs are more sophisticated versions of switches.

A hub is a physical layer device, and a switch is a data link layer device.
Reflection Question 3
What's the difference between a client and a server?

A server requests data, and a client responds to that request.

Clients operate on the data link layer, and servers operate on the network
layer.
A client requests data, and a server responds to that request.

Clients and servers are different names for the same thing.
Reflection Question 3
What's the difference between a client and a server?

A server requests data, and a client responds to that request.

Clients operate on the data link layer, and servers operate on the network
layer.

A client requests data, and a server responds to that request.

Clients and servers are different names for the same thing.
Reflection Question 4
What's a router?

A network device used specially for fiber cables

A physical layer device that prevents crosstalk

A device that knows how to forward data between independent networks

A more advanced version of a switch

Reflection Question 4
What's a router?

A network device used specially for fiber cables

A physical layer device that prevents crosstalk

A device that knows how to forward data between independent networks

A more advanced version of a switch